DraftPoultryManual

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Table of Contents
Chapter 1 .............................................................................................................................. 4
Poultry Sector in India ...................................................................................................... 4
Growth and Production Systems ...................................................................................... 4
Historical Data .................................................................................................................. 5
Economic Impact and Exports .......................................................................................... 5
Importance of the Poultry Sector ...................................................................................... 5
Rationale .......................................................................................................................... 6
Scope of Poultry Disease Action Plan ............................................................................... 7
Regulatory Framework ..................................................................................................... 8
Binding of the Action Plan ................................................................................................. 9
Veterinary Services in India .............................................................................................. 9
Diseases Covered ............................................................................................................ 9
Chapter 2 ............................................................................................................................ 11
Avian Influenza ............................................................................................................... 11
Avian Infectious Bronchitis.............................................................................................. 17
Infectious Laryngotracheitis ............................................................................................ 20
Avian Chlamydiosis ........................................................................................................ 25
Avian Mycoplasmosis…………………………………………………………………………...29
Duck Viral Hepatitis ……………………………………………………………………………34
Fowl Cholera……………………………………………………………………………………..37
Fowl Pox ........................................................................................................................ 40
Infectious Bursal Disease (Gumboro disease) ................................................................ 47
Ranikhet Disease (New Castle Disease)……………………………………………………...50
Pullorum Disease and Fowl Typhoid .............................................................................. 55
Pullorum disease ............................................................................................................ 56
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Fowl Typhoid .................................................................................................................. 58
Chapter 3 ............................................................................................................................ 61
Surveillance and Laboratory Network ............................................................................. 61
Chapter 4 ............................................................................................................................ 69
Biosecurity Guidelines for Backyard and Commercial Poultry Farms In India ................. 69
Appendix- 1:Poultry Farm Audit Checklist (Based on WOAH standards)............................. 83
Disease Outbreak Response .............................................................................................. 91
Glossary.............................................................................................................................. 93
Stakeholders Consultation .................................................................................................. 94
List of Contributors .............................................................................................................. 95
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INTRODUCTION
The poultry industry is a cornerstone of our agricultural economy, contributing significantly to

food security, nutrition, and livelihoods across the country. As the demand for poultry products
continues to grow, it is imperative to address the challenges posed by poultry diseases that
threaten the health and productivity of our flocks.
The Poultry Disease Action Plan has been developed in response to the pressing need for a
coordinated and comprehensive approach to disease management in the poultry sector. This
document aims to provide practical guidelines and strategic measures to prevent, control, and
manage poultry diseases effectively. By adopting these measures, we can enhance the
resilience of the poultry industry, protect animal health, and ensure a steady supply of safe
and nutritious poultry products.
This action plan encompasses a wide range of poultry diseases, addressing both common
and emerging threats. It covers essential aspects of disease management, including
biosecurity practices, vaccination protocols, early detection and reporting systems, and
response strategies for disease outbreaks. The guidelines are designed to be applicable at
various levels of poultry production, from small-scale backyard farms to large commercial
operations.
The guidelines in this action plan have been meticulously crafted with input from leading
experts in poultry health, veterinary medicine, and epidemiology. They incorporate the latest
scientific knowledge and best practices to provide a robust framework for disease
management at all levels, from small-scale farmers to large commercial operations.
As we implement this Poultry Disease Action Plan, we call upon all stakeholders, including
poultry farmers, industry associations, veterinary professionals, and government agencies, to
work together in a spirit of cooperation and shared responsibility. By uniting our efforts, we
can build a healthier and more sustainable poultry sector that continues to thrive and
contribute to the nation's prosperity.
This document is not a legal document and does not create any legally binding obligations. The guidelines and
recommendations herein are advisory in nature and should be adapted and applied according to specific local
conditions, regulatory requirements, and professional judgment.
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Chapter 1
Poultry Sector in India

As per the Livestock Census of 2019, India is home to 851 million poultry birds, representing
18% of the global poultry population. The commercial sector comprises 534.74 million birds,
reflecting a growth rate of 4.50%, while the backyard poultry segment accounts for 317.07
million birds, showing a substantial growth rate of 45.79%. India ranks as the second-largest
producer of eggs globally, with an output of 138.38 billion eggs during the 2022-23 period.
Additionally, India stands as the world’s fifth-largest producer of poultry meat.
Growth and Production Systems

Over the past decade, the poultry sector in India has consistently grown at an annual rate of
7-10%. This growth is attributed to the rising demand for animal-sourced food, improved
production techniques, and increased investments in poultry farming. The sector is divided
into two main production systems: the commercial production system, which is more
sophisticated, and the rural backyard system. Both systems are susceptible to infectious
diseases, including Avian Influenza.
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Historical Data
In 2012-13, India had approximately 729 million poultry birds. By 2014-15, this number had
increased to 790 million, showing a steady growth trend. The egg production during 2012-13
was about 70 billion, which almost doubled to 138.38 billion by 2022-23. Similarly, poultry
meat production has seen significant growth, from about 3.2 million metric tonnes in 2012-13
to over 4.5 million metric tonnes in 2022-23.
Economic Impact and Exports

Over the last decade, the value of poultry and poultry product exports from India has
demonstrated a significant upward trend. In 2012-13, the export value was approximately 60
million USD. This figure rose to 134 million USD in 2022-23 and further to 183 million USD in
2023-24, showcasing robust growth driven by strong demand for Indian poultry products. The
past year alone saw an increase of around 41.5%. During 2023-24, India exported poultry
products to 64 countries, with the top destinations being Oman, the United Arab Emirates,
Indonesia, Maldives, and Japan. Major export products included hatching and table eggs, as
well as grandparent chicks.
Importance of the Poultry Sector

The poultry sector in India plays a crucial role in food security, providing a reliable source of
animal-sourced food. It contributes significantly to nutritional security by supplying high-quality
protein to the population. Additionally, it supports livelihoods, especially in rural areas, and
boosts trade and exports, thereby contributing to the country's economic growth.
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Rationale
The rationale for developing a Poultry Disease Action Plan is multifaceted and addresses both
economic and public health considerations:
Economic Impact - Poultry farming significantly contributes to regional

economies. Diseases can lead to substantial economic losses due to
decreased productivity, increased mortality, and costs associated with disease
control measures. Ensuring the health of poultry populations is crucial for
sustaining the profitability and stability of the poultry industry, thereby
supporting livelihoods and ensuring food security.
Public Health - Poultry diseases, particularly zoonotic like avian influenza,

pose direct threats to human health. Effective control of these diseases reduces
the risk of zoonotic outbreaks, safeguarding public health and helping to
prevent potential pandemics.
Food Safety and Security - Healthy poultry populations are vital for the
provision of safe and high-quality food products. Poultry diseases can
compromise the safety of meat and eggs, leading to foodborne illnesses. A
proactive disease management plan ensures a consistent supply of safe poultry
products, thus enhancing overall food security.
Animal Welfare - Effective disease management promotes the health and

well-being of poultry, aligning with ethical standards for animal welfare.
Reducing disease prevalence and severity enhances the quality of life for
poultry, reflecting responsible and humane farming practices.
Global Trade - Robust disease control measures are essential for maintaining
and expanding access to international markets, as many countries have strict
health requirements for imported poultry products. A comprehensive disease
action plan helps meet these standards, facilitating trade and fostering
economic growth.
By addressing these key areas and considerations, the “Poultry Disease Action Plan” aims
to create a sustainable and resilient poultry industry capable of withstanding disease
challenges while ensuring economic viability, public health, food security, animal welfare, and
global trade compliance.
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Scope of Poultry Disease Action Plan
India has been implementing a National Action Plan for Control and Containment of Avian
Influenza since 2005. In addition to Avian Influenza, other poultry diseases listed in the World
Organisation for Animal Health (WOAH) guidelines are prevalent in the Indian poultry
production system and affect the international movement of poultry products from India.
The Poultry Disease Action Plan covers several critical areas aimed at preventing, controlling,
and mitigating the impact of diseases in poultry populations:
Disease Surveillance and Monitoring
• Early Detection and Monitoring: Establish a comprehensive system for early disease
detection and continuous monitoring of poultry health.
• Regular Screening: Implement regular screening and diagnostic procedures for
common and emerging diseases.
Biosecurity Measures
• Biosecurity Protocols: Develop and enforce biosecurity protocols to prevent the

introduction and spread of pathogens.
• Training and Compliance: Train personnel on biosecurity best practices and ensure
compliance across all levels of poultry farming operations.
Vaccination and Treatment Protocols
• Standardized Vaccination Schedules: Create standardized vaccination schedules

for different types of poultry and regions.
• Antibiotics and Treatment Guidelines: Establish guidelines for the use of antibiotics
and other treatments, emphasizing responsible use to combat resistance.
Outbreak Response and Management
• Rapid Response Procedures: Develop clear procedures for rapid response to

disease outbreaks, including quarantine measures, culling, and disinfection protocols.
• Coordination with Authorities: Coordinate with local and national authorities to
ensure timely and effective responses. (Refer to Disease Outbreak Response for
details)
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Regulatory and Policy Framework
• Regulatory Framework: Establish a robust regulatory framework to support disease

control efforts, including import/export controls, reporting requirements, and penalties
for non-compliance.
• International Collaboration: Collaborate with international organizations to align
policies and practices with global standards.
Given the threat of various diseases poultry (including chickens, turkeys, ducks, geese, quails,
pheasants, pigeons, guinea fowls, peafowls, and rheas such as ostriches and emus), which
affect animal health, the economy, and trade, this action plan has been prepared to control
and monitor poultry diseases in various poultry-producing facilities, both commercial and
backyard. In addition to the scope listed above, the document also aims to guide education
and training for community awareness and support research initiatives aimed at understanding
poultry diseases, improving diagnostic tools, and developing new vaccines and treatments is
crucial. The Action Plan is based on experiences gained and lessons learned from outbreaks
of poultry diseases in various parts of the country and the guidelines of WOAH. It includes
various operational requirements and responsibilities of the different stakeholders.
Regulatory Framework
There is central legislation called ‘The Prevention and Control of Infectious and Contagious
Diseases in Animals Act, 2009’ (
https://dahd.nic.in/sites/default/filess/The%20Prevention%20and%20Control%20of%20Infect
ious%20and%20Contagious%20Diseases%20in%20Animals%20Act%2C%202009.pdfwhic
h ) provides legislative back up for the control and eradication of livestock and poultry
diseases. Under provisions of the Act, a livestock owner or any other government or private
personnel functioning in the area knowing outbreak of an infectious disease in the livestock
must inform the nearest veterinary dispensary/hospital/veterinary aid center, which is further
communicated to the Veterinary Officer/Surgeon and this information further flows to Director
of Veterinary Services/Chief Veterinarian of the State. The State Director also sends a monthly
report to Govt. of India’s DAHD, where the information is collated as monthly Animal Disease
Surveillance Bulletin, disseminated throughout the country, and communicated to WOAH in
the form of immediate notification and six-monthly reports. There is an in-built Disease
Surveillance System in the country with a total of 68,693 institutions for disease surveillance,
reporting, control, and containment. These include 12,452 Veterinary Hospitals and
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Polyclinics, 26,451 Veterinary Dispensaries, and 29,790 Veterinary Aid Centres and Mobile
Veterinary Clinics.
Binding of the Action Plan
The Action plan is participatory and contributory in nature. The Action plan provides for
bringing both commercial and government poultry production systems to be part of poultry
disease reporting, diagnostic, and control mechanisms. The prime objectives of this Action
Plan are the occurrence of poultry diseases in their establishment/state and the control
measures in place for controlling such diseases in these areas. The Central Government will,
in turn, disclose diseases in the International Platform along with the control measures.
Veterinary Services in India
India is administratively divided into 28 States and 8 Union Territories. Besides the Central
Government, each State and Union Territory has its government, with responsibilities divided
according to the Indian Constitution. The prevention and control of animal diseases fall under
the jurisdiction of State Governments, each of which has its own Animal Husbandry and
Veterinary Services Department. Veterinary services are delivered through State Veterinary
Hospitals, Dispensaries, Aid Centers, and Mobile Veterinary Clinics, all staffed by Registered
Veterinary Practitioners holding graduate degrees in Veterinary Science and Animal
Husbandry, recognized by the Veterinary Council of India.
Diseases Covered
For the purpose of this Action Plan, the following poultry diseases are grouped based on
their etiological agents:
• Avian Influenza- High pathogenic, Low Pathogenic

• Avian Infectious Bronchitis
• Avian Infectious Laryngotracheitis
• Avian Chlamydiosis
• Avian Mycoplasmosis (Mycoplasma gallisepticum and Mycoplasma synoviae)
• Duck Virus Hepatitis
• Fowl Cholera
• Fowl Pox
• Infectious Bursal Disease (Gumboro Disease)
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• Newcastle Disease Virus (Ranikhet Disease)
• Pullorum Disease
Notwithstanding the diseases listed above, the participating agency(ies) may also undertake
programs for controlling other poultry diseases.
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Chapter 2
Avian Influenza
Avian influenza, commonly known as bird flu, is a viral infection that affects domestic poultry
and a broad spectrum of other avian species. The disease is caused by influenza A viruses,
which have been known to infect wild and domestic mammals, including humans sporadically.
The primary reservoirs of avian influenza viruses are wild waterfowl and shorebirds, which
often carry the virus subclinically, acting as asymptomatic carriers and sources of infection for
other birds and mammals.
The Avian Influenza Viruses are classified into two groups, as follows, based on the disease
severity they cause in chickens:
• Low pathogenic avian influenza (LPAI) that causes little or no clinical signs
• Highly pathogenic avian influenza (HPAI) that causes severe clinical signs and
mortality may go up to 100%
Etiology
Avian Influenza (AI) is a highly contagious viral disease that affects domestic poultry and pets,
zoos, and wild birds. AI viruses (AIVs) are members of the genus Alphainfluenzavirus
(Influenza virus A or Influenza A virus) under the family Orthomyxoviridae. Sporadically, AIVs
infect humans and other mammals.
AIVs are classified into multiple subtypes (such as H5N1, H5N8, H9N2, etc.) based on the
antigenicity of their surface glycoproteins Hemagglutinin (HA / H) and Neuraminidase (NA /
N). However, only H5 & H7 strains are of zoonotic importance and are reported to WOAH.
High Pathogenic Avian Influenza
Case Definition
Suspected: A poultry bird or a herd showing high morbidity accompanied by high and rapidly
escalating unexplained mortality and showing variable clinical presentations including
respiratory signs, such as ocular and nasal discharges, coughing, snicking and dyspnea,
swelling of the sinuses and/or head, apathy, reduced vocalization, marked reduction in feed
and water intake, cyanosis of the unfeathered skin, wattles and comb, incoordination and
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nervous signs and diarrhea. In laying birds, additional clinical features include a marked drop
in egg production, usually accompanied by an increase in the number of poor-quality eggs.
Probable: A suspect positive case as defined above with identification of influenza A H5 RNA
by RT-PCR with or without the presence of compatible illness.
Confirmed case: A probable poultry case laboratory confirmed positive on virus isolation or
through genomic sequencing.
For detailed information on High Pathogenic Avian Influenza, (clinical signs, diagnosis, sample
collection and transport, measures to be taken in outbreak, disease prevention and control
measures) please refer to the National Action Plan for Preparedness Control and Containment
of Avian Influenza, 2021. The necessary actions shall be guided by revisions thereafter.
https://dahd.nic.in/sites/default/filess/Revised%20AI%20Action%20Plan%202021_1.pdf
Low Pathogenic Avian Influenza
In domestic poultry, AI viruses are typically of low pathogenicity (LPAI), causing subclinical
infections, respiratory disease, or decreased egg production. The H9N2 virus has been
globally widespread and isolated from wild and domestic poultry. The virus poses a threat to
both the global poultry industry and humans.
Epidemiology
The virus was isolated for the first time in India in 2003 from chicken farms with a history of
drop in egg production, respiratory illness, and increased mortality up to 5-10% in the state of
Haryana. The virus was characterized to be the LPAI H9N2 subtype and genetically belonged
to the G1 lineage under the Eurasian lineage. The virus has been detected in backyard and
commercial poultry production systems and live bird markets. H9N2 virus is often found co-
circulating in poultry with Newcastle disease virus (NDV). For disease control programs, the
WOAH recognizes 14 days as the incubation period.
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Mode of transmission
H9N2 viruses are shed in the feces and respiratory secretions of birds. Transmission between
birds can occur by ingestion of contaminated food and water or inhalation of droplets or
aerosols contaminated with viruses. Spread between poultry farms results from breaches in
biosecurity practices, by the movement of infected poultry or contaminated feces and
respiratory secretions on fomites such as clothing or equipment. Airborne transmission
between farms may be important over limited distances. Aerosol transmission of H9N2 virus
from avian to mammalian species has been reported. Humans may contract the disease by
exposure to infected poultry.
Clinical signs & Postmortem lesions
Host Clinical Signs Incubation Period, Other Notes

Morbidity, and
Mortality
Poultry Respiratory signs: Incubation period: LPAI viruses
• sneezing varies depending on can lead to
• coughing the strain and secondary
• ocular & nasal discharge, conditions. infections and
Morbidity: typically, increased
• swollen infraorbital sinuses
high disease severity
Mortality: generally in co-infected
low, but can increase birds
with co-infections
Broiler • Mild to moderate Incubation The virus can
Chickens clinical signs. period: 1-7 lead to
days Morbidity: economic
• Lacrimation, eye
can be high losses due to
and/or facial swelling
depending on decreased
• Sneezing, gasping,
conditions. growth and
nasal discharge
Mortality: increased
• Symptoms primarily management
generally low,
in the head and costs
but can be
upper respiratory
higher in cases
tract, Mild
of secondary
depression
infections
• Reduced feed and
water intake
• Loss of body weight
Layers and • Reduction in egg Incubation period: 1- Can lead to
Breeders production or infertility 7 days economic
• Thinning of eggshells losses due to
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Morbidity: significant reduced egg
impact on production and
productivity quality
Mortality: generally
low
All Birds Immunosuppression Morbidity: increases Co-infection
susceptibility to other with other
infections. Mortality: microorganisms
varies with may lead to
secondary infections varying levels of
mortality
All Birds Congestion and inflammation Morbidity: high due Lesions in the
(Respiratory of the trachea and lungs to respiratory respiratory tract
Tract) distress. Mortality: can exacerbate
generally low, but respiratory
can increase with co- symptoms and
infections complications
Laboratory Diagnosis
World Organization for Animal Health (WOAH) recommends detection of viral RNA, virus
isolation, and antigen capture ELISA for diagnosis of AIVs. H9N2 virus can be isolated from
cloacal and oropharyngeal swabs. AI virus can be grown in 9- to 11-day-old embryonating
chicken eggs, and they agglutinate chicken RBC.
Identification of AIVs is based on the following:
• Influenza A virus confirmation by agar gel immunodiffusion
• Viral RNA detection by influenza A-specific reverse transcription PCR (rtPCR) test,
and AIV subtype confirmation employing AIV-subtype-specific primers.
• Virus subtype can be confirmed in hemagglutination and neuraminidase inhibition

tests by using subtype-specific antisera. Alternatively, the genome of specific H and
N subtypes is identified using PCR with subtype-specific primers and probes (e.g.,
real-time RT-PCR) or sequencing.
Birds that have been infected with AIV and recovered can be confirmed by serological testing
for influenza A in AGID or ELISA and further subtyping using subtype-specific antigens in
hemagglutinin inhibition and neuraminidase inhibition tests. H9N2 AI must be differentiated
from other respiratory diseases or causes of reduced egg production, including the following:
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• Viral diseases such as Newcastle disease, infectious bronchitis, infectious
laryngotracheitis, and infections by other paramyxoviruses.
• Bacterial diseases such as mycoplasma, fowl cholera, and infectious coryza.
Action to be taken in case of outbreak.
Prevention and Control
• Strict biosecurity measures and good hygiene practices in poultry housing are
essential to prevent the spread of avian influenza virus
• Keeping poultry away from contact with wild birds,
• Reporting of illness and death of birds to the Veterinary services,
• Entry of vehicles should be restricted to the farms.
• All the vehicles including feed vehicles should be decontaminated before entry into
farms.
• Sustained surveillance of poultry and wild birds for avian influenza.
• GoI has approved the use of LPAI Vaccine (H9N2) in the country for use in all poultry
birds, i.e., chicken. However, no vaccination against H5 & H7 has yet been allowed.
Biosecurity measures are crucial to prevent the introduction of AIVs into poultry and hence
are termed the “best preventive measures”. Biosecurity is the implementation of practices that
create barriers to reduce the risk of the introduction and spread of harmful organisms. The
three principal elements of biosecurity are:
• Segregation: Creation and maintenance of barriers to limit the infected hosts and
contaminated materials from entering an uninfected site. This step, properly
implemented, will prevent most of the infections.
• Cleaning: Materials (vehicles and equipment, etc.) that must enter or leave a site must
be thoroughly cleaned to remove most of the virus that is contaminating the materials.
• Disinfection: Disinfection will inactivate any virus that might still be present on
materials that have already been thoroughly cleaned.
India announced a self-declaration of freedom from Highly Pathogenic Avian Influenza (HPAI)
in 26 poultry compartments, which was approved by the World Organisation for Animal Health
(WOAH) on October 13, 2023, coinciding with World Egg Day. These compartments are
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located across four states: Maharashtra, Tamil Nadu, Uttar Pradesh, and Chhattisgarh. This
recognition by WOAH signifies India's adherence to international biosecurity standards and is
expected to enhance the export potential of Indian poultry and poultry products, including meat
and eggs. The government aims to get recognition and increase the number of such
compartments in the future.
For importation of day-old live poultry from a country, zone, or compartment free from high
pathogenicity avian influenza Veterinary Authorities should require the presentation of
an international veterinary certificate attesting that:
1. the day-old live poultry had been kept in a country, zone, or compartment free from
high pathogenicity avian influenza since they were hatched.
and
a. the day-old live poultry were derived from parent flocks that were monitored for
avian influenza viruses and were found to be negative at the time of collection
of the eggs from which the day-old poultry hatched; or
b. the day-old live poultry that hatched from eggs that had had their surfaces
sanitized in accordance with point 4 d) of Article 6.5.5.;
and
2. the day-old live poultry were transported in new or appropriately sanitized containers.
If the day-old live poultry or the parent flocks have been vaccinated against avian influenza,
the nature of the vaccine used, and the date of vaccination should be stated in
the international veterinary certificate.
For other requirements to be fulfilled for the importation of poultry/ poultry products, please
refer to the World Organisation for Animal Health. (2023). Infection with high pathogenicity
avian influenza viruses. In OIE Terrestrial Animal Health Code (Chapter 10.4). Retrieved
from https://www.woah.org/en/what-we-do/standards/codes-and-manuals/terrestrial-code-
online-access/?id=169&L=1&htmfile=chapitre_avian_influenza_viruses.htm
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Avian Infectious Bronchitis
Infectious bronchitis is an acute, highly contagious upper respiratory tract disease in chickens.
In addition to respiratory signs, decreased egg production and egg quality are common, and
nephritis can be caused by some strains. Attenuated live and killed vaccines are available, but
different antigenic types of the avian coronavirus causing the disease do not cross-protect,
complicating control efforts. Diagnostic tests include ELISA and HI testing for serum antibodies
and virus detection by RT-PCR and virus isolation in embryonated eggs. Sequence analysis
of the Spike gene is used to genetically type the virus.
Case Definition
Suspected case: A sudden large morbidity in chicken flock showing clinical signs like
coughing, tracheal rales, depression, ruffled feathers, wet droppings, greater water intake,
decrease in egg production as much as 70% with misshapen, thin, wrinkled, and pale eggs.
Probable case: A suspected case which upon post-mortem shows air sacs containing a
foamy exudate initially, progressing to cloudy thickening. Cystic oviducts in young and oviducts
of reduced weight and length and regression of the ovaries of those infected while in lay.
Confirmed case: A probable case that is confirmed positive by virus isolation (on pathogen-
free chicken embryonated eggs or chicken tracheal organ cultures) or RT-PCR.
Etiology
The infectious bronchitis (IB) is an acute respiratory disease mainly of young chickens caused
by Infectious Bronchitis virus under the Gammacoronavirus subfamily Coronavirinae, family
Coronaviridae, in the order Nidovirales.
Epidemiology
The IB in birds was first reported in India in 1964 based on serology and isolation of the virus.
All India coordinated projects on respiratory diseases of poultry revealed the serological
existence of this disease in almost all the states of this country.
The disease is transmitted by the air-borne route, direct chicken-to-chicken contact, and
indirectly through mechanical spread (contaminated poultry equipment or egg-packing
materials, manure used as fertilizer, farm visits, etc.)
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Form Clinical Signs Incubation Other Notes

Period,
Morbidity, and
Mortality
Respiratory Respiratory disease after Incubation: Not Worldwide
infection of respiratory tract specified, occurrence;
tissues; severe respiratory Morbidity: High, principal form is
distress leading to asphyxia Mortality: respiratory
in young chicks Variable disease
Oviductal Damage to oviducts, Incubation: Not Significant impact
resulting in cessation of specified, on egg
egg-laying, production of Morbidity: High in production in
thin-walled, misshapen young birds, layers and
eggs with loss of shell Mortality: breeders
pigmentation, and watery Variable
albumin in eggs
Nephropathogenic Acute nephritis, urolithiasis, Incubation: Not Can cause long-
kidney damage observed specified, term health
during post-mortem Morbidity: High, issues and
examination; chronic Mortality: impact mortality
nephritis may cause death Variable in young birds
later after apparent
recovery
IB virus infection initially causes respiratory disease in the infected birds. In young chicks, IBV
causes asphyxia, preceded by severe respiratory distress. Damage occurs in oviducts. The
internal quality of eggs changes (watery albumin), eggs become deformed and there is drop
in egg production in layers and breeders. Kidney damage can be observed during PM
examination.
Postmortem lesions:
• The trachea shows congestion and hemorrhage of the tracheal mucosa and presence of
hemorrhagic plug at the tracheal lumen.
• Nephropathogenic strains may produce interstitial nephritis.
• Thin-shelled egg.
• Abnormal granulations on the shell.
• Mis-shapen eggs.
• RT-PCR (detection of virus genome)
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• Gene sequencing (S Gene) for Genomic surveillance
• Enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) test/Hemagglutination (HA) test (virus
identification) for serosurveillance.
For action to be taken in case of a suspected outbreak or mortalities aligning with the case
definition, the following to be followed:
IB has no zoonotic relevance but still the poultry owners/hatcheries, their consultants, field
veterinary institutions and anyone who notices clinical symptoms/unusual sickness/mortality
must report its occurrence to the nearest veterinary institution and/or any other government
agency.
Vaccines are available. Must be administered as per the recommended vaccination schedule.
Biosecurity protocols include adequate distancing of flocks. Isolation and disinfection are
important in controlling the spread of infection and disease. Strict biosecurity measures must
be imposed, and poultry owners be advised to adopt the following measures in all farms, even
though they are not currently infected. In commercial farms-
• Only those who take care of the poultry at the farm should be allowed to go close to the
birds. Visitors should be strictly restricted from entering the sheds.
• Intermingling of other birds/animals with poultry at the farm should be avoided.
• Disinfect and wash shoes, clothes and hands before and after contact with poultry. If
equipment, tools or poultry supplies are borrowed from other farms, always clean and
disinfect them before bringing them and before sending them back.
• The bird cages should be cleaned and food and water for birds changed daily.
• Do not Introduce New Birds to the Flock: The new birds should be kept away from the flock
for at least 30 days.
• Every unusual sickness or death of birds should be immediately reported to the nearest
Veterinary Centre.
• A uniform age-group policy should be adopted. This is best done by adopting 'all-in-all-out'
production system.
For importation of chickens, Veterinary Authorities of importing countries should require the
presentation of an international veterinary certificate attesting that the birds:
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1. showed no clinical sign of avian infectious bronchitis on the day of shipment;
2. come from establishments that are recognized as being free from avian infectious
bronchitis, based on the results of serological tests;
3. have not been vaccinated against avian infectious bronchitis; or
4. were vaccinated against avian infectious bronchitis (the nature of the vaccine used and
the date of vaccination should also be stated in the certificate).
refer to the World Organisation for Animal Health. (2023). Avian infectious bronchitis. In
Terrestrial Animal Health Code (Chapter 10.2). Retrieved from https://www.woah.org/en/what-
we-do/standards/codes-and-manuals/terrestrial-code-online-
access/?id=169&L=1&htmfile=chapitre_aib.htm
Infectious Laryngotracheitis
Infectious laryngotracheitis (ILT) is an acute, highly contagious, herpesvirus infection of

chickens and pheasants characterized by severe dyspnea, coughing, and rales. It can also be
a subacute disease with nasal and ocular discharge, tracheitis, conjunctivitis, and mild rales.
The disease is caused by Gallid herpesvirus I, commonly known as infectious
laryngotracheitis virus (ILTV). It has been reported from most areas of the USA in which poultry
are intensively reared, as well as from many other countries.
Case Definition
Suspected case: A poultry bird showing a group of clinical symptoms like difficulty in
breathing with extension of the neck and gasping in an attempt to inhale; gurgling, rattling, and
coughing when trying to expel obstructions in the trachea leading to bloody exudates,
tracheitis, moderate conjunctivitis.
Probable case: A suspected case of a poultry bird showing mild to severe hemorrhagic
tracheitis on post-mortem.
Confirmed case: A probable case laboratory tested positive by ELISA or PCR.
Etiology
20
Infectious Laryngotracheitis (ILT) virus (ILTV) is classified as a member of the family
Herpesviridae in the subfamily Alphaherpesvirinae.
Epidemiology
The disease was first reported in 1925 in the USA and subsequently in Australia, the UK, and
Europe. Veterinarians initially referred to the disease as avian diphtheria, however, the name
ILT was adopted in the year 1931 by the “Special Committee of Poultry Diseases” of the
American Veterinary Medical Association. ILT was the first poultry viral disease for which a
vaccine was employed based on the cloacal administration. In India, ILT was first reported in
1964 from the veterinary college poultry farm in Mathura, Uttar Pradesh. ILT has been reported
in various Indian states like Haryana, Rajasthan, Uttar Pradesh, Andhra Pradesh and
Telangana, West Bengal, Karnataka, and Tamil Nadu state.
Infected birds shed the virus in their respiratory secretions for 10 days post-infection. ILTV
enters the host through the respiratory tract, ocular, and to a lesser extent through oral routes.
Direct bird-to-bird transmission is rampant in comparison to contact with latently infected or
carrier birds. Mixing of vaccinated and naive chickens is important with respect to direct
transmission. Neither vertical transmission nor transmission of virus through the eggshell has
been demonstrated. Carrier birds that have survived previous outbreaks also act as a source
of infection to the naive birds. Infected birds readily transmit the disease through oral secretion
as compared to clinically recovered birds or latent carriers. The virus usually gets introduced
into a flock by direct contact with respiratory exudates or indirect/mechanical transmission of
contaminated equipment, litter, feed bags, feathers, vehicles, dust, footwear, clothes, and
movement of people. Wind-borne transmission of ILTV has been demonstrated between
commercial poultry operations.
Form Clinical Signs Incubation Period, Other Notes

Morbidity, and
Mortality
Per- Sudden onset of rapid spread, high Incubation: 6-14 Death may occur
Acute mortality (>50%), lethargy, days, Morbidity: before clinical
moderate-to-severe conjunctivitis, High, Mortality: signs appear in
swollen eyelids, increased >50%, Affected birds with good
lacrimation, dyspnea, gasping, birds usually die body condition
within 3 days
21
extension of head and neck,
coughing, rattling, gurgling
Acute Characteristic dyspnea, inactivity, Incubation: 6-14 Morbidity and
anorexia, tracheal obstruction with days, Morbidity: mortality vary, less
clotted blood, open-mouthed 100%, Mortality: 10- severe than per-
breathing, high-pitched squawk, 30%, Duration: up to acute form
moist rales, purulent conjunctivitis, 15 days
sinusitis, nasal discharge
Chronic Un-thriftiness, coughing, moist Incubation: 6-14 Resembles other
rales, head shaking, squinting days, Morbidity: Up respiratory
eyes, swelling of infra-orbital to 5%, Mortality: infections,
sinuses, drop in egg production (up <2% typically less
to 10%), reduced body weight severe
PM lesions: The gross lesions are usually restricted to the sinuses and upper respiratory tract
and vary with the severity of the disease. The gross lesions in per-acute form consist of mucoid
rhinitis and hemorrhagic tracheitis with blood clots. Yellow caseous exudates (cheesy plugs)
are also observed in primary bronchi when the lesions extend deeply. In the acute form, yellow
caseous diphtheritic membranes adherent to the larynx and mucosa of the upper trachea with
or without hemorrhages are commonly noticed. The membrane also forms obstructive plugs
in the larynx and syrinx regions leading to suffocation and death. A pseudo-membrane
formation - with fibrino-necrotic exudates adhering to the upper respiratory tract - can also be
noticed. The inflammatory response in nares is characterized by heterophilic exudates.
Conventional methods include histopathology, virus isolation in embryonated chicken eggs,

and cell culture immunofluorescence (IF), immunoperoxidase (IP) assay, and serology. The
ILTV is usually isolated and propagated in 9-11 days-old embryonated chicken eggs through
chorioallantoic membrane (CAM) inoculation. Several molecular techniques such as PCR,
real-time PCR, nested PCR, restriction fragment length polymorphism (RFLP), in situ
hybridization have been applied to detect the ILTV because of its high sensitivity, accuracy,
rapidity, reproducibility, and simplicity. Among different molecular techniques, PCR and
quantitative real-time PCR (qRT-PCR) are the widely used and preferred molecular assays
for confirmation and quantification of viral load in biological samples due to their higher
diagnostic sensitivity and accuracy.
22
Critical Activities and Tools for Containment and Control of Infectious Laryngotracheitis:
• Disease detection and movement restriction

• Disease containment
• Notification and activation of emergency response plan
• Premises, area, and zone designation (infected premises, suspected premises,
monitored premises, risk premises, vaccinated premises, and free premises)
• Biosecurity
• Surveillance
• Stabilization (biohazard waste and litter management)
• Cleaning and disinfection
• Business continuity
• Recovery
With the advent of ILTV recombinant vaccines, the vaccination programs for breeders and
table egg layers have expanded widely.
At present, there is no approved/licensed vaccine available in India. Steps should be initiated

for the development of suitable vaccines for a uniform vaccinal antigen status. The preparation
of vaccines should be focused on indigenous strains circulating in the country rather than the
introduction of new ILT virus strains from other countries. Development of ILT vaccines should
be focused on alternative vaccine technology instead of live attenuated ones to get rid of the
development of virus latency associated with live vaccine strains which ultimately evoke re-
infection in the poultry flock.
Biosecurity measures: When a flock is suspected or known to be infected, a veterinarian

should be consulted immediately and, in addition to the general biosecurity measures
described previously, management procedures should be adjusted to effectively isolate it from
other flocks on the establishment and other epidemiologically related establishments. The
following measures are recommended:
23
• Personnel should manage flocks to minimize the risk of dissemination of infectious
agents to other flocks’ establishments, and humans. Relevant measures include
handling an infected flock separately, last in sequence, and the use of dedicated
personnel, clothing, and equipment.
When infection has been confirmed, epidemiological investigations should be carried out to
determine the origin and route of transmission of the infectious agent. Poultry carcasses, litter,
feces, and other potentially contaminated farm waste should be disposed of safely to minimize
the risk of dissemination of infectious agents. The disposal method used will depend on the
infectious agent involved.
• Depending on the epidemiology of the disease, the results of a risk assessment, and
public and animal health policies, the destruction or slaughter of a flock before the end
of the normal production period may be used.
• When infected flocks are destroyed or slaughtered, they should be processed in a
manner to minimize exposure of humans and other flocks to the infectious agent, and
in accordance with recommendations of the Veterinary Service and relevant chapters
in the Terrestrial Code.
• Based on risk assessment, non-infected, high-risk flocks may be destroyed or
slaughtered before the end of their normal production period.
• Before restocking, the poultry house including equipment should be cleaned,
disinfected, and tested to verify that the cleaning has been effective. Special attention
should be paid to feed equipment and water systems. Microbiological monitoring of the
efficacy of disinfection procedures is recommended when pathogenic agents have
been detected in the previous flock.
• Depending on the epidemiology of the disease, risk assessment, vaccine availability,
and public and animal health policies; vaccination is an option to minimize the
dissemination of the infectious agent. When used, vaccines should be administered in
accordance with the directions of the Government Veterinary Services and the
Manufacturer’s Instructions. Recommendations in the Terrestrial Manual should be
followed as appropriate.
For the importation of chicken, Veterinary Authorities of importing countries should require the
presentation of an international veterinary certificate attesting that the birds:
1. showed no clinical sign of ILT on the day of shipment;
24
2. come from establishments which are recognized as being free from ILT, based on the
results of serological tests;
3. have not been vaccinated against ILT; or
4. were vaccinated against ILT (the nature of the vaccine used and the date
of vaccination should also be stated in the certificate).
refer to the World Organisation for Animal Health. (2023). Avian infectious
laryngotracheitis. In Terrestrial Animal Health Code (Chapter 10.3). Retrieved from
https://www.woah.org/en/what-we-do/standards/codes-and-manuals/terrestrial-code-online-
access/?id=169&L=1&htmfile=chapitre_ail.htm
Avian Chlamydiosis
Avian chlamydiosis can be an inapparent subclinical infection or acute, subacute, or chronic

disease of wild and domestic birds characterized by respiratory, digestive, or systemic
infection. Infections occur worldwide and have been identified in at least 465 avian species,
particularly caged birds (primarily psittacines), colonial nesting birds (e.g., egrets, herons),
ratites, raptors, and poultry. Among domestic species, turkeys, ducks, and pigeons are most
often affected. The disease is a significant cause of economic loss and human exposure in
many parts of the world.
Case Definition:
Suspected case: an avian species (turkey/duck/pigeon/parrot/caged birds) subjected to

transportation/ crowding/ weather change, showing symptoms of anorexia, green to yellow-
green droppings, apathy, drop in egg production, watery diarrhea (ducks), ocular discharge,
and respiratory distress.
Probable case: a suspected case, which on autopsy shows hepatomegaly, splenomegaly,

air sacculitis, hepatic necrosis and pericarditis.
Confirmed case: a probable case of a bird that is laboratory-confirmed by real-time PCR.
Etiology
25
Avian chlamydiosis (AC) is a bacterial infection caused by a Chlamydia species in birds. It is
an important infectious disease of companion birds, domestic poultry, and wild birds. The
bacterium is an obligate intracellular and gram-negative. The genus Chlamydia currently
includes 11 recognized species among which chlamydia, C. psittaci, C. avium and C.
gallinacea have been isolated from birds.
Epidemiology
Evidence from the sero-epidemiological studies in India since the 1970s have been conducted
both in Southern and Northern regions suggests that other chlamydial species, such as C.
abortus, C. pecorum, C. trachomatis, C. suis and C. muridarum can also be harbored by birds
as well as by the avian species C. avium and C. gallinacea. However, it seems likely from
currently available data that C. avium can cause respiratory disease in parrots and pigeons.
The main mode of transmission is by the fecal-oral route or by inhalation. Respiratory

discharge or feces from infected birds contain elementary bodies that are resistant to drying
and can remain infective for several months when protected by organic debris (e.g., litter
and feces). Airborne particles and dust spread the organism.
Shedding of the infectious agent among birds with latent chlamydiosis may be activated by
several stress factors, including shipping, crowding, chilling, and breeding. Birds can appear
healthy but are carriers of C. psittaci and can shed the organism intermittently. When shedding
occurs, the organism is excreted in the feces and nasal discharges of infected birds.
Clinical signs are generally non-specific and vary greatly in severity, depending on the species
and age of the bird and the virulence of the Chlamydia strain.
Clinical Signs Incubation Period, Other Notes

Morbidity, and
Mortality
Lethargy, hyperthermia, abnormal Varies greatly by Older psittacine birds
excretions, nasal and eye discharges, species, age, and and poultry may show
reduced egg production, conjunctivitis, strain, Morbidity no clinical signs but
anorexia, weight loss, diarrhea, yellowish and Mortality: can shed the agent for
droppings, sinusitis, biliverdinuria, Variable extended periods
sneezing, lachrymation, respiratory distress
26
Postmortem lesions:
• Generally, the lesions found during postmortem in birds include pneumonia and
congestion of lungs, clouding of air sac walls, air sacculitis, hepatitis, and pericarditis.
• Serofibrinous polyserositis (airsacculitis, pericarditis, perihepatitis, peritonitis)
• Bronchopneumonia
• Hepatic necrosis
• Hepatomegaly
• Splenomegaly
Molecular methods
• Conventional PCR
• Real time PCR
Cytological staining
• Giemsa staining
Serological methods
• Elementary Body Agglutination (EBA)

• Agar gel immunodiffusion test
• Latex agglutination (LA) test
Action to be taken in case of outbreak
Prevention and control:
Precautions should be taken when examining live or dead infected birds to avoid exposure
(e.g., dust mask and plastic face shield or goggles, gloves, detergent disinfectant to wet
feathers, and fan-exhausted examining hood). To date, no commercial vaccines against
avian chlamydiosis are available.
Appropriate biosecurity practices are necessary to control the introduction and spread of
disease in an avian population. The strains of avian chlamydiae can infect humans and should
be handled with appropriate biosafety (Personal protective equipment) and containment
27
procedures. Post-mortem examinations of infected birds and handling of cultures should be
done in certified Class II Biological Safety Cabinets whenever possible or with proper personal
protective equipment.
Appropriate zoonotic agent decontamination procedures should be followed because human

infection can result from transient exposures. Following procedures to be followed:
• Quarantine and examination of all new birds
• Prevention of exposure to wild birds
• Traffic control to minimize cross-contamination
• Isolation and treatment of affected and contact birds
• Thorough cleaning and disinfection of premises and equipment (preferably with

small units managed on an “all-in/all-out” basis)
• Provision of uncontaminated feed
• Maintenance of records on all bird movements
• Continuous monitoring for the presence of chlamydial infection
The organism is susceptible to heat and most of the disinfectants (1:1,000 quaternary
ammonium chloride, 1:100 bleach solution, 70% alcohol, etc.). It may persist for months in
the organic matter.
Veterinary Authorities of countries free from avian chlamydiosis may prohibit importation or
transit through their territory, from countries considered infected with avian chlamydiosis,
of birds of the Psittacidae family. For the importation of birds of the Psittacidae family
Veterinary Authorities of importing countries should require the presentation of

an international veterinary certificate attesting that the birds:
1. showed no clinical sign of avian chlamydiosis on the day of shipment;
2. were kept under veterinary supervision for the 45 days prior to shipment and were
treated against avian chlamydiosis using chlortetracycline.
refer to the World Organisation for Animal Health. (2023). Avian chlamydiosis. In
28
Terrestrial Animal Health Code (Chapter 10.1). Retrieved from
https://www.woah.org/en/what-we-do/standards/codes-and-manuals/terrestrial-code-
online-access/?id=169&L=1&htmfile=chapitre_avian_chlamydiosis.htm
Avian Mycoplasmosis
Avian mycoplasmosis is an economically important and frequently reported disease of

chickens, turkeys, and wild birds. It causes significant economic losses to the poultry industry
by decreasing egg production, reduced growth, and feed conversion efficiency, downgrading
of carcass quality, increased mortality, and treatment costs. Concurrent secondary bacterial
and/or viral infections have been shown to exacerbate production losses and mortality.
Case Definition
Suspected case: (MG)- A poultry bird (mostly turkey) with swollen infraorbital sinus leading
to closure of eyelids, chronic respiratory distress symptoms including coryza, conjunctivitis,
coughing and sneezing, nasal exudate, rales and breathing through the partially open beak.
Conjunctivitis, with frothy ocular exudate is also seen in turkeys, along with soiling of the wing
feathers.
(MS)- A poultry bird (commonly in multi-age layer flock) exhibiting one or more clinical signs
like pale bluish combs, lameness, retarded growth, swellings around joints, greenish
droppings, sternal bursitis, swollen hocks and footpads.
Probable case: (MG) A suspected bird which upon post mortem shows lesions of the
respiratory tract initially present as excess mucous exudate followed by catarrhal and caseous
exudate, which may form amorphous masses in the air sacs. In turkeys and game birds the
swollen infraorbital sinuses contain mucoid to caseous exudate.
(MS) A suspected bird which upon post mortem shows viscous to yellow grey exudates from
the joints and along tendon sheath along with hepatosplenomegaly and mottled, swollen
kidneys.
Confirmed case: A probable poultry case that is laboratory-confirmed as positive on

conventional/Real-time PCR.
Etiology
Mycoplasmosis is caused by the organisms belonging to the genus Mycoplasma. Mycoplasma

gallisepticum and Mycoplasma synoviae are the two most common species associated with
avian mycoplasmosis in India, affecting both commercial poultry flocks and backyard birds.
Epidemiology
29
Avian mycoplasmosis is indeed a concern in India, as it is in many other countries with
significant poultry industries. MS is also pathogenic for both chickens and turkeys. All the age
groups of turkey and chicken are susceptible, but the disease is more common in up to 32-
weeks-old commercial layer chicken.
The prevalence of avian mycoplasmosis varies across different regions and poultry production
systems. According to one study, the prevalence estimates for both MG & MS was
comparatively higher in the south zone than other zones. High intensity of commercial poultry
may be attributed to this higher prevalence facilitating the spread of Mycoplasma among the
poultry population. Under-reporting from certain zones such as East and North-east zones
coincide with sparse commercial poultry population and limited access to research institutes
and diagnostic facilities.
In India, the prevalence of MG and MS vary in different states and range between 10–55%
and 2–52%, respectively. Compilation of epidemiological studies conducted in India is given
in Table 1.
Mycoplasma infection spreads through multiple ways. For example, MG & MS may spread
vertically through infected eggs, thus so some chicks may already have the infection from the
moment they hatch. Mycoplasma infections spread horizontally by close contact,
contaminated dust particles, infectious aerosols or droplets. It has been reported that
mycoplasma may spread through droplets to farms as far as 2 km. Wild birds (racing pigeons,
rooks, carrion crows, jack daws, house sparrows, ducks, Japanese quails and geese) may
play an important role as potential reservoir and vectors of MG and MS infection. Flock-to-
flock transmission occurs readily by direct or indirect contact from the movement of birds,
people, or fomites from infected to susceptible flocks.
Disease/ Host Clinical Signs Incubation Other Notes

Pathogen Period,
Morbidity, and
Mortality
Mycoplasma Broiler Chickens Respiratory Incubation: 6- Causes
gallisepticum distress, rales, 21 days, increased
difficulty breathing, Morbidity: High, condemnations
coughing, Mortality: Low of carcasses in
sneezing, nasal processing
discharge,
30
conjunctivitis with
frothiness about
eyes
Layers/Breeders Usually subclinical, Incubation: 6-
reduction in egg 21 days,
production Morbidity: High,
Mortality: Low
Turkeys Swollen infra- Incubation: 6- Turkeys are
orbital sinuses 21 days, more
(infectious Morbidity: High, susceptible
sinusitis) Mortality: Low
Mycoplasma Chickens Pale-bluish head Incubation: More severe in
synoviae parts, lameness, Varies, turkeys with
swollen hocks, foot Morbidity: Low joint lesions
pads, sternal to moderate,
bursitis, Mortality: 1%-
depression, resting 10%
around feeders
and waterers
Multi-age Layer Often subclinical, Incubation: Stress or
Flock mild upper Varies, concurrent
respiratory Morbidity: Low infections can
infection with slight to moderate, trigger clinical
rales Mortality: 1%- signs
10%
Turkeys More severe Incubation: Instances of
clinical signs Varies, transient egg
compared to Morbidity: Low production
chickens, primarily to moderate, drops may be
joint lesions Mortality: 1%- seen
10%
Postmortem lesions:
In uncomplicated cases of MG infection; relatively mild catarrhal sinusitis, tracheitis, and air
sacculitis could be seen. Severe air sac thickening and turbidity, with exudative accumulations,
adhesive pericarditis, and fibrinous peri-hepatitis are often seen with concurrent Escherichia
coli infections. Turkeys develop severe mucopurulent sinusitis and varying degrees of
tracheitis and airsacculitis. Histopathological lesions in trachea include thickening of mucous
membranes which are infiltrated with hyperplastic, necrotic, and inflammatory cells, formations
of lymphoid hypoplasia and germinal center within the mucosal lamina propria.
31
In case of infection with MS, respiratory lesions may not be apparent and if present, consist of
mild mucoid tracheitis or sinusitis with air sacculitis in poorly ventilated housing. Some birds
may show mild respiratory distress, lameness, pale comb, swollen hock and foot pad.
Greenish droppings containing large amounts of urates are commonly seen. Synovial
structures of swollen hock and wing joints may be filled with creamy to viscous yellow-gray
exudate during the early part of the infection. Enlargement of spleen, kidney and liver is seen.
Sternal recumbency leads to breast blisters.
Clinically, mycoplasmosis (MG or MS disease) in chickens resembles Newcastle disease virus

and avian infectious bronchitis virus. It must be differentiated with Avibacterium
paragallinarum and Pasteurella multocida, Bordetella avium, and Chlamydia. Infectious
synovitis caused by MS should be differentiated from Staphylococcus aureus, Riemerella
anatipestifer, Ornithobacterium rhinotracheale and Enterococcus joint infections and, in
chicken, from infectious teno synovitis caused by avian orthoreoviruses.
Laboratory confirmation of the disease is by isolating the organism in mycoplasma broth base
(Frey) or SP-4 medium or Pleuropneumonia-like organism (PPLO) medium. Mycoplasmas
have fastidious growth requirements and M. synoviae requires extra addition of Nicotinamide
adenine dinucleotide (NAD) in the media. Penicillin (2,000 IU/ml) and thallium acetate (up to
1:2.000) are added to the growth medium to control other bacterial and fungal contamination.
As both the organisms ferment glucose and form acid, their growth in liquid medium can be
determined by formation of pellicle and change in color from pink to yellow without any
turbidity. In solid media, mycoplasmas produce characteristic fried egg or nipple shaped
colonies.
Many laboratories across the world use PCR assays for diagnosis of MG or MS infection.
These assays characterized by good sensitivity represent a good alternative to in vitro culture
of mycoplasmas as these are based on detection of genome of these pathogens. The real-
time PCR with fluorescent labelled probes is increasingly being used because of higher
sensitivity and shortened duration.
Serological tests such as serum plate agglutination (SPA), hemagglutination inhibition (HI)
and enzyme-linked immunosorbent assays (ELISA) are commonly employed for detection of
antibodies in the population. The detailed methodology and list of primers for the genome-
based assays are available in WOAH Terrestrial Manual 2021, Chapter 3.3.5.
32
• In case of an outbreak, the infected birds should be immediately removed from the
flock and isolated from healthy birds to prevent further spread of the disease.
• It is a wise practice to cull the birds in severe cases.
• Sometimes it may be necessary to depopulate the entire flock, from infection being
spread to other nearby farms.
Prevention of mycoplasma infections in the poultry flock mainly include biosecurity and
management practices, treatment, and vaccination.
Vaccination for breeder stocks include administration of live vaccine at sixth week followed by
a killed vaccine before lay, i.e., 18 weeks of age. For commercial chickens, Antimycoplasmal
medications are advised.
The first and foremost step to prevent entry of pathogen and maintaining the flocks free from
infection is to acquire fertile eggs and chicks from Mycoplasma free source.
Adopting Biosecurity measures like
• presence of disinfectants at the farm entry will reduce introduction of pathogens by

vehicles carrying chicks, feed, etc.,
• use of coverall cloths will reduce pathogen introduction to different sheds,
• proper disposal of dead birds will reduce spread from inanimate things
• control of wild birds and other residential birds including presence of backyard chickens
in the farm area will reduce introduction of deadly viruses or any new bacterial agents.
It is also advised to treat the fertile eggs with antibiotic and/or heat at 46°C for 12 to14 hours.
Frequent serological testing as per surveillance plan facilitates early detection of infection, in
addition, it also helps in reducing the horizontal and vertical transmission of the disease. In
situations where prevention of MG and MS infection is not feasible or economically not viable,
appropriate antimicrobial therapy may be considered.
To qualify as free from avian mycoplasmosis, an establishment should satisfy the following
requirements:
1. it is under official veterinary control;
2. it contains no bird which has been vaccinated against avian mycoplasmosis;
33
3. 5% of the birds, with a maximum of 100 birds of different age groups present in
the establishment, are subjected to:
a. an agent identification test with negative results at the age of 10, 18 and 26
weeks, and thereafter at 4-week intervals; or
b. a serological test with negative results at the age of 10, 18 and 26 weeks, and
thereafter at 4-week intervals;
4. all birds introduced into the flocks come from an establishment free from avian
mycoplasmosis.
refer to the World Organisation for Animal Health. (2023). Infection with Mycoplasma
gallisepticum (avian mycoplasmosis). In Terrestrial Animal Health Code (Chapter 10.5).
Retrieved from https://www.woah.org/en/what-we-do/standards/codes-and-
manuals/terrestrial-code-online-
access/?id=169&L=1&htmfile=chapitre_mycoplasma_gallisepticum.htm
Duck Viral Hepatitis

Duck viral hepatitis (DVH) is an acute, highly fatal and rapidly spreading contagious viral disease of
young ducklings characterized primarily by hepatitis. Duck hepatitis is recognized as an economically
important disease in all duck-growing areas because of the potential for high morbidity and mortality
if not controlled.
Case Definition:
Suspected case: an acute infection in ducklings less than 6 week of age, leading to high
mortality, with ducklings showing clinical symptoms like lethargy, loss of balance, spasmodic
paddling and sudden death accompanied by opisthotonos.
Probable case: a suspected case which upon post-mortem shows enlarged liver covered with
hemorrhagic foci, enlarged and mottled spleen, enlarged kidney with congested renal blood
vessels.
Confirmed case: a probable case that is lab confirmed by RT-PCR.
Etiology
Three types of duck hepatitis virus (DHV) have been identified:
• Duck Hepatitis Virus Type 1 (DHV-1)
34
Duck Hepatitis Virus Type 1 (DHV-1) renamed as Duck Hepatitis A Virus (DHAV) belongs to
the genus Avihepatovirus in the Picornaviridae family. DHAV consists of three distinct
genotypes probably also serotypes designated as DHAV-1 DHAV-2 and DHAV-3. Both DHV
type 2 and DHV type 3 viruses belong to the genus Avasrtrovirus in the family Astroviridae
and are referred to as duck astrovirus type 1 (DAstV-1) and duck astrovirus type 2 (DAstV-2).
The most pathogenic and internationally widespread is DHAV-1. DHAV-2 isolated from
Taiwan and DHAV-3 isolated from different regions of China and south Korea also induce
hepatitis in ducklings. Duck astrovirus type 1 (DAstV-1) and duck astrovirus type 2 (DAstV-2)
have only been reported from ducklings in the USA.
Epidemiology
In naturally occurring outbreaks, DHAV occurs only in young ducks but spreads rapidly to all
susceptible ducklings in a flock. Recovered ducks may excrete the virus in their faeces and
the virus remains viable in the faeces for many weeks. It is probable that infection spreads
when susceptible ducklings ingest the virus-carrying particles from the environment. There is
no evidence of egg transmission. There are reports suggesting that wild birds or brown rats
may serve as mechanical vectors or host reservoirs for DHAV. There is no known zoonotic
threat of duck hepatitis virus.
Duck Hepatitis virus is excreted in the feces from infected ducklings and is transmitted
horizontally by direct contact between birds or by means of contaminated water, feed,
equipment. Within a flock, the disease spreads rapidly to all susceptible ducklings.

Morbidity, and Mortality
Sudden onset, lethargy, convulsions, Incubation: 1-2 days, Affects
opisthotonus, ducklings falling on their Morbidity: 100%, Mortality: ducklings
sides and kicking spasmodically before Variable; <1 week old: up to typically less
35
death, head drawn back in 95%, 1-3 weeks old: ≤50%, 4- than six weeks
opisthotonus position at death 5 weeks old: low or negligible old.
Gross pathologic changes appear primarily in the liver, which becomes enlarged with distinct
punctate and ecchymotic hemorrhages. Splenomegaly and swollen kidneys with congestion
may also occur. DAstV-1 and DAstV-2 cause similar clinical signs as DHAV virus.
Diagnosis of DVH is based on the characteristic disease pattern in the flock, gross lesions,
isolation, and identification of virus from dead ducklings and reproduction of disease in
susceptible ducklings. It is not possible to distinguish between the different viral agents based
on clinical findings and pathologic changes. However, distinctions can be made by virus
isolation in ducklings, embryonating eggs, and cell cultures and molecular identification of
virus RNA.
Serologic tests have not been useful because of the acute nature of clinical disease. However,
various virus neutralization (VN) assays have been described that are useful for virus
identification, titration of serologic response to vaccination and epidemiologic surveys.
Prevention and control
DHAV can be prevented by strict isolation during the first 4 to 5 weeks of life. In areas where
the disease is prevalent, achieving the necessary degree of isolation may be very difficult and
vaccination may be required. At present, DHV vaccines are not available in India
As defined by the WOAH, the incubation period for DVH is 7 days. The Veterinary
Administrations of importing countries should require the presentation of an international
veterinary certificate attesting that:
• The ducks showed no clinical signs of DVH on the day of shipment.

• The ducks come from establishments that are free from DVH.
• That the ducks are either vaccinated or not vaccinated against DVH.
36
refer to the World Organisation for Animal Health. (2023). Duck virus hepatitis. In Terrestrial
Animal Health Code (Chapter 10.6). Retrieved from https://www.woah.org/en/what-we-
do/standards/codes-and-manuals/terrestrial-code-online-
access/?id=169&L=1&htmfile=chapitre_dvh.htm
Fowl Cholera
Fowl cholera (FC) is a contagious disease affecting domesticated and wild birds. It usually
appears as a septicemic disease associated with high morbidity and mortality, but chronic
conditions often occur. Fowl cholera is of major economic importance wherever poultry are
raised.
Case Definition:
Suspected case: A bird/case/death with a history of sudden death or with clinical signs like
swollen wattles, fetid diarrhea cyanosis of face, comb and wattles.
Probable case: A suspected bird/case/death with history of exposure to fowl cholera affected
birds and showing postmortem lesions of increased amount of pericardial and peritoneal fluids,
Sequestered necrotic lung lesions and caseous arthritis of foot and hock joints.
Confirmed case: A probable bird case/death that is laboratory confirmed by bacterial culture
and isolation and typical bipolar organisms in blood smear of heart and impression smear of
liver stained by Leishman's stain or a positive PCR result.
Etiology
Fowl cholera is caused by Pasteurella multocida, a member of family Pasteurellaceae
Epidemiology
Fowl cholera is endemic in all parts of India. Most reported outbreaks of FC affected chickens,
turkeys, ducks, or geese. However, this disease also affects other types of poultry, game birds
raised in captivity, companion birds, birds in zoos, and wild birds. Among types of poultry,
turkeys are most affected. Death losses from FC in chickens usually occur in laying flocks,
because birds of this age are more susceptible than younger chickens. Chickens become
more susceptible as they reach maturity. Chronically infected birds are a major source of
37
infection. Cold, damp weather and overcrowding predispose birds to this disease. Chickens
are more susceptible to fowl cholera after withdrawal of feed and water or after an abrupt
change of diet. Stress appears to be an important factor in breaking down the bird's resistance.
Mode of transmission:
Dissemination of P. multocida within a flock is primarily by excretions from the mouth, nose,
and conjunctiva of diseased birds that contaminate their environment, particularly feed and
water. Transmission of Fowl cholera is mostly through contaminated water and feed. Wild
birds carrying P multocida may act as a source of infection to commercial poultry. In addition,
carriers occur in domestic poultry flocks previously affected by fowl cholera. Rodents, dogs,
cats and pigs carry P multocida that is virulent for poultry.
Form Clinical Signs Incubation Other Notes

Period,
Morbidity, and
Mortality
Acute Sudden and unexpected deaths Incubation: Not Acute form is
without prior clinical signs; rapid specified, characterized by
increase in mortality; sick birds Morbidity: High, sudden death and
show anorexia, depression, Mortality: Rapid rapid mortality;
cyanosis, rales, nasal and oral increase, often lesions and
discharge of mucus, white watery followed by death symptoms may vary
or green mucoid diarrhea; short based on infection
illness course often followed by site.
death. Prominent lesions include
peritonitis associated with ruptured
egg yolks in breeders and layers;
synovitis and osteomyelitis in
localized cases. Liver may show
tan color with focal necrosis.
Chronic Swelling of wattles, sinuses, leg or Incubation: Not Chronic form
foot pads, wing joints, and sternal specified, presents with
bursae; conjunctival exudate, Morbidity: prolonged and
torticollis, dyspnea, and tracheal Variable, Mortality: localized symptoms;
rales. Chronic localized infections Up to 20% in can lead to reduced
can involve middle ear and cranial naturally infected egg production and
bones, resulting in torticollis. chickens, persistent infections.
Reduced egg production and potentially higher
persistent localized infections are
common.
38
Laboratory Diagnosis:
Presumptive diagnosis: Observance of typical signs and lesions and/or on the microscopic
demonstration of bacteria showing bipolar staining in smears of tissues, such as heart blood,
liver, or spleen.
Confirmatory diagnosis: Isolation of P. multocida from birds with signs and lesions and
identification by biochemical or molecular techniques (PCR). The preferred specimens for
isolation of bacteria include heart blood, lungs, liver, bone marrow, meninges and joint fluids.
Colonies characteristic of P. multocida are transferred to dextrose starch agar slants incubated
18–24 hours. Tubes of phenol red broth base containing 1% glucose, lactose, sucrose,
mannitol, and maltose, respectively, are then inoculated with growth from the slant.
Fermentation of glucose, sucrose, and mannitol without gas is characteristic of P. multocida.
Lactose usually is not fermented, but some avian isolates will ferment it. Inoculate 2% tryptose
in 0.85% saline solution, incubate 24 hours at 37ºC, and test for indole (Kovac’s test). Indole
is almost always produced by P. multocida. There should be no hemolysis of blood and no
growth on MacConkey agar.
A range of PCR assays and MALDI-TOF can be used to identify P multocida. In general,
serology has not been used as a diagnostic tool. Commercial ELISA kits to detect antibodies
are available for monitoring vaccination responses.
Management procedures: Prevention of fowl cholera can be achieved by eliminating

reservoirs of P. multocida preventing their access to poultry flocks.
• Good management practices - with emphasis on sanitation - are the best means of
preventing fowl cholera. The primary source of infection is usually sick birds, recovered
carrier birds, rodents, and cats.
• Proper rodent control and elimination of contact of poultry with other animals, such as
cats, is an important measure for the prevention of the introduction of P. multocida into
a poultry flock. Vaccination to prevent fowl cholera is an important aspect of controlling
the disease, particularly in broiler breeders and turkeys.
• Different species of birds should not be raised on the same premises.
• Farm animals (particularly pigs, dogs, and cats) should not have access to the poultry
area.
39
• P. multocida has been recovered from many species of free-flying birds and are a
potential source of bacteria to poultry. Measures should be taken to prevent their
association with the flock.
• Raising turkeys in areas where Fowl cholera is a serious problem may warrant their
confinement in houses from which free-flying birds, rodents, and other animals can be
excluded.
• If an outbreak of fowl Cholera occurs, the flock should be quarantined and disposed of
as soon as economically feasible. All housing and equipment should be cleaned and
disinfected before repopulation. Biosecurity must be followed stringently in addition to
vaccination practices.
• Inactivated vaccines are available in India to control Fowl cholera. Usually, two doses
are given, the first dose at 8-10 weeks of age and the second dose at 18-20 weeks of
age. The vaccines should not be substituted for good biosecurity practices.
In the event of a fowl cholera outbreak, immediate actions should include:
• Isolation: Separate infected birds from healthy ones to prevent further spread of the
disease.
• Veterinary consultation: Seek advice from a veterinarian for diagnosis and treatment
options.
• Disinfection: Thoroughly clean and disinfect all equipment, premises, and vehicles to
eliminate the spread of the bacteria.
• Vaccination: Consider vaccinating susceptible birds to prevent future outbreaks.
• Surveillance: Monitor the health of birds closely and report any unusual symptoms to
veterinary authorities.
• Biosecurity measures: Enhance biosecurity protocols to prevent the introduction of
the disease to other poultry farms.
• Proper disposal: Dispose of infected birds, carcasses, and contaminated materials
properly to prevent further transmission.
Fowl Pox
It is a slow-spreading contagious viral disease characterized by proliferative lesions in the
skin that progress to thick scabs (Cutaneous form) and by lesions in the upper GI and
40
respiratory tracts (Diphtheritic form). In India, the disease is endemic and of considerable
economic importance. It is listed under List-B of WOAH Notifiable Diseases. The disease
causes economic losses due to a transient drop in egg production and a reduced growth rate
in young birds.
Case Definition
Suspected case: A bird/case/death with a history of proliferative lesions in the skin

(Cutaneous form), by lesions in the upper GI and respiratory tract (Diphtheritic form).
Probable case: A suspected bird case/death with a history of exposure to fowl pox virus-
affected birds and postmortem lesions showing epithelial hyperplasia on the skin in
cutaneous form and opaque, yellowish nodules on the mucus membranes of mouth, tongue,
esophagus, and pharynx in diphtheritic form.
Laboratory Confirmed case: A probable bird case/death that is laboratory confirmed by

virus isolation on the chorioallantoic membrane of embryonated eggs (dropped CAM
method)/ PCR technique.
Etiology
The disease is caused by fowl pox virus, belonging to the genus Avipoxvirus in the family
Poxviridae. Fowl pox virus has a large (~300 kb), linear double-stranded DNA genome.
Molecular analyses of vaccine and field strains of fowl pox viruses have shown noteworthy
differences. The large DNA virus present in fowl pox lesions (as in the Poxviridae family) is
resistant to normal environment and may survive for extended periods in dried scabs.
Epidemiology
Fowl pox has a worldwide distribution. Its incidence is variable in different areas because of
differences in climate, management, and hygiene or the practice of regular vaccination. It can
cause drops in egg production, or retarded growth in younger birds. Infection in mammals is
considered non-significant.
The virus is usually transmitted by contact through abrasions of the skin. Skin lesions (scabs)
shedding virus from recovering birds in poultry houses can become a source of aerosol
exposure for susceptible birds. Mosquitoes and other biting insects may serve as
mechanical vectors. Transmission within a susceptible flock is rapid when mosquitoes are
41
plentiful. The disease tends to persist for extended periods in multiple-age poultry complexes
because of the slow spread of the virus and the availability of susceptible birds.
• Lesions initially start as a nodular area with a blanched appearance (papule).

• It becomes enlarged and yellowish (pustules) terminating into a thick, dark scab.
Host Form Clinical Signs Incubation Other Notes

Period,
Morbidity,
and
Mortality
Chickens, Cutaneous Nodular lesions on Incubation: Can cause
Turkeys (Dry Pox) unfeathered skin (head, Not specified, drops in egg
upper neck of turkeys), Morbidity: production or
may extend to feathered High, retarded growth
skin; lesions initially raised, Mortality: in younger birds.
blanched, and nodular, Elevated if Only a few birds
then yellowish, progressing lesions develop lesions
to thick, dark scabs. develop at a time, but
Multiple lesions often around the they can
coalesce. Localization eyes significantly
around the nostrils can affect flock
cause nasal discharge. performance.
Eyelid lesions may cause Infection in
complete closure of the mammals is
eyes. considered non-
significant.
Chickens, Diphtheritic Elevated white opaque Incubation: Slow-spreading
Turkeys (Wet Pox) nodules on mucous Not specified, virus disease,
membranes, yellowish Morbidity: associated with
diphtheritic membrane; High, contamination of
lesions in mouth, tongue, Mortality: open wounds
esophagus, larynx, Higher (up to and insect bites.
trachea. Virulent strains 50%), Lesions in the
may cause lesions in especially in systemic form
internal organs (systemic young birds are more severe
form). and affect
internal organs.
Postmortem Lesions:
42
In the diphtheritic form, lesions develop on the mucous membranes of the mouth,
esophagus, pharynx, larynx, or trachea (wet pox or fowl diphtheria). Occasionally, lesions
occur almost exclusively in one or more of these sites. Caseous patches firmly adherent to
the mucosa of the larynx and mouth, or proliferative masses may develop. Mouth lesions
interfere with feeding. Tracheal lesions cause difficulty in respiration. Laryngeal and tracheal
lesions in chickens must be differentiated from those of infectious laryngotracheitis, due to
a herpesvirus that produces intranuclear inclusions. In systemic infection due to virulent
fowlpox virus strains, lesions may be present in internal organs.
• PCR assay for detection of the fowlpox virus-specific genes
• A smear technique for fowl pox with H&E reveals eosinophilic cytoplasmic inclusion
bodies.
• Virus isolation in the chorioallantoic membrane (CAM) of chicken embryos, susceptible

birds, or avian cell culture
• Molecular methods such as PCR and QPCR.
• Serological tests
o Virus neutralisation
o Agar gel immunodiffusion
o Enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay
i. Isolation of sick birds from healthy birds
ii. During disease outbreak, affected birds if less than 30% should be segregated
immediately and the remaining birds must be vaccinated at the earliest possible.
iii. Standard sanitation and strict biosecurity measures can control fowlpox.
iv. Disinfection of premises with sodium hydroxide (1:500), cresol (1:400), and phenol
(3%) proved beneficial in the control of fowlpox (www.agritech.tnau.ac.in).
v. Avoid contact with chickens, ducks, or other poultry as much as possible.
43
vi. Avoid handling (live or dead) chickens, ducks, or any other poultry while visiting friends
or family, even if the birds appear healthy.
vii. Avoid visiting poultry farms, duck farms, or any farm where birds have been sick or
suspected to have disease.
viii. All persons exposed to an infected environment must wash hands and face properly
change clothes and monitor temperature for 4 days. If he/she develops a high
temperature, immediately consult a doctor.
• There is no specific effective treatment for birds infected with the fowlpox virus;
therefore, prevention is key. Disease prevention and control is best accomplished by
vaccination.
• Fowlpox outbreaks in poultry confined to houses can be controlled by spraying to kill

mosquitoes.
• If fowl pox is endemic in the area, vaccination is recommended.
• Do not vaccinate unless the disease becomes a problem on a farm or in the area.
• Where fowl pox is prevalent, chickens and turkeys should be vaccinated with a live
embryo or cell culture propagated virus vaccine. The most widely used vaccines
are live, attenuated fowl pox virus and pigeon-pox virus isolates of high
immunogenicity and low pathogenicity.
• In high-risk areas, vaccination with a live, attenuated virus vaccine of cell-culture

origin in the first few weeks after hatching and revaccination at 12–16 weeks old is
often sufficient. The health of birds, the extent of exposure, and the type of operation
determine the timing of vaccinations.
• Because the infection spreads slowly, vaccination is often useful to limit spread in
affected flocks if administered when < 20% of the birds have lesions. Passive
immunity may interfere with the multiplication of vaccine viruses; progeny from
recently vaccinated or recently infected flocks should be vaccinated only after
passive immunity has declined.
44
• Vaccinated birds should be examined 1-week post-vaccination for swelling and scab
formation at the site of vaccination. Absence of vaccine take indicates lack of potency
of vaccine, passive or acquired immunity, or improper vaccination. Revaccination
(with another vaccine lot number) may be indicated.
► Age at administration 6 weeks (Primary dose) followed by Booster dose 10

weeks
► Route of vaccine administration: Intramuscular/Wing web - 0.2 ml per bird.
► Two types of vaccines (pigeonpox and fowlpox vaccines) can be used for
vaccination.
► Pigeonpox vaccine is less pathogenic and can be used on chickens at any

stage by the wing web method and it produces immunity for 6 months therefore
revaccination is required.
► Fowlpox vaccine produces solid immunity, usually carried out at 6-8 weeks of
age by intramuscular route or wing web method.
► Successful or effective vaccination can be judged by “Vaccine Takes” in

vaccinated poultry, where examination of vaccinated birds after 7-10 days of
vaccination, shows swelling or scab at the site of puncture or vaccine
application.
► Absence of “Vaccine Takes” in vaccinated poultry indicates poor potency of the

vaccine, presence of maternal antibodies, and improper vaccination. In such
cases, revaccination with a new batch/lot of vaccine should be done.
Biosecurity measures: Standard sanitation and strict biosecurity measures can control fowl
pox. Disinfection of premises with sodium hydroxide (1:500), cresol (1:400), and phenol (3%)
is beneficial in the control of fowl pox
Biosecurity measures in backyard poultry:
• Keep the birds indoors. Do not allow wild birds from neighbors to mingle with your
birds.
• Keep the yard and surroundings clean and regularly bury/burn the wastes.
• Do not catch and keep any wild or migratory birds.
45
• Report sickness/mortality in birds immediately to the veterinarians.
• Bury the dead birds properly. Do not throw them in drains or in open areas.
Biosecurity measures for live bird markets:
• Personnel should be educated on the significance of infectious agents and the need
to apply biosecurity practices to prevent dissemination of these agents. Education
should be targeted to personnel at all levels of operations in these markets, such as
drivers, owners, handlers, and processors. Programs should be implemented to
raise consumer awareness about the risks associated with activities of live bird
markets.
• Personnel should wash their hands with soap and water before and after handling
birds.
• Birds from diseased flocks should not be transported to live bird markets.
• All containers and vehicles should be cleaned and disinfected every time they leave
the market.
• Live birds that leave the market and go to a farm should be kept separately from
other birds for a while to minimize the potential dissemination of infectious agents
of poultry.
• Periodically, the market should be emptied, cleaned and disinfected. This is of

particular importance when an infectious agent of poultry deemed significant by
the Veterinary Services has been identified in the market or the region.
• Where feasible, surveillance should be carried out in these markets to detect

infectious agents of poultry. The surveillance program should be determined by
the Veterinary Services and in accordance with recommendations in relevant
chapters of the Terrestrial Code.
• Efforts should be made to ensure the possibility of tracing all birds entering and
leaving the markets.
46
Infectious Bursal Disease (Gumboro disease)
Infectious bursal disease is an economically important viral disease of young domestic

chickens worldwide. The infectious bursal disease was first identified in Gumboro, Delaware,
in 1962. It is seen in young domestic chickens worldwide and is caused by infectious bursal
disease virus (IBDV). The morbidity rate is high and mortality rate is usually low, but some
virulent strains cause mortality rates of 60% or higher.
Case Definition
Suspected case: A bird/case/death with a history of watery diarrhea, soiled vent feathers,
vent picking, and immunosuppressed or may not have any clinical signs.
Probable case: A suspected bird case/death with a history of exposure to IBD disease-
affected birds and showing symptoms of immunosuppression with Postmortem lesions of
hemorrhages in the thigh and pectoral muscles typical to IBD and atrophy of bursa is seen.
Laboratory confirmed case: A probable bird case/death that is confirmed positive by virus
neutralization test.
Etiology
Infectious bursal disease (IBD), also known as Gumboro disease, is caused by a virus that is
a member of the genus Avibirnavirus (family Birnaviridae). Two serotypes of IBDV, designated
serotypes 1 and 2, are recognized with serotype 1 responsible for clinical disease in young
chickens. Turkey, duck, guinea fowl, pheasant, and ostrich are susceptible hosts, however,
clinical disease occurs solely in younger chickens between 3-6 weeks than 10 weeks age.
Chickens under 3 weeks of age exhibit subclinical form and older chickens usually show no
clinical signs.
Epidemiology
The IBDV - termed as avian nephrosis or “classic IBDV” - was first reported from Gumboro in
Delaware, USA in the year 1962. Classical serotype 1 IBDV strains are endemic globally. The
vvIBDV strain is endemic in parts of southern Asia, Indonesia, Middle East, Africa and South
America. In India, the disease was first reported in the year 1971 from the state of Uttar
Pradesh. Since then, IBD has been reported in the states of Assam, Himachal Pradesh, Uttar
Pradesh, Haryana, Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh, and Mizoram. Various reports on the
prevalence of IBD in India suggested a prevalence of 8.88 to 53.84 percent.
47
The fecal-oral route via ingestion of contaminated feed and water constitutes the natural
means by which IBDV infection occurs in chickens and turkeys). In free-living, wild birds, IBDV
infection is likely to be indirect through scavenging of dead infected chickens, ingestion of
contaminated water, or exposure of respiratory or conjunctival membranes to contaminated
poultry dust.

Morbidity, and Mortality
Incubation period: Post-mortem lesions include
• Feathers around the approximately 2 to 3 days numerous ecchymotic
vent stained, Morbidity: varies, and can hemorrhages, enlargement,
occasionally with feces be high in severe cases- and discoloration of kidneys,
containing plenty of Mortality: can reach up to with urates in tubules
urates 30–40% or more with very Bursa may appear completely
• Hemorrhage in thigh virulent IBDV (vvIBDV) hemorrhagic, resembling a
muscle and pectoral "black cherry” Peri-bursal
muscle straw-colored edema present in
many bursae.
Isolation and identification of the agent provide the most certain diagnosis of IBD but are not
usually attempted for routine diagnostic purposes as the virus may prove difficult to isolate. In
practice, laboratory diagnosis of IBD depends on the detection of specific antibodies to the
virus, or the detection of the virus in tissues, using immunological or molecular methods. The
virus can be identified by histopathological examination of the bursa, virus isolation, AGID,
Antigen capture ELISA, RT-PCR, and VNT.
Critical Activities and Tools for Containment and Control of Infectious Bursal Disease:
• Disease detection and movement restriction
• Disease containment
48
• Notification and activation of emergency response plan
• Premises, area and zone designation (infected premises, suspected premises,
monitored premises, risk premises, vaccinated premises and free premises)
• Biosecurity
• Surveillance
• Stabilization (biohazard waste and litter management)
• Business continuity
• Recovery
IBDV is very stable in the environment and difficult to eradicate from premises compared to
other poultry diseases. A monopersulfate compound inactivates the IBD virus. This indicates
the potential use of sodium hypochlorite which is commonly used for laundry purposes to
inactivate the IBD virus and decontamination, although proper contact time is required. IBD
virus can be inactivated in 2 hours at a temperature of 56°C. Vaccination against the disease
is by using live or inactivated vaccines. The farmer/farm owner may contact the local
veterinarian for assistance in vaccination and management.
Biosecurity measures, such as cleaning and disinfection methods are important to suppress
the virulent virus. Poultry must be housed in an environment in which disease and infection is
controlled to the point where vaccination and medication achieve beneficial effects. The
structural and operational biosecurity are essential in mitigating the risk of transmission of the
disease. The component of the structural biosecurity involves:
• Fencing of farm perimeter to prevent unwanted visitors.

• Test water source for minerals, bacteria, chemical contamination, and pathogen load.
• Concrete stage with suitable water and power supply for sanitation of vehicles.
• Suitable location for storage of bagged feed.
• Facilities for safe and scientific disposal of dead birds.
• Safe housing of the poultry, with suitable proofing against wild birds and rodents.
• Feed, litter, and equipment should be stored in a section separated from the live bird
area to prevent contamination.
• At least a three-meter boundary of land around the building must be kept free of all
vegetation to prevent rodent and wildlife activity.
49
For importation of domestic birds, Veterinary Authorities of importing countries should require
the presentation of an international veterinary certificate attesting that the birds:
1. showed no clinical sign of infectious bursal disease on the day of shipment;
2. come from an establishment which is regularly inspected by the Veterinary Authority;
3. have not been vaccinated against infectious bursal disease and come from
an establishment free from infectious bursal disease as demonstrated by the AGP test;
or
4. were vaccinated against infectious bursal disease (the nature of the vaccine used and
the date of vaccination should also be stated in the certificate)
refer to the World Organization for Animal Health. (2023). Infectious bursal disease
(Gumboro disease). In Terrestrial Animal Health Code (Chapter 10.8). Retrieved from
access/?id=169&L=1&htmfile=chapitre_gumboro_disease.htm
Ranikhet Disease (New Castle Disease)

Newcastle disease (ND) is an infection of domestic poultry and other bird species with virulent
Newcastle disease virus (NDV). Newcastle disease is not a food safety or public health
concern. Virulent NDV can produce a devastating disease in domestic fowl, with vast social
and economic consequences. It is a worldwide problem that presents primarily as an acute
respiratory disease; however, depression, nervous signs, or diarrhea may be the predominant
clinical form.
Prevention is accomplished through vaccination and strict biosecurity. Real-time RT-PCR is

the test of choice to detect viral RNA typical of virulent NDV and confirm infection in birds with
clinical signs of disease. The occurrence of the disease in poultry is notifiable and may result
in trade restrictions.
Case Definition
Suspected case: A bird/case/death with a history of rapid onset of respiratory and nervous
signs with or without diarrhea and a sudden drop in egg production accompanied by the
production of abnormal or misshapen eggs.
50
Probable case: A suspected bird case/death with a history of exposure to Newcastle disease-
affected birds showing edema of neck and thorax, hemorrhages in the trachea, proventriculus,
gizzard, payers' patches, and caecal tonsils upon post-mortem examination
Laboratory Confirmed case: A probable bird case/death that is laboratory confirmed by

detection of ND-specific antibodies in the sera of suspected samples by Hemagglutination test
Inhibition test. (OIE recommended test for detecting individual case).
Etiology
Newcastle disease (ND) is caused by virulent strains of avian paramyxovirus type 1 (APMV-
1) of the genus Orthoavulavirus belonging to the subfamily Avulavirinae, family
Paramyxoviridae. NDV has been classified into Class I and Class II based on its genome
sequence. Class I viruses circulate mostly in wild birds and are less virulent as compared to
Class II viruses, which are more prevalent among domestic poultry. The virus has a wide host
range among avian species; at least 250 species classified in 27 of the 50 orders of birds are
susceptible to NDV. However, its impact is most visible in domestic poultry in which NDV
infection leads to major losses in productivity.
Strains of APMV-1 have been grouped into five pathotypes based on the clinical signs
observed in infected chickens. These are:
• Viscerotropic velogenic: A highly pathogenic form in which hemorrhagic intestinal
lesions are frequently seen.
• Neurotropic velogenic: A form that presents with high mortality, usually following
respiratory and nervous signs.
• Mesogenic: A form that presents respiratory signs, and occasional nervous signs, but
low mortality.
• Lentogenic or respiratory: A form that presents with a mild or subclinical respiratory
infection.
• Subclinical: A form that usually consists of a subclinical enteric infection.
Epidemiology
The lentogenic strains are widespread globally. A surveillance study in the state of Haryana
in backyard poultry and commercial broilers, and layers revealed a 9.8% apparent prevalence
for the M gene. In a cross-sectional study in Odisha - commercial layers, broilers, and
backyard chicken showed an overall apparent prevalence of 11.7%. Circulation of virulent
51
NDV strains was also evident with an apparent prevalence of 8.1%. In a cross-sectional study
in Kerala, 8.0% samples were positive for the NDV M-gene by RT-PCR.
The transmission of NDV is primarily through aerosol or oral routes. The movement of live
birds and migratory feral birds may be responsible for the primary introduction of infection.
Secondary spread during most epizootics of ND in recent times has been the result of the
movements of personnel or equipment. Human beings play a role in the transfer of infective
poultry feces from one site to another via clothing, footwear, crates, feed sacks, egg trays or
vehicles.
Incubation Period, Other Notes

Clinical Signs Morbidity, and Mortality
Incubation period: 3-6 Clinical signs can
• Sneezing days (rarely 2-15 days) vary significantly
• Gasping for air, nasal discharge Morbidity: can range from depending on viral
• Coughing sub-clinical to high levels strain, host species,
• Greenish, watery diarrhea Mortality: over 50% in age of host, co-
naive populations, rapid infection,
• Depression, muscular tremors,
death within 2-3 days physiologic and
• Drooping wings, twisting of head
environmental
and neck, circling, complete
stress, and immune
paralysis
status- Rapid spread
• Partial to complete drop in egg of the disease
production
• Production of thin-shelled eggs
• Swelling of the tissues around the
eyes and of the neck
• Sudden death
• Increased mortality in a flock
On necropsy, typical lesions are mucus in the trachea, and usually hemorrhage in the
intestine, particularly in the proventriculus and caecal tonsils. It should be borne in mind that
all the preceding signs and lesions can be caused by other diseases also.
52
The preferred method of diagnosis is validated reverse transcription polymerase chain
reaction (RT-PCR) and sequencing. Virus isolation in embryonated eggs remains an important
laboratory tool. In addition, RT-PCR and sequencing are widely used for the determination of
the virulence of APMV-1 viruses. Real-time RT-PCR targeting a highly conserved gene
overcomes wide heterogeneity in the fusion (F) or haemagglutinin-neuraminidase (HN) gene
Follow SOP - developed by ICAR-NIHSAD - for performing all the steps in disease
diagnosis including sample collection, labeling, packaging, transportation, as well as
testing in the laboratory(ies).
Critical Activities and Tools for Containment and Control of Ranikhet Disease:
• Public awareness campaign
• Swift imposition of effective quarantine and movement controls
• Rapid diagnosis and reporting
• Epidemiological investigation and tracing
• Increased surveillance
• Continuity of business measures for non-infected premises and non-

contaminated animal products
• Biosecurity measures
• Effective and appropriate disposal procedures
• Cleaning and disinfection measures
• Vaccination (as the response strategy indicates)
For investigations of severe disease and high mortality in poultry flocks, it is usual to attempt
virus isolation from recently dead birds or moribund birds. Samples from dead birds should
include intestinal contents (feces) or cloacal swabs and oropharyngeal or tracheal swabs.
Samples from lungs, air sacs, intestine, spleen, kidneys, caecal tonsils, brain, liver, and heart
should also be collected and processed either separately or as a pool. When pooling samples,
the brain should be collected and processed first (to avoid cross-contamination with other
53
tissue types) and kept separate as the presence of virus in the brain may be an indicator of
NDV or HPAI. Samples from live birds should include both tracheal or oropharyngeal and
cloacal swabs, the latter should be visibly coated with fecal material. To avoid harming them,
swabbing of small delicate birds should be done with the use of especially small swabs that
are usually commercially available [Caution: Some influenza A viruses and type 1 avulaviruses
in birds can have a strong respiratory tropism.
Zoning of outbreak area: In case of an outbreak of ND, the zoning of the area should be done
and movement of farm personnel, workers, labourers, etc., should be restricted and SOP
protocols determined as per prevalent conditions must be followed for collection of dead and
diseases birds, etc. Outbreaks are contained with quarantine, movement control, depopulation
of all infected and exposed birds, and thorough cleaning and disinfection of premises.
Vaccines are available for chickens, turkeys, and pigeons and are used to induce an
antibody response. Live lentogenic virus vaccines, chiefly B1 and LaSota strains, are widely
used and typically administered to poultry by mass application in drinking water or by spray.
Mucosal immunity induced in birds vaccinated with live virus vaccines applied by these
routes decreases the amount of the vNDV while the birds vaccinated with an inactivated
virus vaccine will shed more virus if infected with vNDV. Oil-adjuvanted inactivated virus
vaccines are also used after live virus vaccine in breeders and layers. They may be used
alone in situations where live viruses may be contraindicated (e.g., in pigeons). The
frequency of revaccination to protect chickens throughout life largely depends on the risk of
exposure and virulence of the field virus challenge. Administering inactivated virus vaccines
is more labor-intensive, because each bird has to be handled individually.
Good biosecurity can help protect poultry flocks from ND and control of spread of an
outbreak in a farm. Flocks should not be allowed to contact domesticated poultry of unknown
health status, any pet birds (particularly psittacine), and wild or feral birds (particularly
cormorants, gulls, and pigeons). Workers must avoid contact with birds outside the farm.
Biosecurity measures include bird-proofing houses, feed and water supplies, minimizing
travel on and off the facility, and disinfecting vehicles and equipment that enter the farm.
Pests such as insects and mice should also be controlled. If possible, employees should
take showers and change into dedicated clothing for work.
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For the importation of live birds other than poultry, Regardless of the ND status of the country
of origin, Veterinary Authorities should require the presentation of an international veterinary
certificate attesting that:
1. the birds showed no clinical sign suggestive of infection by NDV on the day of
shipment;
2. the birds were kept in isolation approved by the Veterinary Services since they were
hatched or for at least 21 days prior to shipment and showed no clinical sign
of infection during the isolation period;
3. a statistically valid sample of the birds, selected in accordance with Article 10.9.24.,
was subjected to a diagnostic test within 14 days prior to shipment to demonstrate
freedom from infection with NDV;
4. the birds are transported in new or appropriately sanitized containers.
If the birds have been vaccinated against ND, the nature of the vaccine used and the
date of vaccination should be attached to the certificate.
refer to the World Organisation for Animal Health. (2023). Infection with Newcastle virus. In
OIE Terrestrial Animal Health Code (Chapter 10.9). Retrieved from
access/?id=169&L=1&htmfile=chapitre_nd.htm
Pullorum Disease and Fowl Typhoid

Pullorum disease (PD) and Fowl typhoid (FT) are two distinct septicemic diseases specific for
avian species (poultry and other production species including game birds, ducks and guinea
fowl) that remain of major economic significance in many parts of the world. FT, caused by
Salmonella Gallinarum, is an acute or chronic septicemic disease that usually affects adult
birds, although birds of all ages may be susceptible. PD, caused by Salmonella Pullorum, is
an acute systemic disease more common in young birds.
Case Definition:
Suspected case: A case with a history of sudden death or with clinical signs of dull,
depressed, increased thirst, drop in appetite, paleness of combs, wattles and face and
droppings being yellow tinged.
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Probable case: - A suspected bird case/death with history of exposure to fowl typhoid affected
birds and with postmortem lesions of coppery bronze sheen liver, enlarged spleen, catarrhal
enteritis, pericarditis and retained yolks.
Laboratory confirmed case: A probable bird case/death that is laboratory confirmed by

bacterial isolation and identification.
Pullorum disease
Etiology
Salmonella is a rod-shaped, Gram-negative, facultative anaerobic bacterium belonging to

the Enterobacteriaceae family.
It encompasses two main species, Salmonella bongori and Salmonella enterica (S. enterica),
Among the various serovars of S. enterica, Salmonella Gallinarum biovars Gallinarum (SG)
and Pullorum (SP) are notable for their unique characteristics. Unlike
most Salmonella members, SG and SP are non-flagellated and non-motile and serologically
identical. Pullorum disease is caused by Salmonella Pullorum which is a Gram-negative
bacterial rod in Salmonella serogroup D in the family Enterobacteriaceae.
Epidemiology
Pullorum disease and fowl typhoid are endemic and prevalent all parts of India. Pullorum
disease is an infectious, egg-transmitted disease of poultry, usually affects young chicks,
characterized by white diarrhoea and high mortality in young birds and by asymptomatic adult
carriers. Salmonella Pullorum usually causes illnesses in chicken, turkey, and game birds.
Pullorum disease can be transmitted orally (e.g., in food and water or by cannibalism) and via
the respiratory tract. Causative organisms may also enter the body at other sites, such as in
wounds. Vertical transmission is important in the epidemiology of pullorum disease. Some
infected poultry become long-term asymptomatic carriers of Salmonella Pullorum and transmit
it to their progeny in eggs. Although only a small number of eggs may be infected, horizontal
transmission can amplify the outbreak after the chick’s hatch. Salmonella Pullorum may
survive for several months in the environment. Wild birds, mammals and insects can act as
mechanical or biological vectors.
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Host Clinical Signs Incubation Period, Other Notes

Morbidity, and
Mortality
Young Nonspecific signs of acute Affects chicks less If hatched from
Birds septicemia such as depression, than 3-4 weeks of infected eggs, some
weakness, loss of appetite, age, Peak mortality: embryos may die in
drooping wings, huddling, labored 2-3 weeks, High the egg, and dead
breathing, dehydration, ruffled mortality in young and dying chicks can
feathers, white and viscous birds be found soon after
diarrhea, fecal pasting around the hatching
vent
Older Less acute course, arthritis Affects chicks less
Chicks affecting various joints, especially than 3-4 weeks of
the hock joints age, Peak mortality:
2-3 weeks, High
mortality in young
birds
Common lesions in recently hatched birds with pullorum disease include unabsorbed yolk
sacs, which sometimes have evidence of infection (e.g., creamy or caseous material),
peritonitis, congested lungs and a dark, swollen liver. Some chicks only have signs of
septicemia, with dilated subcutaneous blood vessels and a congested liver. Chicks that
survive longer frequently have typhlitis with firm, cheesy material in the caecum (necrotic cecal
casts) and small white or grey necrotic foci or nodules in the liver, spleen, lungs, heart and
other viscera. Some nodules may resemble the tumors of Marek’s disease. Liver lesions are
reported to be less common in young pheasants than young chickens, but lung lesions (white
or pale nodules) can be prominent in this species. Swollen joints (arthritis) with cream-colored,
yellow or orange, and gelatinous or viscous exudate can be seen occasionally in chicks. The
anterior chamber of the eye contained exudates in birds with ocular lesions. Mis-shapen,
discolored and/or shrunken ovaries are the most consistent gross lesion in adult carriers of
Salmonella Pullorum. The affected follicles are often attached by pedunculated fibrous stalks,
and the abnormal ova may contain encapsulated caseous and oily material. In some birds,
ovarian dysfunction leads to peritoneal ovulation or impaction of the oviduct and can result in
fibrinous peritonitis. Additional lesions, such as pericarditis, arthritis, or necrotic foci in the
testes can also be seen in some carriers.
In young chicks - typical history, clinical signs and lesions may suggest pullorum disease. For
confirmatory diagnosis, S pullorum must be isolated and identified from affected birds. PCR
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tests can be used to identify S pullorum directly in tissues. Serology can be employed as a
flock test or to help identify chronically infected birds in control programs. Serological tests
used in poultry include the rapid whole blood plate agglutination test, the rapid serum
agglutination test, and ELISA. Diseases that must be differentiated from pullorum disease in
young chicks include chilling, omphalitis, typhoid, paratyphoid and colibacillosis.
Treatment of affected birds is unreliable and unsatisfactory. Treatment can perpetuate the
carrier state. It may be possible to eliminate the disease in valuable flocks by repeated testing
and application of rigorous biosecurity practices. Mortality in young birds can be suppressed
by good husbandry and the use of sulpha drugs or broad-spectrum antibiotics. Control is
based on routine testing of breeding stock to ensure that the flock is free from infection.
Fowl Typhoid
Etiology
Fowl typhoid is an infectious disease primarily of growing and adult poultry. Fowl typhoid is
caused by Salmonella Gallinarum, a Gram-negative bacterial rod in Salmonella serogroup D
in the family Enterobacteriaceae. It usually causes illnesses in chicken, turkey, and game
birds.
Fowl typhoid can be transmitted orally (e.g., in food and water or by cannibalism) and via the
respiratory tract. Causative organisms may also enter the body at other sites, such as in
wounds. Although Salmonella Gallinarum has been detected in eggs, vertical transmission to
progeny has been difficult to reproduce experimentally. Wild birds, mammals and insects can
act as mechanical or biological vectors. Red mites (Dermanyssus gallinae) appear to be
involved in spreading fowl typhoid and may maintain these bacteria for several months. The
incubation period is 4 to 6 days.
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Clinical Signs Incubation Other Notes
Period,
Morbidity, and
Mortality
Depression, decreased appetite, weight loss, Not specified, Dead and dying
dehydration, ruffled feathers, watery to mucoid Morbidity: High in chicks may be
yellowish diarrhea, respiratory distress, chicks, Mortality: found soon after
decreased egg production, hatchability, and High in chicks hatching, similar to
fertility, progressive loss of condition, anemia Pullorum disease
with pale, shrunken combs and wattles
Birds with acute fowl typhoid typically have generalized signs of septicemia and a dark,
enlarged, friable liver than often has a coppery bronze tinge. This bronze discoloration may
only develop after the liver is exposed to air. Catarrhal enteritis with viscous, bile-stained, slimy
intestinal contents is common. The bone marrow is typically dark brown. In more chronic
cases, the carcasses may be intensely anemic and wasted or emaciated, and fibrinous
pericarditis is common. Focal necrosis may be detected in the heart, liver, intestines and
pancreas of chronically affected birds.
Fowl typhoid can be diagnosed by isolating S gallinarum from affected birds. PCR tests can
be used to identify S gallinarum directly in tissues (Spleen, liver, ovary). Serology can be
employed as a flock test or to help identify chronically infected birds in control programs.
Serological tests used in poultry include the rapid whole blood plate agglutination test, the
rapid serum agglutination test and ELISA. As S gallinarum has the similar antigenic structure
as S. pullorum, the rapid plate agglutination test, using S pullorum antigen, can be used to
detect carriers of S gallinarum
Reinfection of susceptible birds with the development of clinical disease may also occur, with
the disease recycling in the flock. To exclude S gallinarum from a poultry flock, live birds and
eggs should be purchased from stock known to be free of these organisms or tested. Disease-
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free flocks should not be allowed to contact infected birds or contaminated environments.
Good biosecurity is also important in excluding organisms that may be present on fomites and
visitors. To the extent feasible under the production system, rodents and wild birds should be
excluded from the facility, and potential insect vectors or reservoirs, including poultry mites,
should be controlled.
Fowl typhoid vaccines (SG9R) can be used in chickens in endemic areas. Two vaccines at
the age group of 6 weeks and 18 weeks are generally administered. Vaccination can protect
birds from clinical signs and mortality, but it does not prevent them from becoming infected
and protection may be short-lived.
Because S. pullorum and S. gallinarum show chronic persistent infection and varying degrees
of vertical transmission, the chain of infection can be broken by identifying carriers with specific
circulating IgG. This can be done either by slide agglutination test using stained Pullorum
antigen containing an anticoagulant or by ELISA.
In the event of a Pullorum Disease & Fowl Typhoid outbreak, immediate actions should
include:
• Isolation: Separate infected birds from healthy ones to prevent further spread of the
disease.
• Veterinary consultation: Seek advice from a veterinarian for diagnosis and treatment
options.
• Disinfection: Thoroughly clean and disinfect all equipment, premises, and vehicles to
eliminate the spread of the bacteria.
• Vaccination: Consider vaccinating susceptible birds to prevent future outbreaks.
• Surveillance: Monitor the health of birds closely and report any unusual symptoms to
veterinary authorities.
• Biosecurity measures: Enhance biosecurity protocols to prevent the introduction of
the disease to other poultry farms.
• Proper disposal: Dispose of infected birds, carcasses, and contaminated materials
properly to prevent further transmission.
For the importation of domestic birds, Veterinary Authorities of importing countries should
require the presentation of an international veterinary certificate attesting that the birds:
1. showed no clinical sign of fowl typhoid and pullorum disease on the day of shipment;
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2. come from establishments which are recognized as being free from fowl typhoid and
pullorum disease; and/or
3. have been subjected to a diagnostic test for fowl typhoid and pullorum disease with
negative results; and/or
4. were kept in a quarantine station for not less than 21 days prior to shipment.
refer to the World Organisation for Animal Health. (2023). Fowl typhoid and pullorum
disease. In Terrestrial Animal Health Code (Chapter 10.7). Retrieved from
access/?id=169&L=1&htmfile=chapitre_fowl_typhoid_pullorum_disease.htm
Chapter 3
Surveillance and Laboratory Network
Surveillance
Effective surveillance of avian diseases, encompassing those affecting migratory birds and a
variety of poultry species is crucial. This surveillance should prioritize high-risk areas, including
poultry farms, live bird markets, wetlands, and border regions, and must be conducted
regularly. A comprehensive approach involving clinical, and microbiological, serological
surveillance at designated laboratories, supported by scientifically rigorous protocols for
sample collection, packaging, and transport, is essential to ensure the accuracy and reliability
of the data collected
The surveillance program should include an early warning system throughout the poultry
production, marketing, and processing value chain for reporting suspicious cases with
objectives like:
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• Early detection of clinical disease and infection
• Assess the disease's temporal and spatial patterns to improve control efforts'
effectiveness.
• Demonstrate freedom from the disease.
• Identify the avian population at risk.
The population at risk of infection with various poultry diseases includes:
• Commercial birds- High-density population of chicken and ducks.

• Backyard Birds – chickens, ducks, pigeons and other species.
• Wild/migratory birds.
• Live bird markets including wet markets particularly at the border areas (affected
country/state/area).
The Surveillance Plan is an ongoing activity and may be updated from time to time based on
new requirements, experience gained, scientific knowledge, and epidemiological studies. In
the meantime, ICAR-NIVEDI is in the process of developing a detailed sampling plan for
surveillance of the poultry diseases based on the inputs and expert consultation from the
Department.
Environmental Surveillance
Environmental surveillance in poultry diseases involves systematically monitoring the farm

environment to detect and assess potential health risks. This includes identifying high-risk
areas, collecting samples from air, water, soil, feed, and equipment, conducting laboratory
tests, analyzing data to identify disease trends and risk factors, and implementing control
measures. Effective surveillance targets key pathogens, considers sampling frequency and
laboratory capacity, and fosters collaboration between poultry producers, veterinarians, and
public health authorities to prevent disease outbreaks, protect animal health, and ensure safe
poultry products.
Surveillance strategies
Surveillance aimed at the identification of disease and infection and should cover all the
susceptible poultry species within the country, zone, or compartment. Regular surveillance,
including active and passive surveillance, should be an ongoing activity. Surveillance should
be composed of random and targeted approaches using clinical, virological, and serological
methods. Targeted surveillance, e.g., based on the increased likelihood of infection in
particular localities or species, may be an appropriate strategy for valuable clues on the
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disease. Special emphasis should be given on surveillance in live Bird Markets (LBMs),
wetlands, border areas, areas with high bird density, and areas inhabited by wild and migratory
birds to rule out any possibility of viruses/pathogens. Surveillance must include both poultry
and migratory birds.
Tools in the detection of infection in the population under surveillance may start with the
detection of clinical symptoms or changes in production indices or may rely more heavily on
the use of diagnostic tests. Passive surveillance systems can achieve a relatively high
surveillance system sensitivity cost-effectively, given a large proportion of the target
population (domestic poultry) is being observed frequently by producers for clinical symptoms
that can be marked in certain host species. In contrast, active surveillance strategies tend to
be substantially less sensitive in the early detection of disease incursions, as target population
coverage and temporal coverage are relatively limited. Nevertheless, in some circumstances,
passive surveillance may be inadequate as a stand-alone tool for early detection. In these
cases, supplementation with active surveillance approaches may be necessary to raise
sensitivity in the early detection of infection—for example, in wild birds where clinical signs or
mortality may be minimal and/or difficult to observe. Targeting such active surveillance
strategies based on risk, to augment passive surveillance for early detection of infection, is
most efficient and effective when based on detailed and objective risk data
States should follow the surveillance plan by taking an epicenter/designated area as an

epidemiological unit. As regards migratory/wild birds, the State Animal Husbandry Department
shall carryout the surveillance in cooperation with State Department of Health, Forest, Local
bodies, etc.
The surveillance plan shall consider the following:
• Population and density of poultry in each block, both in backyard and commercial
establishments, flyways of migratory-birds and wetlands.
• Live-bird markets including wet-markets.
• Existence of Wildlife Sanctuaries, National Parks, Water bodies, Wetlands visited by
migratory/wild birds.
• Interstate borders with the affected States.
The surveillance strategy may be divided into the following parts
• Surveillance should be carried out with multi-stage stratified cluster random sampling.
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• The State Animal Husbandry Departments should ensure the collection and
transportation of the samples in accordance with the sampling plan (in consultation
with laboratories).
Part I: Surveillance in the Absence of Outbreak
There is a need to define and identify the population at risk of infection with poultry diseases
in the first stage as per the bird population in the area.
Active Surveillance
Active surveillance is a specifically targeted investigation for evidence of poultry diseases in

at-risk populations based on detecting exposure to (antibody detection by serology) or the
presence of (virus or antigen detection through swabs). The veterinary authorities should visit
commercial poultry farms, backyard poultry, and live bird markets (LBMs) for clinical
examinations and collection of samples.
Wild birds and Domestic poultry in Buffer Zones
Dead bird surveillance should be carried out in all the identified wildlife sanctuaries, Water
bodies, and buffer zones around such areas, especially in case of abnormal mortality of wild
birds/ in poultry farms nearby. Fresh fecal samples of wild birds may be collected from their
nesting places and water bodies. Wildlife officials, conservation organizations, participatory
groups, and the public residing in the vicinity of water bodies are required to report dead birds
to State AHD for necessary action. After proper wrapping, whole carcasses should be
submitted for testing at NIHSAD/RDDLs. Migratory waterfowl may be sampled by collecting
fresh wet feces from areas used overnight by the birds in conjunction with wildlife officials.
An adequate number of serum samples from domestic poultry should be collected from buffer
zones (national park, lake, and watershed areas) and buffer zones of each water body during
the wild bird migration season (September to March). Border vigilance by the states bordering
the neighboring countries shall be stepped up. All the samples for testing should be sent with
the epidemiological inquiry form at the village level.
Passive Surveillance
All stakeholders like Health and Forest Authorities, local bodies, poultry producers,
entrepreneurs, associations, private veterinary practitioners, community organizations, wildlife
officials, NGO participatory groups, veterinary institutions, and village/community animal
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health workers are required to report to the nearest veterinary authority for any unusual
sickness or mortality in poultry and other species of birds.
• Collect swab samples from sick birds and collect dead birds from specific bird
populations at risk
o Swab samples shall be taken from the oro-pharynx, cloaca, or fresh wet feces.
o Tracheal samples are best for species with pathogens accumulating in the
respiratory tract (chickens).
o Cloacal swabs are best for species with pathogens accumulating in the
intestinal tract (ducks).
o Fresh, wet feces swabs are useful for birds that are not handled (wild birds) or
where it is uncommon to see sick or dead birds (live market and wild). Fresh
droppings from live bird market and wild water bird zone.
Dead birds: After proper wrapping, whole carcasses should be submitted for testing
as per the instructions for packaging for maintenance of cold chain and mode of
transport
Part II: Surveillance during the outbreak
The surveillance Team may include the District Veterinary Officer/Veterinarian, Veterinary
Technician, and Helper. The number of surveillance teams shall depend upon the number and
size of the outbreak and risk. Such teams shall be appointed by the Director, AH of the State,
and shall work in association with the control room. Such teams shall formulate surveillance
programs and roadmaps in their respective areas as per the surveillance plan.
• Visit all the commercial poultry and backyard poultry premises- clinical surveillance
followed by sampling of sick/dead birds daily.
• Visit live bird markets, poultry distributors, slaughter facilities, and other key
stakeholders very frequently if not daily.
• Conduct community dialogue and sample collection as indicated based on clinical
surveillance daily.
Laboratory Network
Indian commercial poultry has its poultry disease diagnostic laboratories. These disease
diagnostic laboratories have never been evaluated. Therefore, under this action plan, these
poultry disease diagnostic laboratories will be accredited for disease diagnosis provided they
follow the diagnostic methodologies/procedures as per the standards of WOAH Reference
65
Laboratories. These accredited laboratories will be duty-bound to abide by the guidelines of
the Government of India and they shall follow the extant provisions under The Prevention and
Control of Infectious and Contagious Diseases in Animals Act, 2009.
Reference laboratories for each of the poultry diseases will be designated and notified by the
Department of Animal Husbandry & Dairying.
Registration of Poultry Farm: The registration of poultry farms is necessary for monitoring
animal diseases. The Layer Farm should follow the guidelines as prescribed in the Prevention
of Cruelty to Animal (Egg Laying Hens) Rules, 2023. In the case of the other production
systems, they shall be registered by the State Government for which DAHD will develop the
necessary guidelines and mechanism(s) of notification.
Laboratory Information Network Management System (LINMS): The DAHD will develop a
LINMS wherein the private, government laboratories desirous of poultry disease diagnosis
may request for accreditation/approval from the DAHD. Necessary SOP for accreditation
process will be notified by DAHD under the action plan.
India has got the WOAH Reference Laboratory for Avian Influenza at ICAR-National Institute
of High Security Animal Disease (ICAR-NIHSAD), Bhopal. This laboratory has been
designated by the Department of Animal Husbandry and Dairying (DAHD) to confirm any case
of Avian Influenza in the country. To support the screening of samples and for preliminary
diagnosis; DAHD is supported by a Network of central and regional laboratories, viz., 05
Regional Disease Diagnostic Laboratories, viz., Northern Regional Disease Diagnostic
Laboratories (NRDDL) at Jalandhar in Punjab; North-Eastern Regional Disease Diagnostic
Laboratories NERDDL) at Guwahati; Eastern Regional Disease Diagnostic Laboratories
66
(ERDDL) at Kolkata; Southern (SRDDL) at Bengaluru; and Western Regional Disease
Diagnostic Laboratories (WRDDL) at Pune which is coordinated by Central Disease
Diagnostic Laboratories (CDDL) located at ICAR-IVRI, Izatnagar. The Central Disease
Diagnostic Laboratory (CDDL) at ICAR-IVRI, Izatnagar is also designated as a laboratory for
the preliminary screening of samples. Further, there are State Animal Disease Diagnostic
Laboratories that can conduct the initial diagnosis of the poultry diseases for which they are
being strengthened.
Approach to surveillance for early detection of infection
Domestic gallinaceous poultry production and pet birds
In domestic gallinaceous poultry production, typically all poultry are observed frequently by
the farmers/ producers, and clinical symptoms of disease and/ or changes in production
metrics are sensitive indicators of the presence of most poultry diseases. Similarly, pet and
zoo birds tend to be observed frequently over time. In these cases, passive surveillance and
syndromic surveillance can be highly sensitive tools for the early detection of disease
incursions in these groups.
Domestic waterfowl production
In domestic waterfowl (and possibly some other domestic avian species), population coverage
and temporal coverage of passive surveillance may be very good. However, subclinical
infection across an infected flock is more likely than in gallinaceous poultry. In this
circumstance, supplementation of passive surveillance with active surveillance approaches
may be appropriate to increase surveillance system sensitivity in the early detection of
infection. For avian influenza, a risk-based or sentinel approach may be taken in domestic
waterfowl populations, to maximize the cost-effectiveness of using active surveillance to
increase surveillance system sensitivity for early detection of infection (as compared to using
representative-sampling survey approaches). Production systems with relatively poor
biosecurity practices, or on high-risk wild bird migratory pathways, are also options for risk
targeting.
Live bird markets
In live bird markets, passive surveillance should be encouraged. As for domestic waterfowl
production, risk-based active surveillance can be used to improve the sensitivity of
surveillance for early detection of infection in live bird markets. The risk basis for sampling
67
would be targeting birds with clinical symptoms consistent with disease infection, and species
where subclinical infection is relatively likely to occur.
Wild birds
In wild birds, population coverage is inherently poor, so passive surveillance is a relatively

insensitive tool for early detection surveillance. Active surveillance strategies are similarly
limited in early detection surveillance sensitivity, given limited population coverage and limited
temporal surveillance coverage. In these cases, a targeted combination of approaches to
surveillance is most likely to maximize the sensitivity of detection of AI incursions in these
populations. Risk-based active surveillance strategies can target species of birds and
migratory pathways considered high risk for the spread of avian influenza, and particularly in
regions in close contact with poultry production (especially where production is free-range) for
the benefit of early warning to poultry production. Areas of congregation of wild birds
considered a substantial risk for AI could also be targeted (e.g. wetlands associated with
migratory bird populations).
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Chapter 4
Biosecurity Guidelines for Backyard and Commercial Poultry Farms
in India
Introduction
The poultry industry is one of the largest sectors of animal husbandry in India and most of the
farmers rely on poultry rearing for living. In addition, the poultry sector is also catering to the
nutritional needs of people, thus adding more weight to it. Hence, it`s quite important to ensure
a smooth management of the poultry sector in the country with minimal issues.
Coming are the days laden with novel infections and pathogens, and we are at the precipice
where we are bound to be stringent in every sense with respect to animal rearing and food
safety as zoonotic infections have been on the rise lately. Any disease or pathogen affects the
health of the flock and the overall performance of the farm and thus, adhering to proper
biosecurity guidelines would ensure minimal spread of the disease in the farm environment.
Preventing the introduction and dissemination of any pathogen into the poultry establishment
would form the cornerstone of formulating the biosecurity guidelines and these would be
further potentiated with the implementation of Good Agricultural Practices and Hazard
Analysis Critical Control Point (HACCP) systems. In addition, biosecurity measures would also
encompass the safety of meat and eggs for human consumption which is of immense
significance considering its public health impact.
An integrated biosecurity program is an application of logical and sound principles specific to

an enterprise, monitoring of disease status, and evaluation of ongoing poultry farm operations
on a continuous basis with an objective to contain the diseases at a bare minimum level.
Objectives
The biosecurity measures are designed considering in mind the following two objectives:
• Ensuring the good health status of the flocks and workers.

• Preventing the entry and spread of pathogens across farm establishments.
Components
Biosecurity guidelines need to be designed, under different components to ensure a proper

and comprehensive emphasis on all the crucial aspects of farm management. Across the
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divisions, several important aspects are to be taken care of, viz., species of bird being reared,
location and layout of the establishment, source of water and feed supply, disease prevalence
in the area, proximity to other farms, etc. Summing up these factors, biosecurity could be
• Structural biosecurity
• Operational biosecurity
• Managemental biosecurity
• Personnel biosecurity
Structural biosecurity
This concept encompasses all aspects related to facilities and equipment. Poultry farms
should be designed to facilitate biosecurity measures to limit access of unauthorized persons
to poultry production areas and to prevent access by other animals, both domestic and wild.
Location
• The farm should be away from any other poultry farms or water bodies that are populated
by wild birds.
• New farm should preferably be established:
o 500 m from the residential zone in order to avoid nuisance caused due to odor and
flies,
o 100 m from major water courses like river, lakes, canals and drinking water sources
like wells, summer storage tanks, to avoid contamination due to leakages/spillages,
o 100 m from National Highway (NH),
o 50 m from State Highway,
o 10-15 m from rural roads/internal roads/village pagdandis.
• The Poultry sheds should not be located within 10 m of farm boundary for cross ventilation
and odor dispersion
• The farm should be 1-2kms away from any commercial facility.
• A three-meter boundary of land around the building must be kept free of all vegetation to
prevent rodent and wildlife activity. Landscape - trees and shrubs should be selected to
minimize wild bird attraction, particularly in free-range operations.
• Distance between two sheds of the same type of birds should be 30 feet, whereas
between different types, 100 feet distance should be maintained.
• The hatchery should be located at least 500 ft away from other sheds.
• There should be a single window system for the sale of all poultry & poultry products with
a sale counter at the entrance gate.
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• Client and their vehicle should not be allowed in any case to visit farm or hatchery.
Perimeter
• The farm needs to have a clear-cut defined perimeter with fencing to avoid the entry of
any unwanted animal or personnel, largely curtailing the contact of external factors to the
birds.
• The perimeter should be fenced with a single access gate that will always be kept closed
and with signage like “no trespassing”, “Biosecure Area No Entry Unless Authorized” or
similar wording, should be displayed.
• The surrounding landscape of the farm should have fewer trees, no overhanging
branches, no shrubs or dense foliage so that the farm does not harbor any wild birds, wild
animals, rodents, or other vermin.
Orientation
• The farm orientation is crucial to ensure proper sunlight and ventilation to the flock and
the farm itself so that the disinfection and airflow are proper.
• If the farm is in the cold regions, the farm orientation should be such that, the long axis is
along the North-South direction.
• If the farm is in hot and humid regions, the farm orientation should be such that the long
axis is along the East-West direction.
• If the farm is in the zones with very high temperatures in summer months, the farm
orientation should be such that the long axis is along South – East direction.
Drainage
• The farm structure must ensure that there is proper drainage of the farm effluent and
other wastes so that there is no stagnation of water since such water bodies can serve
as a source of water to migratory waterfowl and shore birds.
Working principle
• In poultry farms, the establishments should be such that they must be designed to have
a single species/single production flock in a shed at any point of time.
• An “ALL–IN–ALL–OUT” principle should be employed such that the flock of a similar age
group should be taken in all at once and would be cleared all at once. This ensures
minimal infections in the flock.
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Shed pattern
• Starting from the entrance point of the farm – the first ones must be the brooder sheds,
followed by the grower shed and then the adults shed.
• Sheds should have a 1 to 2 m wide strip of concrete, gravel or neatly cut grass around
the perimeter, and this area should always be kept free of waste material, weeds,
garbage, or unused equipment. This will reduce potential hiding places for vermin or
nesting areas for wild birds and help reduce the presence of rodents around the houses.
• Each broiler requires one square foot of floor space while a layer requires two square feet
of floor space under a deep-litter system of rearing. So, the size of the house depends
on the number of birds to be reared.
• The height of the sides from the foundation to the roof line should be 6 to 7 feet (eaves
height) and at the center 10 to 12 feet. In the case of cage houses, the height is decided
by the type of cage arrangement (3-tier or 4-tier).
• The foundation of the house should be of concrete with 1 to 1.5 feet below the surface
and 1 to 1.5 feet above the ground level.
• The door must be open outside in case of deep-litter poultry houses. The size of the door
is preferably 6 x 2.5 feet. At the entry, a footbath should be constructed which will always
be filled with a disinfectant.
Operational biosecurity
This concept would include all those operations that are routinely performed on a farm on a
regular basis, such as personnel entry, vehicle entry and disinfection, pest control, waste
disposal, etc. These routine operations must be clearly described in the corresponding farm
operating procedures manual.
Prevention strategies
Several prevention strategies are mandatory in a farm establishment to ensure minimal spread
of infections to the flocks and to maintain a healthy environment.
• Bait stations:
o Bait stations are an effective means of vermin control in poultry farms.
o Over the course of time, at places of severe rodent or other vermin population,
the bait stations could be increased in number.
• Foot dips:
o Foot dips are to be located at the entrance of the farm so that the foot and
shoes of the personnel entering the farm would be thoroughly disinfected.
72
o 50% lime powder and 50% bleaching powder is an effective combination for
foot dips.
o Foot baths need to have a Sole scraping facility.
o Foot dips can accumulate organic matter, and disinfectants may lose
effectiveness due to sunlight, rainwater dilution, or contamination with mud or
organic material. Therefore, regular replenishment of the disinfectant is
necessary.
• Vehicle disinfection:
o Before loading any consignment regarding the poultry, the vehicle needs to be
thoroughly disinfected using any non-corrosive disinfectant.
o The vehicles are to be allowed into the farm only when needed.
• Farm waste management:

o Litter and manure must not be stockpiled in the production area. Litter and
manure must be stored in an appropriately designed storage area, off the
production area, with sufficient buffering zone from the bird sheds and
enclosures.
o Poultry manure should be left undisturbed for at least 90 days and then can be
used as fertilizer. High-risk farming practices such as use of contaminated
water and recycling of poultry waste without treatment should be stopped.
o Effluent generated from poultry processing of manure can also be disposed off
after treatment with acids such as hypochloric acid 2% or citric acid 0.2% or
with alkali treatment such as Sod. Hydroxide 2% or sodium carbonate
anhydrous 4%.
o Dead birds should be removed quickly and properly, to ensure no contact with
other birds. The best way to dispose of the dead birds is by rendering, burial or
incineration.
o The Bio-Medical Waste (Management & Handling) Rules, 2016 under
Environment (Protection) Act, 1986 should be referred for the appropriate
disposal of some biomedical wastes.
• Feed Safety:
o To avoid on-farm contamination of feed by rodents or wild birds, silos should
always be kept closed and any feed spillage should be cleaned up immediately.
73
o Hazardous microorganisms in feed can be inactivated by heating or irradiation,
while acidification of feed and use of controlled storage conditions may also be
of value.
o Feed should be pelleted to achieve pasteurization. This requires a temperature
of 82°C for at least 30 seconds to eliminate enteric bacteria. Maintaining Good
Manufacturing Practices and careful monitoring of the pelleting process will
reduce the probability of infection.
o Either feed plant personnel should be trained in the selection, application or
control of pesticides and rodenticides, or a licensed applicator should be used.
This may reduce the probability of accidental contamination of feed or
contravention of regulations.
o Analysis of feed for mycotoxins or other toxic components should be a part of
regular biosecurity measures.
Pest control
Pests are significant disease-carrying vectors. An effective pest control program is essential
to minimize disease transmission by pests which act as active and passive vectors. Minimizing
pest populations reduces the risk of disease transmission.
• Maintain premises to minimize pest infestations by properly storing feed, eliminating

water leaks, and practicing good housekeeping (e.g., removing debris, recycling old
tires and equipment, securing temporary garbage storage).
• Implement and document a targeted control program to eliminate or reduce rodent and
insect populations.
Rodent control
Rodent-proof buildings, repairing visible damage as it occurs.

• Ensure Rodent-proof feed storage.
• Clean up feed spills immediately.
• Employ regular baiting (follow label instructions) or trapping. Adapt your pest control
program to activity and seasons.
• Dispose of rodent carcasses immediately. Handle carcasses while wearing gloves and
dispose them of in a manner so that prevents access by pets or wildlife, such as by
incineration.
•
74
Insect control
• Eliminate or control fly-breeding areas such as wet manure, decaying birds, and low-
lying areas where stagnant water can accumulate, especially in warm weather.
• Remove mortalities from the barn/pasture at least once a day and dispose them of in
a manner acceptable under the Environmental Management Act, Health Act, and
Agriculture Waste Control Regulation, etc.
• Apply insecticides as necessary (misting, residual sprays, at clean out).
• If spraying for flies, regularly clean up all dead flies.
Wild bird control

• Screen all barn openings.
• Avoid using wild bird feeders.
• Use trees sparingly for dust control on the barn's exhaust side and remove
unnecessary trees and shrubs near the barns.
• A routine pest control program designed and supervised by a pest control specialist is
highly recommended over a self-directed approach. Professionals bring an
understanding of pest biology, resulting in more effective control.
• To prevent disease transmission from wild birds to free-range flocks, use netting over
the enclosure as a barrier. This measure is highly recommended and maintains the
free-range status while keeping wild birds out.
Record Maintenance
• On an individual flock basis, the records are to be maintained up to date. This ensures
a thorough traceability of any complication that arises in the flock.
• Records pertaining to the following aspects must be maintained
• Flock health
• Diseases in the flock
• Production records
• Medications
• Vaccinations
• Mortality
• Bird movement in and out of the farm
• Visitor logbook
Managemental biosecurity
75
The management of the farm involves a holistic approach in managing all the operations,
personnel, and production of the farm regularly. This involves events like preparing a farm for
bird delivery, managing the birds for a period, cleaning and disinfecting the farm, post-
clearance management of the farm.
Preparing the farm for flocks
• The purchase of the flock should be made from a good breeder flock ensuring that
they are free from any vertically transmitted infectious diseases.
• Before stocking a farm, the entire farm must be thoroughly cleaned, disinfected and
the disinfection should be further tested to verify the cleaning. If the farm had a
previous flock that was known to be infected with any pathogen, in addition to regular
disinfection verification, microbiological monitoring of the disinfection procedures is
recommended.
• The new birds are not immediately introduced into the farm if there is an already
present flock of birds. Instead, they are kept separated from the old flock for at least
21 days and observed for any disease.
• If the poultry farm has any infectious disease outbreak, then the new flock is not
introduced immediately. The house must be kept empty for at least 3 weeks after
clearance of the old flock.
• It should be ensured that the shed houses birds of the same age group, even if the
farm consists of birds of different age groups.
Cleaning and Sanitation
House cleaning is the most arduous phase of biosecurity and can be divided in two types
• Complete / Terminal cleaning:

o Done after complete removal of the birds.
o Removal must include the entire flock, manure, feathers, droppings.
o Post removal, the sheds should be initially fumigated.
o After fumigation, the sheds have to be disinfected.
o Post disinfection, the sheds must be kept empty for at least 10 days.
• Partial/Concurrent cleaning:
o Done while birds remain in the house.
o The sweeping should be from top to bottom.
76
o The waterers, feeders, jugs, containers and other farm equipment must be
regularly disinfected with 5% Sodium hypochlorite.
o In addition to iodophores, other disinfectants that could be used are SDS,
formalin, and Iodine compounds.
Note: We should avoid carcinogenic substances in poultry farm operation.
Disinfection
• The clothes of the farm workers should be washed with laundry detergent. 2% dilute
sodium hypochlorite is effective in this regard.
• The floors, walls, ceilings, and equipment can be disinfected with Quaternary
Ammonium Compounds (QAC).
• The floors in particular can be disinfected with 2% Cresolic acid or 2% synthetic
phenols. Use a minimum of 0.4 l / m2 floor space. Disinfect from the end to the front of
the poultry house, and from the ceiling to the floor. Do not work with a water pressure
of more than 10 to 12 bar
• Manure or farm effluent cannot be directly disposed of without treatment. It should be
treated with 2% hypochloric acid or 0.2% Citric acid.
Cleaning and disinfection regimen
Cleaning and disinfection of the farm is a perennial procedure that must be performed in a
defined manner. Firstly, the farm must be completely cleared off all the organic matter and
this clearance is a pre-requisite to farm disinfection.
• Equipment - that could be dismantled - should be completely removed, disinfected,

and put in for drying.
• If hens are kept in an alternative housing systems, like free range systems, treat the
floor with lime at least once a year.
• The drinking water circuit has to be completely flushed, refilled with detergent and
descaling solutions. The circuit should be cleaned by manual cleaning methods as well
as by vacuuming.
• The cleaning should be done in a logical sequence – Ceilings first, followed by walls
and then the floor. Similarly, the cleaning should be from inside to outside.
• The entire farm should be sprayed with a disinfectant to eliminate any formation of
biofilms.
• Finally, fumigation of the farm must be done and left closed and empty for a minimum
of 10 days.
77
Disposal of dead birds and other bio/ biomedical wastes
• Dead birds should be removed quickly and properly, to ensure no contact with other
birds which will be helpful in removing the source of infected foci to poultry as well as
to handlers.
• The best way to dispose of the dead birds is by rendering, burial, or incineration.
• Other wastes generated are Litter waste - shed cleanout with poultry manure and
bedding materials, hatchery waste, biomass wastes like fallen tree leaves, twigs, etc.,
biomedical wastes like syringe, needle, swabs, empty vials, and other used chemical
containers.
• Incineration, rendering, boiling, fermentation, composting, enzyme or sodium
hydroxide treatment, autoclaving are some of the methods of destruction which may
be followed as per the guidelines for proper disposal of the farm waste.
• The Bio-Medical Waste (Management & Handling) Rules, 1998 under Environment
(Protection) Act, 1986 should be referred for appropriate disposal of some biomedical
wastes.
Medication/vaccination of birds
The birds should be provided requisite medicines and essential vaccines regularly, which can
boost immunity such as vitamins, trace minerals and proteins. Deficiency of these will not only
lead to decreased production but there will be more chances of getting infection in flock with
low level of immunity. Anti-stress medication during hot weather and other stressed conditions
may be given.
Flock profiling
• Analysis of feed for mycotoxins or other toxic components should be a part of regular
biosecurity measures.
• Environmental monitoring of Salmonella in poultry house should also be carried out

regularly.
• Isolation, identification and antibiogram of pathogenic organisms should be a part of

biosecurity measures.
• Stress reducing measures should be part of regular biosecurity measures.
• Controlling environmental temperature is most important for removing summer stress.
78
• Person working with poultry operation should be educated about the disease, its
transmission and prevention measures.
Documentation and Record keeping (indicative list)
• Outlay/map of the entire farm with clear demarcation of clean and dirty areas with
unidirectional approach (one-way route) roads/ access points-roads and gates/ clean-
dirty water demarcation, etc. - ail colour codes should be displayed in office with
Critical Control Points clearly marked and should be kept up to date.
• Personnel roster- shed-wise/ entry/exit time; duty /job chart-cleaning of shed, feeding
pans/ watering channels, cage cleaning, litter turning, etc.
• Visitor's entry log
• Vehicle entry log
• Disinfectant spray schedule for houses; wheel/foot-dip change roster
• Trace-in and Trace-out for both consignments (chicks/Hatching Eggs, etc.) arrivals and
transfers, respectively.
• Log for feed/ quipment arrival and allocation shed-wise, in hatchery/disinfection of

equipment.
• Health check-up and cleanliness check-up schedules for personnel
• Vaccination and health register/record
• Schedule for vector/ rodent control program & monitoring
• Record of dead bird disposal, hatchery waste disposal, manure disposal
• Water sanitization schedule/water testing frequency
• Microbial load testing frequency in different areas - schedule of testing for ensuring
freedom status from Salmonella, Coli, and Clostridium species.
• Salmonella testing schedule
• Shed cleaning/disinfection/fumigation schedule.
• Record of separate sheds having single age group stocks, etc.
79
• Feed Testing schedule
Personnel biosecurity
The biosecurity measures related to the personnel are crucial as these personnel are
involved in every activity related to the management and production of the poultry farm.
• Farm personnel
o These workers are to be dedicated to each flock separately.
o Workers working in one type of shed or the infected ones should not be allowed
to work in the normal uninfected sheds.
o These personnel should avoid contact with other pet birds or pigs before
entering the farm.
• Company/service personnel
o Protective clothing and footwear are mandatory when entering the farm
premises.
o The visits must be in a defined manner: They must visit the sheds with the
younger flock first, followed by the older ones.
• Repair/maintenance personnel
o If these repair personnel have already visited a farm the same day or has an
association with pets or pet birds the same day, the visit should be avoided.
o Compared to the earlier company personnel, these repair personnel are
involved in handling of the farm equipment, entering the sheds and are more
closely associated with the flock, thus are a higher risk to the farm.
o Their tools are to be thoroughly disinfected after each farm visit and are to be
again cleaned thoroughly prior to putting them to use in a new farm.
• Contractors/suppliers/visitors
o Any other visitors or neighbors or suppliers or others must have a proper need
to enter the farm premises.
o Their visit must be approved by the farm manager.
o Signing the visitor book is mandatory for these personnel.
Levels of biosecurity
Biosecurity guidelines can be divided into two levels for convenience in farm management.
80
• Level 1: Routine biosecurity procedures
• Level 2: High-risk biosecurity procedures
81
Level 1:
• These are to be followed on a daily basis.

• These procedures ensure that pathogens would not be carried into poultry production
areas to a major extent.
• These also reduce the risk of transmission of any infection.
• These procedures can be considered as minimum requirements in a poultry farm.
The procedures under level 1 are:
• Documentation
• Perimeter establishment and fencing
• Proper drainage of the farm waste and effluent
• Establishment of proper baiting program across the farm
• Ensuring potable water quality – Standards if not met, are to be subjected to treatment
procedures like Chlorination or UV.
• Clearing and managing the surrounding landscape with barely minimal foliage
• Measures to curtail vermin access to the farm
• Disease control and monitoring plan.
In case of any emergencies, like an unusual increase in mortality or drop in production, a

disease alert should be raised by the farm manager.
In case of such an emergency, Level – 2 biosecurity guidelines come into play.
Level – 2
The owner needs to establish clear guidelines on such preparedness.
• The concerned authorities must be alerted.

• All the facilities should be locked, with minimal movement.
• No flock movement in and out of the farm.
• No visitors are allowed except emergency personnel like service personnel.
• No routine visits allowed.
• Until the disease status is clarified, no birds or litter can be moved in or out of the farm.
• Disease control and monitoring plan.
82
Appendix- 1:Poultry Farm Audit Checklist (Based on WOAH standards)
Section Criteria Check (Yes/No) Comments
The farm is located in a

suitably isolated
geographical area, away
from other poultry/livestock
establishments, wild bird
concentrations, and major
roads.
The farm has adequate

drainage and run-off/waste
water does not discharge
into waterfowl habitats.
Poultry houses and other

Location and buildings are designed and
Construction constructed with smooth,
impervious materials to
facilitate cleaning and
disinfection.
The area immediately

surrounding the poultry
houses is paved with
concrete or other impervious
material.
The farm is surrounded by a

security fence to prevent
entry of unwanted animals
and people.
83
A sign indicating restricted
entry is posted at the farm
entrance.
Poultry houses are designed

to house a single species
and age group using the "all-
in all-out" principle.
Poultry houses, feed

storage, and other buildings
are constructed to prevent
entry of wild birds, rodents,
and arthropods.
Where feasible, poultry

house floors are constructed
of concrete or other
impervious materials.
Feed is delivered into the

farm from outside the
security fence.
The farm has a written

biosecurity plan, and
personnel are trained in
Farm
relevant biosecurity
Operations
practices.
There is good
communication between
personnel in the poultry
84
production chain to minimize
introduction and spread of
infectious agents.
Traceability is possible at all

levels of the poultry
production chain.
Records are maintained on

an individual flock basis,
including data on bird health,
production, medications,
vaccination, mortality, and
surveillance.
Poultry health monitoring is

under the supervision of a
veterinarian.
Antimicrobial agents are

used responsibly in
accordance with relevant
guidelines.
The farm is free from

unwanted vegetation and
debris that could attract or
harbor pests.
Procedures are in place to

prevent entry of wild birds
and control vermin.
Access to the farm is

controlled, and all personnel
85
and visitors follow the
established biosecurity
procedures.
Personnel and visitors do

not have had recent contact
with other poultry, poultry
waste, or poultry processing
plants.
Vehicles entering the farm

are cleaned and disinfected
according to the biosecurity
plan.
The "all-in-all-out" single age

group principle is used, or
each flock is managed as a
separate epidemiological
unit.
Personnel and visitors

entering poultry houses
Poultry House
Management
wash/sanitize hands and

change/disinfect footwear.
Equipment is cleaned and

sanitized before being taken
into poultry houses.
86
No animals other than the
resident poultry species and
age are permitted in poultry
houses or other buildings.
Drinking water is potable,

and the water delivery
system is cleaned and
disinfected between flocks.
Birds are obtained from

registered breeder flocks
and hatcheries free from
vertically transmitted
infectious agents.
Feed is heat-treated or
treated with bactericidal/
bacteriostatic agents and
stored to prevent access by
wild birds and rodents.
Litter is kept dry and in good

condition.
Dead birds are removed

from poultry houses daily
and disposed of safely.
Personnel involved in bird

catching are trained in
handling and biosecurity.
Poultry are transported in

well-ventilated containers of
87
approved box dimensions to
minimize stress and
exposure to extreme
temperatures.
Transport containers are

cleaned and disinfected or
disposed of safely between
uses.
After depopulation, poultry

houses are thoroughly
cleaned, disinfected, and
tested to verify
effectiveness.
For free-range poultry;

feeders, feed, and other
attractants are kept indoors,
and poultry are not allowed
access to sources of
contamination.
Refer to the Codex

Layer-Specific
Alimentarius Code of
Measures
Hygienic Practice for Eggs
and Egg Products
(CAC/RCP 15-1976).
Nest box litter and liners are

kept clean.
88
Hatching eggs are collected
frequently, at least daily, and
placed in clean, disinfected
packaging.
Dirty, cracked, broken, or

leaking eggs are collected
separately and not used as
hatching eggs.
Breeder-
Hatching eggs are cleaned
Specific
and sanitized as soon as
Measures
possible after collection.
Hatching eggs or their

packaging are marked for
traceability.
Hatching eggs are stored in

a dedicated, well-ventilated,
and regularly disinfected
room.
Dead-in-shell embryos are

removed and disposed of
safely.
Hatchery- Hatchery waste, garbage,

Specific and discarded equipment
Measures are contained and removed
promptly.
Hatchery equipment, tables,

and surfaces are promptly
89
cleaned and disinfected after
use.
Egg handlers and day-old

bird handlers wash hands
before work and between
batches.
Hatching eggs and day-old

birds from different breeder
flocks are identifiable during
incubation, hatching, sorting,
and transportation.
Day-old birds are delivered

to farms in new or clean,
disinfected containers.
90
Disease Outbreak Response
This section describes the processes and protocols to be utilized by the State Animal
Husbandry Departments (AHDs) during a poultry disease outbreak. These processes and
protocols are designed to enable execution of the responsibilities of the AHD and to integrate
Central, State, local and industry efforts into an effective and coordinated approach to a disease
outbreak in poultry.
Responding to a disease outbreak in poultry will involve the actions described below.
• Disease Detection - Investigate suspected animal disease and initiate preliminary

poultry movement restrictions
• Disease Control - Quarantine infected and exposed premises and control movement
of poultry and poultry products
• Surveillance - Develop surveillance plan based on epidemiological investigation
• Epidemiology - Determine the extent of the outbreak and/or confirm non-infected

premises
• Stabilization - Control, prevent spread of and, as possible, eradicate disease
• Business Continuity - Protect economic viability and continuity of operations
• Recovery - Return affected premises to normal business operations
Table-1: Timeline for Disease Control Response Activities provides a timeline for each action
phase.
91
Table 1. Timeline for Disease Control Response Activities
12 hours 24 Hours 48 Hours 24 Hours 72 Hours
Disease Outbreak Response Actions Within a Within a Within a Within Within

confirmed confirmed confirmed determination of determination of
positive case positive case positive case need need
Disease Control -- Quarantine Infected and Exposed Premises and Control Movement of Animals
Mobilize livestock disease-related incident
command personal.
Establish initial control areas.
Enhance biosecurity procedures on infected,

contact and susceptible premises.
Establish quarantine zones for infected and
contacted premises, +/- broader movement
restrictions.
Surveillance -- Develop Surveillance Plan Based on Epidemiological Investigation

Develop a surveillance plan and implement
existing diagnostic support.
Epidemiology -- Determine the Extent of the Outbreak and/or Confirmed Non-Infected Status
Implement epidemiological surveillance and
diagnostic support plan in at-risk species and
notify other states of trace-outs.
Stabilization -- Control, Prevent Spread of, and, as Possible, Eradicate Disease
Begin treatment, inoculation, and /or depopulation
of animals at identified site.
Begin decontamination and disposal procedures
at identified site.
Business Continuity -- Protect Economic Viability and Continuity of Operations
92
Implement procedures for the creation of bio-
secure transportation corridors to market or other
key facilities for disease – free goods and animals.
Develop procedures for managing contaminated
products.
Establish storage and/or disposal areas for
animals or products stopped in transit.
Glossary
POULTRY
means all birds reared or kept in captivity for the production of any commercial animal products or for breeding for
this purpose, fighting cocks used for any purpose, and all birds used for restocking supplies of game or for breeding
for this purpose, until they are released from captivity.
Birds that are kept in a single household, the products of which are used within the same household exclusively,
are not considered poultry, provided that they have no direct or indirect contact with poultry or poultry facilities.
Birds that are kept in captivity for other reasons, including those that are kept for shows, racing, exhibitions,
zoological collections and competitions, and for breeding or selling for these purposes, as well as pet birds, are not
considered poultry, provided that they have no direct or indirect contact with poultry or poultry facilities.
SURVEILLANCE
means the systematic ongoing collection, collation, and analysis of information related to animal health and the
timely dissemination of information so that action can be taken
93
Stakeholders Consultation
▪ …
▪ …
94
List of Contributors
1. …..
2. …..
95

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Poultry Sector in India ...................................................................................................... 4

Growth and Production Systems ...................................................................................... 4

Historical Data .................................................................................................................. 5

Economic Impact and Exports .......................................................................................... 5

Importance of the Poultry Sector ...................................................................................... 5

Scope of Poultry Disease Action Plan ............................................................................... 7

Regulatory Framework ..................................................................................................... 8

Binding of the Action Plan ................................................................................................. 9

Veterinary Services in India .............................................................................................. 9

Diseases Covered ............................................................................................................ 9

Avian Influenza ............................................................................................................... 11

Avian Infectious Bronchitis.............................................................................................. 17

Infectious Laryngotracheitis ............................................................................................ 20

Avian Chlamydiosis ........................................................................................................ 25

Duck Viral Hepatitis ……………………………………………………………………………34

Fowl Pox ........................................................................................................................ 40

Infectious Bursal Disease (Gumboro disease) ................................................................ 47

Ranikhet Disease (New Castle Disease)……………………………………………………...50

Pullorum Disease and Fowl Typhoid .............................................................................. 55

Pullorum disease ............................................................................................................ 56

Surveillance and Laboratory Network ............................................................................. 61

Appendix- 1:Poultry Farm Audit Checklist (Based on WOAH standards)............................. 83

Disease Outbreak Response .............................................................................................. 91

Stakeholders Consultation .................................................................................................. 94

List of Contributors .............................................................................................................. 95

The poultry industry is a cornerstone of our agricultural economy, contributing significantly to

Poultry Sector in India

Growth and Production Systems

Economic Impact and Exports

Importance of the Poultry Sector

Economic Impact - Poultry farming significantly contributes to regional

Public Health - Poultry diseases, particularly zoonotic like avian influenza,

Animal Welfare - Effective disease management promotes the health and

Disease Surveillance and Monitoring

• Biosecurity Protocols: Develop and enforce biosecurity protocols to prevent the

Vaccination and Treatment Protocols

• Standardized Vaccination Schedules: Create standardized vaccination schedules

Outbreak Response and Management

• Rapid Response Procedures: Develop clear procedures for rapid response to

• Regulatory Framework: Establish a robust regulatory framework to support disease

Binding of the Action Plan

Veterinary Services in India

• Avian Influenza- High pathogenic, Low Pathogenic

High Pathogenic Avian Influenza

Low Pathogenic Avian Influenza

Clinical signs & Postmortem lesions

Host Clinical Signs Incubation Period, Other Notes

Identification of AIVs is based on the following:

• Influenza A virus confirmation by agar gel immunodiffusion

• Virus subtype can be confirmed in hemagglutination and neuraminidase inhibition

• Bacterial diseases such as mycoplasma, fowl cholera, and infectious coryza.

Action to be taken in case of outbreak.

Prevention and Control

Form Clinical Signs Incubation Other Notes

Action to be taken in case of outbreak.

Prevention and Control

3. have not been vaccinated against avian infectious bronchitis; or

Infectious laryngotracheitis (ILT) is an acute, highly contagious, herpesvirus infection of

Confirmed case: A probable case laboratory tested positive by ELISA or PCR.