Basic Structures: Sets,

Functions,/Sequences, Sums,
and Matrices
Chapter 2
 Chapter Summary
Sets
• The Language of Sets
• Set Operations
• Set Identities
Functions
• Types of Functions
• Operations on Functions
• Computability
Sequences and Summations
• Types of Sequences
• Summation Formulae
Set Cardinality
• Countable Sets
Matrices
• Matrix Arithmetic
 Sets
載入中⋯
Section 2.1
 Section Summary 1

Definition of sets
Describing Sets
• Roster Method
• Set-Builder Notation
Some Important Sets in Mathematics
Empty Set and Universal Set
Subsets and Set Equality
Cardinality of Sets
Tuples
Cartesian Product
 Introduction
Sets are one of the basic building blocks for the types of
objects considered in discrete mathematics.
• Important for counting.

• Programming languages have set operations.

載入中⋯
Set theory is an important branch of mathematics.
• Many different systems of axioms have been used to develop
set theory.

• Here we are not concerned with a formal set of axioms for set
theory. Instead, we will use what is called naïve set theory.
 Sets
A set is an unordered collection of objects.
• the students in this class
• the chairs in this room
The objects in a set are called the elements, or
members of the set. A set is said to contain its
elements.
The notation a ∈ A denotes that a is an element
of the set A.
If a is not a member of A, write a ∉ A
 Describing a Set: Roster Method
S = {a,b,c,d}
Order not important
S = {a,b,c,d} = {b,c,a,d}
Each distinct object is either a member or not; listing
more than once does not change the set.
S = {a,b,c,d} = {a,b,c,b,c,d}
Elipses (…) may be used to describe a set without listing
all of the members when the pattern is clear.
S = {a,b,c,d, ……,z }
 Roster Method
Set of all vowels in the English alphabet:
V = {a,e,i,o,u}
Set of all odd positive integers less than 10:
O = {1,3,5,7,9}
Set of all positive integers less than 100:
S = {1,2,3,……..,99}
Set of all integers less than 0:
S = {…., -3,-2,-1}
 Some Important Sets
N = natural numbers = {0,1,2,3….}
Z = integers = {…,-3,-2,-1,0,1,2,3,…}
Z⁺ = positive integers = {1,2,3,…..}
R = set of real numbers
R+ = set of positive real numbers
C = set of complex numbers.
Q = set of rational numbers
 Set-Builder Notation
Specify the property or properties that all members must
satisfy:
S = {x | x is a positive integer less than 100}
O = {x | x is an odd positive integer less than 10}
O = {x ∈ Z⁺ | x is odd and x < 10}
A predicate may be used:
S = {x | P(x)}
Example: S = {x | Prime(x)}
Positive rational numbers:
Q+ = {x ∈ R | x = p/q, for some positive integers p,q}
Interval Notation

載入中⋯
closed interval [a,b]
open interval (a,b)
 Universal Set and Empty Set
The universal set U is the set containing everything
currently under consideration.
• Sometimes implicit Venn Diagram
• Sometimes explicitly stated.

• Contents depend on the context.

The empty set is the set with no

elements. Symbolized ∅, but {} also used.

John Venn (1834-

1923)
Cambridge, UK
 Russell’s Paradox
Let S be the set of all sets which are not members of
themselves. A paradox results from trying to answer the
question “Is S a member of itself?”
Related Paradox:
• Henry is a barber who shaves all people who do not shave
themselves. A paradox results from trying to answer the
question “Does Henry shave himself?”

Bertrand Russell (1872-

1970)
Cambridge, UK
Nobel Prize Winner
 Some things to remember
Sets can be elements of sets.
{{1,2,3},a, {b,c}}
{N,Z,Q,R}
The empty set is different from a set containing
the empty set.
∅ ≠{∅}
 Set Equality
Definition: Two sets are equal if and only if they
have the same elements.
• Therefore if A and B are sets, then A and B are equal
if and only if
• We write A = B if A and B are equal sets.

{1,3,5} = {3, 5, 1}
{1,5,5,5,3,3,1} = {1,3,5}
 Subsets
Definition: The set A is a subset of B, if and
only if every element of A is also an element of
B.
• The notation A ⊆ B is used to indicate that A is a
subset of the set B.
is true.
1. • A ⊆ BBecause
holdsaif∈and
∅ isonly if false, ∅ ⊆ S ,for every set S.
always

2. Because a ∈ S a ∈ S, S ⊆ S, for every set S.

 Showing a Set is or is not a Subset of
Another Set
Showing that A is a Subset of B: To show that A ⊆ B,
show that if x belongs to A, then x also belongs to B.
Showing that A is not a Subset of B: To show that A is
not a subset of B, A ⊈ B, find an element x ∈ A with x ∉
B. (Such an x is a counterexample to the claim that x ∈ A
implies x ∈ B.)
Examples:
1. The set of all computer science majors at your school is a
subset of all students at your school.
2. The set of integers with squares less than 100 is not a
subset of the set of nonnegative integers.
 Another look at Equality of Sets
Recall that two sets A and B are equal, denoted
by A = B, iff

Using logical equivalences we have that A = B iff

This is equivalent to
A ⊆ B and B⊆A
 Proper Subsets
Definition: If A ⊆ B, but A ≠B, then we say A is
a proper subset of B, denoted by A ⊂ B. If A ⊂ B,
then

is true.
Venn Diagram
 Set Cardinality
Definition: If there are exactly n distinct elements in S
where n is a nonnegative integer, we say that S is finite.
Otherwise it is infinite.
Definition: The cardinality of a finite set A, denoted by
|A|, is the number of (distinct) elements of A.
Examples:
1. |ø| = 0
2. Let S be the letters of the English alphabet. Then |S| = 26
3. |{1,2,3}| = 3
4. |{ø}| = 1
5. The set of integers is infinite.
 Power Sets
Definition: The set of all subsets of a set A,
denoted P(A), is called the power set of A.
Example: If A = {a,b} then
P(A) = {ø, {a},{b},{a,b}}
If a set has n elements, then the cardinality of the
power set is 2ⁿ. (In Chapters 5 and 6, we will
discuss different ways to show this.)
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Power Set of theset o , 1 ,

2
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P ({0 , " n }) : {φ {} ①
, , } ,}, { } ,
{ 啊 {
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口
 Tuples
The ordered n-tuple (a1,a2,…..,an) is the ordered
collection that has a1 as its first element and a2
as its second element and so on until an as its last
element.
Two n-tuples are equal if and only if their
corresponding elements are equal.
2-tuples are called ordered pairs.
The ordered pairs (a,b) and (c,d) are equal if and
only if a = c and b = d.
 Cartesian Product 1
René Descartes
(1596-1650)
Definition: The Cartesian Product of two
sets A and B, denoted by A × B is the set of
ordered pairs (a,b) where a ∈ A and b ∈ B .

Example:
A = {a,b} B = {1,2,3}
A × B = {(a,1),(a,2),(a,3), (b,1),(b,2),(b,3)}
Definition: A subset R of the Cartesian product A × B is
called a relation from the set A to the set B. (Relations
will be covered in depth in Chapter 9.)
 Cartesian Product 2

Definition: The cartesian products of the sets

A1,A2,……,An, denoted by A1 × A2 × …… × An , is
the set of ordered n-tuples (a1,a2,……,an) where ai
belongs to Ai for i = 1, … n.

Example: What is A × B × C where A = {0,1}, B =

{1,2} and C = {0,1,2}
Solution: A × B × C = {(0,1,0), (0,1,1), (0,1,2),(0,2,0),
(0,2,1), (0,2,2),(1,1,0), (1,1,1), (1,1,2), (1,2,0), (1,2,1),
(1,2,2)}
 Truth Sets of Quantifiers
Given a predicate P and a domain D, we define
the truth set of P to be the set of elements in D
for which P(x) is true. The truth set of P(x) is
denoted by

Example: The truth set of P(x) where the

domain is the integers and P(x) is “|x| = 1” is the
set {-1,1}
Set Operations
Section 2.2
 Section Summary 2

Set Operations
• Union
• Intersection
• Complementation
• Difference
More on Set Cardinality
Set Identities
Proving Identities
Membership Tables
 Boolean Algebra
Propositional calculus and set theory are both
instances of an algebraic system called a Boolean
Algebra. This is discussed in Chapter 12.
The operators in set theory are analogous to the
corresponding operator in propositional calculus.
As always there must be a universal set U. All
sets are assumed to be subsets of U.
 Union
Definition: Let A and B be sets. The union of the
sets A and B, denoted by A ∪ B, is the set:

載入中⋯
Example: What is {1,2,3} ∪ {3, 4, 5}?
Solution: {1,2,3,4,5} Venn Diagram for A ∪ B
 Intersection
Definition: The intersection of sets A and B, denoted by
A ∩ B, is

Note if the intersection is empty, then A and B are said to be

disjoint.
Example: What is? {1,2,3} ∩ {3,4,5} ?
Solution: {3} Venn Diagram for A ∩B
Example:What is?
{1,2,3} ∩ {4,5,6} ?
Solution: ∅
 Complement
Definition: If A is a set, then the complement of the A
(with respect to U), denoted by Ā is the set U - A

(The complement of A is sometimes denoted by Ac .)

Example: If U is the positive integers less than 100,
what is the complement of
Venn Diagram for Complement
 Difference
Definition: Let A and B be sets. The difference
of A and B, denoted by A – B, is the set
containing the elements of A that are not in B.
The difference of A and B is also called the
complement of B with respect to A.

Venn Diagram for A −

B
 The Cardinality of the Union of Two
Sets
Inclusion-Exclusion
|A ∪ B| = |A| + | B| − |A ∩ B|
Example: Let A be the math majors in your class and B be the CS
majors. To count the number of students who are either math majors
or CS majors, add the number of math majors and the number of CS
majors, and subtract the number of joint CS/math majors.
We will return to this principle in Chapter 6 and Chapter 8 where
we will derive a formula for the cardinality of the union of n sets,
where n is a positive integer.

Venn Diagram for A, B, A ∩ B, A ∪ B

Review Questions
 Symmetric Difference (optional)
Definition: The symmetric difference of A and
B, denoted by is the set

Example:
U = {0,1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9,10}
A = {1,2,3,4,5} B ={4,5,6,7,8}
What is
Solution:
{1,2,3,6,7,8} Venn Diagram
 Set Identities 1

Identity laws

Domination laws

Idempotent laws

Complementation law
 Set Identities 2

Commutative laws

Associative laws

Distributive laws
 Set Identities 3

De Morgan’s laws

Absorption laws

Complement laws
 Proving Set Identities
Different ways to prove set identities:
1. Prove that each set (side of the identity) is a
subset of the other.
2. Use set builder notation and propositional logic.
3. Membership Tables: Verify that elements in the
same combination of sets always either belong or
do not belong to the same side of the identity. Use
1 to indicate it is in the set and a 0 to indicate that it
is not
 Proof of Second De Morgan Law 1

Example: Prove that

Solution: We prove this identity by showing that:
 Proof of Second De Morgan Law 2

These steps show that:

 Proof of Second De Morgan Law 3

These steps show that:

Set-Builder Notation: Second De
Morgan Law
 Membership Table
Example: Construct a membership table to show that the
distributive law holds.

Solution: A B C
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
1 1 0 0 1 1 1 1
1 0 1 0 1 1 1 1
1 0 0 0 1 1 1 1
0 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
0 1 0 0 0 1 0 0
0 0 1 0 0 0 1 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Conversion Between Binary, Octal, and
Hexadecimal Expansions
Let A1, A2 ,…, An be an indexed collection of sets.
We define:

These are well defined, since union and intersection are

associative.
For i = 1,2,…, let Ai = {i, i + 1, i + 2, ….}. Then,
Functions
Section 2.3
 Section Summary 3

Definition of a Function.
• Domain, Codomain
• Image, Preimage
Injection, Surjection, Bijection
Inverse Function
Function Composition
Graphing Functions
Floor, Ceiling, Factorial
Partial Functions (optional)
 Functions 1

Definition: Let A and B be nonempty sets. A function

f from A to B, denoted f: A B is an assignment of
each element of A to exactly one element of B. We
write f(a) = b if b is the unique element of B
assigned by the function f to the element a of A.
• Functions are sometimes
called mappings
or transformations.
 Functions 2

A function f: A B can also be defined as a subset of

A×B (a relation). This subset is restricted to be a relation
where no two elements of the relation have the same first
element.
Specifically, a function f from A to B contains one, and
only one ordered pair (a, b) for every element a∈ A.

and
 Functions 3

Given a function f: A B:
• We say f maps A to B or f is a mapping from A to B.
• A is called the domain of f.
• B is called the codomain of f.
• If f(a) = b,
• then b is called the image of a under f.
• a is called the preimage of b.
• The range of f is the set of all images of points in A under f. We
denote it by f(A).
• Two functions are equal when they have the same domain, the same
codomain and map each element of the domain to the same element
of the codomain.
Jump to long description
 Representing Functions
Functions may be specified in different ways:
• An explicit statement of the assignment. Students
and grades example.
• A formula.

• A computer program.
• A Java program that when given an integer n, produces the
nth Fibonacci Number (covered in the next section and
also in Chapter 5).
 Questions
f(a) = ? z
The image of d is z
?
The domain of f is A
?
The codomain of f is B
?
The preimage of y is b
?
f(A) = {y,z
? }
The preimage(s) of z is (are) ? {a,c,d
}
 Question on Functions and Sets
If and S is a subset of A, then

f {a,b,c,} is {y,z
? }
f {c,d} is {z
? }
 Injections
Definition: A function f is said to be one-to-one ,
or injective, if and only if f(a) = f(b) implies that
a = b for all a and b in the domain of f. A
function is said to be an injection if it is one-to-
one.
 Surjections
Definition: A function f from A to B is called
onto or surjective, if and only if for every
element
there is an element with
A function f is called a surjection if it is onto.
 Bijections
Definition: A function f is a one-to-one
correspondence, or a bijection, if it is both one-
to-one and onto (surjective and injective).
Showing that f is one-to-one or onto 1

Suppose that f : A B.
To show that f is injective Show that if f (x) = f (y) for
arbitrary x, y ∈ A, then x = y.
To show that f is not injective Find particular
elements x, y ∈ A such that x ≠ y and f (x) = f (y).
To show that f is surjective Consider an arbitrary
element y ∈ B and find an element x ∈ A such that f
(x) = y.
To show that f is not surjective Find a particular y ∈
B such that f (x) ≠ y for all x ∈ A.
Showing that f is one-to-one or onto 2

Example 1: Let f be the function from {a,b,c,d} to

{1,2,3} defined by f(a) = 3, f(b) = 2, f(c) = 1, and f(d) =
3. Is f an onto function?
Solution: Yes, f is onto since all three elements of the
codomain are images of elements in the domain. If the
codomain were changed to {1,2,3,4}, f would not be
onto.
Example 2: Is the function f(x) = x2 from the set of
integers to the set of integers onto?
Solution: No, f is not onto because there is no integer x
with x2 = −1, for example.
 Inverse Functions 1

Definition: Let f be a bijection from A to B. Then

the inverse of f, denoted is the function from
B to A defined as
No inverse exists unless f is a bijection. Why?

Jump to long description

Inverse Functions 2
 Questions 1

Example 1: Let f be the function from {a,b,c} to

{1,2,3} such that f(a) = 2, f(b) = 3, and f(c) = 1.
Is f invertible and if so what is its inverse?

Solution: The function f is invertible because it

is a one-to-one correspondence. The inverse
function f−1 reverses the correspondence given
by f, so f−1 (1) = c, f−1 (2) = a, and f−1 (3) = b.
 Questions 2

Example 2: Let f: Z Z be such that f(x) = x +

1. Is f invertible, and if so, what is its inverse?

Solution: The function f is invertible because it

is a one-to-one correspondence. The inverse
function f−1 reverses the correspondence so f−1
(y) = y −1.
 Questions 3

Example 3: Let f: R R be such

that
Is f invertible, and if so, what is its inverse?

Solution: The function f is not invertible because

it is not one-to-one.
 Composition 1

Definition: Let f: B→C, g: A→B. The composition of f

with g, denoted is the function from A to C defined by

Jump to long description

Composition 2
 Composition 3

Example 1:
If
 Composition Questions 1

Example 2: Let g be the function from the set {a,b,c} to

itself such that g(a) = b, g(b) = c, and g(c) = a. Let f be the
function from the set {a,b,c} to the set {1,2,3} such that f(a)
= 3, f(b) = 2, and f(c) = 1.
What is the composition of f and g, and what is the
composition of g and f.
Solution: The composition f∘g is defined by

Note that g∘f is not defined, because the range of f is not a

subset of the domain of g.
 Composition Questions 2

Example 2: Let f and g be functions from the set

of integers to the set of integers defined by

What is the composition of f and g, and also the

composition of g and f ?
Solution:
 Graphs of Functions
Let f be a function from the set A to the set B. The
graph of the function f is the set of ordered pairs

Graph of f(n) = 2n + 1 Graph of f(x) =

from Z to Z Jump to long description x2
 from Z to Z

Some Important Functions

The floor function, denoted

is the largest integer less than or equal to x.

The ceiling function, denoted

is the smallest integer greater than or equal to x

Example:
 Floor and Ceiling Functions 1

Graph of (a) Floor and (b) Ceiling Functions

Jump to long description
Floor and Ceiling Functions 2

TABLE 1 Useful Properties of the Floor and

Ceiling Functions.
(n is an integer, x is a real number)
 Proving Properties of Functions
Example: Prove that x is a real number, then
⌊2x⌋= ⌊x⌋ + ⌊x + 1/2⌋
Solution: Let x = n + ε, where n is an integer and 0 ≤ ε< 1.
Case 1: ε < ½
• 2x = 2n + 2ε and ⌊2x⌋ = 2n, since 0 ≤ 2ε< 1.
• ⌊x + 1/2⌋ = n, since x + ½ = n + (1/2 + ε ) and 0 ≤ ½ +ε < 1.
• Hence, ⌊2x⌋ = 2n and ⌊x⌋ + ⌊x + 1/2⌋ = n + n = 2n.
Case 2: ε ≥ ½
• 2x = 2n + 2ε = (2n + 1) +(2ε − 1) and ⌊2x⌋ =2n + 1, since 0 ≤ 2 ε −
1< 1.
• ⌊x + 1/2⌋ = ⌊ n + (1/2 + ε)⌋ = ⌊ n + 1 + (ε – 1/2)⌋ = n + 1 since 0 ≤ ε
− 1/2< 1.
 Factorial Function
Definition: f: N Z+ , denoted by f(n) = n! is the
product of the first n positive integers when n is a
nonnegative integer.

Stirling’s Formula:
Examples:
 Partial Functions (optional)
Definition: A partial function f from a set A to a set B is an
assignment to each element a in a subset of A, called the
domain of definition of f, of a unique element b in B.
• The sets A and B are called the domain and codomain of f,
respectively.
• We day that f is undefined for elements in A that are not in the
domain of definition of f.
• When the domain of definition of f equals A, we say that f is a total
function.
Example: f: N R where f(n) = √n is a partial function from
Z to R where the domain of definition is the set of
nonnegative integers. Note that f is undefined for negative
integers.
Sequences and Summations
Section 2.4
 Section Summary 4

Sequences.
• Examples: Geometric Progression, Arithmetic
Progression

Recurrence Relations
• Example: Fibonacci Sequence

Summations
Special Integer Sequences (optional)
 Introduction 2

Sequences are ordered lists of elements.

• 1, 2, 3, 5, 8
• 1, 3, 9, 27, 81, …….

Sequences arise throughout mathematics,

computer science, and in many other disciplines,
ranging from botany to music.
We will introduce the terminology to represent
sequences and sums of the terms in the sequences.
 Sequences 1

Definition: A sequence is a function from a subset

of the integers (usually either the set {0, 1, 2, 3, 4,
…..} or {1, 2, 3, 4, ….}) to a set S.
The notation an is used to denote the image of the
integer n. We can think of an as the equivalent of
f(n) where f is a function from {0,1,2,…..} to S.
We call an a term of the sequence.
 Sequences 2

Example: Consider the sequence an where

 Geometric Progression
Definition: A geometric progression is a sequence of the
form:
where the initial term a and the common ratio r are real
numbers.
 Arithmetic Progression
Definition: A arithmetic progression is a sequence of the
form:
where the initial term a and the common difference d are real
numbers.
 Strings 1

Definition: A string is a finite sequence of

characters from a finite set (an alphabet).
Sequences of characters or bits are important in
computer science.
載入中⋯
The empty string is represented by λ.
The string abcde has length 5.
 Recurrence Relations
Definition: A recurrence relation for the sequence
{an} is an equation that expresses an in terms of one
or more of the previous terms of the sequence,
namely, a0, a1, …, an−1, for all integers n with n ≥
n0, where n0 is a nonnegative integer.
A sequence is called a solution of a recurrence
relation if its terms satisfy the recurrence relation.
The initial conditions for a sequence specify the
terms that precede the first term where the
recurrence relation takes effect.
Questions about Recurrence Relations 1

Example 1: Let {an} be a sequence that satisfies the

recurrence relation an = an−1 + 3 for n = 1,2,3,4,….
and suppose that a0 = 2. What are a1 , a2 and a3?
[Here a0 = 2 is the initial condition.]
Solution: We see from the recurrence relation that
Questions about Recurrence Relations 2

Example 2: Let {an} be a sequence that satisfies

the recurrence relation an = an-1 – an-2 for n =
2,3,4,…. and suppose that a0 = 3 and a1 = 5.
What are a2 and a3?
[Here the initial conditions are a0 = 3 and a1 = 5.
]
Solution: We see from the recurrence relation that
 Fibonacci Sequence
Definition: Define the Fibonacci sequence, f0 ,f1
,f2,…, by:
• Initial Conditions: f0 = 0, f1 = 1
• Recurrence Relation: fn = fn−1 + fn−2
Example: Find f2 ,f3 ,f4 , f5 and f6 .

YouTube source: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2tv6Ej6JVho

 Solving Recurrence Relations
Finding a formula for the nth term of the sequence
generated by a recurrence relation is called solving the
recurrence relation.
Such a formula is called a closed formula.
Various methods for solving recurrence relations will be
covered in Chapter 8 where recurrence relations will be
studied in greater depth.
Here we illustrate by example the method of iteration in
which we need to guess the formula. The guess can be
proved correct by the method of induction (Chapter 5).
 Iterative Solution Example 1

Method 1: Working upward, forward substitution Let

{an} be a sequence that satisfies the recurrence relation
an = an−1 + 3 for n = 2,3,4,…. and suppose that a1 = 2.
a2 = 2 + 3
a3 = (2 + 3) + 3 = 2 + 3 · 2
a4 = (2 + 2 · 3) + 3 = 2 + 3 · 3
.
.
.
an = an-1 + 3 = (2 + 3 · (n – 2)) + 3 = 2 + 3(n − 1)
 Iterative Solution Example 2

Method 2: Working downward, backward substitution Let

{an} be a sequence that satisfies the recurrence relation an =
an−1 + 3 for n = 2,3,4,…. and suppose that a1 = 2.
an = an-1 + 3
= (an-2 + 3) + 3 = an-2 + 3 · 2
= (an-3 + 3 )+ 3 · 2 = an-3 + 3 · 3
.
.
.
= a2 + 3(n − 2) = (a1 + 3) + 3(n − 2) = 2 + 3(n − 1)
 Financial Application 1

Example: Suppose that a person deposits $10,000

in a savings account at a bank yielding 11% per
year with interest compounded annually. How
much will be in the account after 30 years?
Let Pn denote the amount in the account after n
years. Pn satisfies the following recurrence
relation:
Pn = Pn−1 + 0.11Pn−1 = (1.11) Pn−1
with the initial condition P0 = 10,000
 Financial Application 2

Pn = Pn−1 + 0.11Pn−1 = (1.11) Pn−1

with the initial condition P0 = 10,000
Solution: Forward Substitution
P1 = (1.11)P0
P2 = (1.11)P1 = (1.11)2P0
P3 = (1.11)P2 = (1.11)3P0
:
Pn = (1.11)Pn−1 = (1.11)nP0 = (1.11)n 10,000
Pn = (1.11)n 10,000 (Can prove by induction, covered in
Chapter 5)
P30 = (1.11)30 10,000 = $228,992.97
 Special Integer Sequences (opt)
Given a few terms of a sequence, try to identify the
sequence. Conjecture a formula, recurrence relation, or
some other rule.
Some questions to ask?
• Are there repeated terms of the same value?
• Can you obtain a term from the previous term by adding an
amount or multiplying by an amount?
• Can you obtain a term by combining the previous terms in some
way?
• Are they cycles among the terms?
• Do the terms match those of a well known sequence?
Questions on Special Integer Sequences
(opt) 1

Example 1: Find formulae for the sequences with the following

first five terms: 1, ½, ¼, 1/8, 1/16
Solution: Note that the denominators are powers of 2. The
sequence with an = 1/2n is a possible match. This is a geometric
progression with a = 1 and r = ½.
Example 2: Consider 1,3,5,7,9
Solution: Note that each term is obtained by adding 2 to the
previous term. A possible formula is an = 2n + 1. This is an
arithmetic progression with a =1 and d = 2.
Example 3: 1, -1, 1, -1,1
Solution: The terms alternate between 1 and -1. A possible
sequence is an = (−1)n . This is a geometric progression with a = 1
and r = −1.
Questions on Special Integer Sequences
(opt) 2

TABLE 1 Some Useful Sequences.

nth Term First 10 Terms
n2 1, 4, 9, 16, 25, 36, 49, 64, 81, 100,…

n3 1, 8, 27, 64, 125, 216, 343, 512, 729, 1000,…

n4 1, 16, 81, 256, 625, 1296, 2401, 4096, 6561, 10000,…

fn 1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 13, 21, 34, 55, 89,…

2n 2, 4, 8, 16, 32, 64, 128, 256, 512, 1024,…

3n 3, 9, 27, 81, 243, 729, 2187, 6561, 19683, 59049,…

n! 1, 2, 6, 24, 120, 720, 5040, 40320, 362880, 3628800,…

 Guessing Sequences (optional)
Example: Conjecture a simple formula for an if
the first 10 terms of the sequence {an} are 1, 7,
25, 79, 241, 727, 2185, 6559, 19681, 59047.
Solution: Note the ratio of each term to the
previous approximates 3. So now compare with
the sequence 3n . We notice that the nth term is 2
less than the corresponding power of 3. So a good
conjecture is that an = 3n − 2.
 Integer Sequences (optional) 1

Integer sequences appear in a wide range of contexts. Later

we will see the sequence of prime numbers (Chapter 4), the
number of ways to order n discrete objects (Chapter 6), the
number of moves needed to solve the Tower of Hanoi puzzle
with n disks (Chapter 8), and the number of rabbits on an
island after n months (Chapter 8).
Integer sequences are useful in many fields such as biology,
engineering, chemistry and physics.
On-Line Encyclopedia of Integer Sequences (OESIS)
contains over 200,000 sequences. Began by Neil Stone in the
1960s (printed form). Now found at
http://oeis.org/Spuzzle.html
 Integer Sequences (optional) 2

Here are three interesting sequences to try from the OESIS site. To solve each
puzzle, find a rule that determines the terms of the sequence.
Guess the rules for forming for the following sequences:
• 2, 3, 3, 5, 10, 13, 39, 43, 172, 177, ...
• Hint: Think of adding and multiplying by numbers to generate this
sequence.
• 0, 0, 0, 0, 4, 9, 5, 1, 1, 0, 55, ...
• Hint: Think of the English names for the numbers representing the
position in the sequence and the Roman Numerals for the same number.
• 2, 4, 6, 30, 32, 34, 36, 40, 42, 44, 46, ...
• Hint: Think of the English names for numbers, and whether or not they
have the letter ‘e.’
The answers and many more can be found at http://oeis.org/Spuzzle.html
 Summations 1

The variable j is called the index of summation. It

runs through all the integers starting with its lower
limit m and ending with its upper limit n.
Summations 2
Product Notation (optional)
 Geometric Series 1

Sums of terms of geometric progressions

Proof: Let To compute Sn , first

multiply both sides of
the equality by r and
then manipulate the
resulting sum as follows:
Geometric Series 2

From previous slide.

Shifting the index of summation with k = j +

1.
Removing k = n + 1 term and
adding k = 0 term.

Substituting S for summation formula

if r ≠1

if r = 1
Some Useful Summation Formulae
TABLE 2 Some Useful Summation
Formulae. Geometric Series:
Sum Closed From
We just proved this.

Later we will
prove some of
these by
induction.

Proof in text
(requires
calculus)
Cardinality of Sets
Section 2.5
 Section Summary 6

Cardinality
Countable Sets
Computability
 Cardinality 1

Definition: The cardinality of a set A is equal to the

cardinality of a set B, denoted
|A| = |B|,
if and only if there is a one-to-one correspondence (i.e., a
bijection) from A to B.
If there is a one-to-one function (i.e., an injection) from
A to B, the cardinality of A is less than or the same as the
cardinality of B and we write |A| ≤ |B|.
When |A| ≤ |B| and A and B have different cardinality, we
say that the cardinality of A is less than the cardinality of
B and write |A| < |B|.
 Cardinality 2

Definition: A set that is either finite or has the

same cardinality as the set of positive integers
(Z+) is called countable. A set that is not
countable is uncountable.
The set of real numbers R is an uncountable set.
When an infinite set is countable (countably
infinite) its cardinality is 0 (where is aleph,
the 1st letter of the Hebrew alphabet). We write |S|
= 0 and say that S has cardinality “aleph null.”
 Showing that a Set is Countable
An infinite set is countable if and only if it is
possible to list the elements of the set in a
sequence (indexed by the positive integers).
The reason for this is that a one-to-one
correspondence f from the set of positive
integers to a set S can be expressed in terms of a
sequence a1,a2,…, an ,… where a1 = f(1), a2 =
f(2),…, an = f(n),…
 Hilbert’s Grand Hotel
The Grand Hotel (example due to David
Hilbert) has countably infinite number of
rooms, each occupied by a guest. We can
always accommodate a new guest at this David Hilbert
hotel. How is this possible?
Explanation: Because the rooms of
Grand Hotel are countable, we can list
them as Room 1, Room 2, Room 3, and
so on. When a new guest arrives, we
move the guest in Room 1 to Room 2, the The hotel can also
guest in Room 2 to Room 3, and in accommodate a countable
number of new guests, all the
general the guest in Room n to Room n +
guests on a countable number
1, for all positive integers n. This frees up
of buses where each bus
Room 1, which we assign to the new contains a countable number of
guest, and all the current guests still have guests (see exercises).
rooms. YouTube source: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Uj3_KqkI9Zo
 Showing that a Set is Countable 1

Example 1: Show that the set of positive even integers E is

countable set.
Solution: Let

Then f is a bijection from N to E since f is both one-to-one

and onto. To show that it is one-to-one, suppose that f(n) =
f(m). Then 2n = 2m, and so n = m. To see that it is onto,
suppose that t is an even positive integer. Then t = 2k for
some positive integer k and f(k) = t.
 Showing that a Set is Countable 2

Example 2: Show that the set of integers Z is

countable.
Solution: Can list in a sequence:
0, 1, − 1, 2, − 2, 3, − 3 ,………..
Or can define a bijection from N to Z:
• When n is even: f(n) = n/2
• When n is odd: f(n) = −(n−1)/2
 The Positive Rational Numbers are
Countable 1

Definition: A rational number can be expressed as the

ratio of two integers p and q such that q ≠ 0.
• ¾ is a rational number
• √2 is not a rational number.
Example 3: Show that the positive rational numbers are
countable.
Solution: The positive rational numbers are countable
since they can be arranged in a sequence:
r1 , r2 , r3 ,…
The next slide shows how this is done.
 The Positive Rational Numbers are
Countable 2

Constructing the List

First row q = 1.
First list p/q with p + q = Second row q = 2.
2. etc.

Next list p/q with p + q = 3

And so on.

1, ½, 2, 3, 1/3,1/4, 2/3, ….

Jump to long description

 Strings 2

Example 4: Show that the set of finite strings S over a finite

alphabet A is countably infinite.
Assume an alphabetical ordering of symbols in A
Solution: Show that the strings can be listed in a sequence.
First list
1. All the strings of length 0 in alphabetical order.
2. Then all the strings of length 1 in lexicographic (as in a dictionary)
order.
3. Then all the strings of length 2 in lexicographic order.
4. And so on.
This implies a bijection from N to S and hence it is a
countably infinite set.
 The set of all Java programs is
countable.
Example 5: Show that the set of all Java programs is
countable.
Solution: Let S be the set of strings constructed from the
characters which can appear in a Java program. Use the
ordering from the previous example. Take each string in turn:
• Feed the string into a Java compiler. (A Java compiler will determine
if the input program is a syntactically correct Java program.)
• If the compiler says YES, this is a syntactically correct Java program,
we add the program to the list.
• We move on to the next string.
In this way we construct an implied bijection from N to the
set of Java programs. Hence, the set of Java programs is
countable.
The Real Numbers are Georg Cantor

Uncountable (1845-1918)

Example: Show that the set of real numbers is uncountable.

Solution: The method is called the Cantor diagnalization argument, and is a proof
by contradiction.
1. Suppose R is countable. Then the real numbers between 0 and 1 are also countable
(any subset of a countable set is countable - an exercise in the text).
2. The real numbers between 0 and 1 can be listed in order r1 , r2 , r3 ,… .
3. Let the decimal representation of this listing be
1. Form a new real number with the
decimal
expansion
1. r is not equal to any of the r1 , r2 , r3 ,... Because it differs from ri in its ith
position after the decimal point. Therefore there is a real number between 0 and 1
that is not on the list since every real number has a unique decimal expansion.
Hence, all the real numbers between 0 and 1 cannot be listed, so the set of real
numbers between 0 and 1 is uncountable.
2. Since a set with an uncountable subset is uncountable (an exercise), the set of
real numbers is uncountable.
 Computability (Optional)
Definition: We say that a function is computable if
there is a computer program in some programming
language that finds the values of this function. If a
function is not computable we say it is uncomputable.
There are uncomputable functions. We have shown
that the set of Java programs is countable. Exercise 38
in the text shows that there are uncountably many
different functions from a particular countably infinite
set (i.e., the positive integers) to itself. Therefore
(Exercise 39) there must be uncomputable functions.
Matrices
Section 2.6
 Section Summary 7

Definition of a Matrix
Matrix Arithmetic
Transposes and Powers of Arithmetic
Zero-One matrices
 Matrices
Matrices are useful discrete structures that can be used in
many ways. For example, they are used to:
• describe certain types of functions known as linear transformations.
• Express which vertices of a graph are connected by edges (see Chapter
10).
In later chapters, we will see matrices used to build models of:
• Transportation systems.
• Communication networks.
Algorithms based on matrix models will be presented in later
chapters.
Here we cover the aspect of matrix arithmetic that will be
needed later.
 Matrix
Definition: A matrix is a rectangular array of
numbers. A matrix with m rows and n columns is
called an m × n matrix.
• The plural of matrix is matrices.
• A matrix with the same number of rows as columns is
called square.
• Two matrices are equal if they have the same number of
rows and the same number of columns
and the corresponding entries in every
position are equal.
3 × 2 matrix
 Notation
Let m and n be positive integers and let

The ith row of A is the 1 × n matrix [ai1, ai2,…,ain]. The jth

column of A is the m × 1 matrix:

The (i,j)th element or entry of A is the element aij. We can use A

= [aij ] to denote the matrix with its (i,j)th element equal to aij.
 Matrix Arithmetic: Addition
Definition: Let A = [aij] and B = [bij] be m × n
matrices. The sum of A and B, denoted by A + B, is the
m × n matrix that has aij + bij as its (i,j)th element. In
other words, A + B = [aij + bij].
Example:

Note that matrices of different sizes can not be added.

 Matrix Multiplication
Definition: Let A be an m × k matrix and B be a k × n matrix. The
product of A and B, denoted by AB, is the m × n matrix that has its
(i,j)th element equal to the sum of the products of the
corresponding elements from the ith row of A and the jth column of
B. In other words, if AB = [cij] then cij = ai1b1j + ai2b2j + … +
akjb2j.
Example:

The product of two matrices is undefined when the number of

columns in the first matrix is not the same as the number of rows
in the second.
Illustration of Matrix Multiplication
The Product of A = [aij] and B = [bij]
 Matrix Multiplication is not
Commutative
Example: Let

Does AB =
BA?
Solution:

AB ≠
BA
Identity Matrix and Powers of Matrices
Definition: The identity matrix of order n is the m × n
matrix In = [ ij], where ij = 1 if i = j and ij = 0 if i≠j.

AIn = ImA = A
when A is an m × n matrix

Powers of square matrices can be defined. When A is an

n × n matrix, we have:
 Transposes of Matrices 1

Definition: Let A = [aij] be an m × n matrix. The

transpose of A, denoted by At ,is the n × m matrix
obtained by interchanging the rows and columns of A.
If At = [bij], then bij = aji for i =1,2,…,n and j = 1,2,
...,m.
 Transposes of Matrices 2

Definition: A square matrix A is called

symmetric if A = At. Thus A = [aij] is
symmetric if aij = aji for i and j with 1≤ i≤ n
and 1≤ j≤ n.

Square matrices do not change when their rows

and columns are interchanged.
 Zero-One Matrices 1

Definition: A matrix all of whose entries are either 0 or 1

is called a zero-one matrix. (These will be used in
Chapters 9 and 10.)
Algorithms operating on discrete structures represented
by zero-one matrices are based on Boolean arithmetic
defined by the following Boolean operations:
 Zero-One Matrices 2

Definition: Let A = [aij] and B = [bij] be an m n

zero-one matrices.
• The join of A and B is the zero-one matrix with (i,j)th
entry aij ∨ bij. The join of A and B is denoted by A ∨
B.
• The meet of A and B is the zero-one matrix with (i,j)th
entry aij ∧ bij. The meet of A and B is denoted by
A ∧ B.
Joins and Meets of Zero-One Matrices
Example: Find the join and meet of the zero-one
matrices

Solution: The join of A and B is

The meet of A and B is

 Boolean Product of Zero-One Matrices 1

Definition: Let A = [aij] be an m × k zero-one

matrix and B = [bij] be a k × n zero-one matrix. The
Boolean product of A and B, denoted by A ⊙ B, is
the m × n zero-one matrix with(i,j)th entry
cij = (ai1 ∧ b1j)∨ (ai2 ∧ b2j) ∨ … ∨ (aik ∧ bkj).
Example: Find the Boolean product of A and B,
where
《
Boolean Product of Zero-One Matrices 2

Solution: The Boolean product A ⊙ B is given by

Boolean Powers of Zero-One Matrices 1

Definition: Let A be a square zero-one matrix

and let r be a positive integer. The rth Boolean
power of A is the Boolean product of r factors
of A, denoted by A[r] . Hence,

We define A[r] to be In.

(The Boolean product is well defined because the
Boolean product of matrices is associative.)
Boolean Powers of Zero-One Matrices 2

Example: Let

Find An for all positive integers n.

Solution:
Appendix of Image Long
Descriptions
 Functions 3 – Appendix

The circle representing set A has element A inside. The circle

representing set B has element B equals F left parenthesis A right
parenthesis. Also, there are two arrows labeled F. From circle A
to circle B, and from element A to B.

Jump to the image

 Inverse Functions 1 – Appendix

There are two circles representing sets A and B. Circle A has

element A equal to F power minus one left parenthesis B right
parenthesis. Circle B has element B equal to F left parenthesis A
right parenthesis. Also, there are 4 arrows: an arrow from element
A to element B labeled F left parenthesis A right parenthesis, an
arrow from element B to element A labeled F power minus one
left parenthesis B right parenthesis, an arrow from circle A to
circle B labeled F. And arrow from circle B to circle A labeled F
power minus one.

Jump to the image

 Composition 1 – Appendix

There are three circles, representing sets A, B, and C. Circle A

has element A. Circle B has element G left parenthesis A right
parenthesis. Circle C has element F left parenthesis G left
parenthesis A two right parentheses. Also, there are 6 arrows.
From circle A to circle B labeled G. From circle B to circle C
labeled F. From circle A to circle C labeled F circle G. From
element A to element G left parenthesis A right parenthesis
labeled G left parenthesis A right parenthesis. From element G
left parenthesis A right parenthesis to element F left parenthesis
G left parenthesis A 2 right parentheses labeled F left parenthesis
G left parenthesis A 2 right parentheses. From element A to
element F left parenthesis G left parenthesis A 2 right parentheses
labeled left parenthesis F circle G right parenthesis left
parenthesis A right parenthesis.
Jump to the image
 Graphs of Functions – Appendix

There are eight rows by eight columns of plotted points. There is

a line passing through the points in the third column and a line
passing through the points in the sixth row. The point in the first
row fifth column, the point in the third row fourth column, and
the point in the fifth row third column are shaded.

Jump to the image

 Floor and Ceiling Functions – Appendix

The X and Y axes range from -3 to 3, in increments of 1. There

are horizontal segments of unit length. In the floor graph, each
segment has a shaded point on its left end and a blank point on its
right end. The segments are: from x = −3 to −2 and y = −3, from
x = −2 to −1 and y = −2, from x = −1 to 0 and y = −1, from x = 0
to 1 and y = 0, from x = 1 to 2 and y = 1, from x = 2 to 3 and y =
2. In the ceiling graph, each segment has a blank point on its left
end and a shaded point on its right end. The segments are: from x
= −3 to −2 and y = −2, from x = −2 to −1 and y = −1, from x = −1
to 0 and y = 0, from x = 0 to 1 and y = 1, from x = 1 to 2 and y =
2, from x = 2 to 3 and y = 3.

Jump to the image

 The Positive Rational Numbers are
Countable – Appendix
There are some rows and columns of elements. Each element is a
fraction, where the numerator is a number of the row and the
denominator is a number of the column. The elements are
connected by arrows starting from the top left one. The path is as
follows. One first circled, one half circled, two firsts circled.
Three firsts circled, two halves not circled, one third circled. One
fourth circled, two thirds circled, three halves circled. Four firsts
circled, five firsts circled, four halves not circled. Three thirds not
circled, two fourths not circled, one fifth circled, etc.

Jump to the image