Basic Structures: Sets, Functions,

Sequences, Sums, and Matrices

Chapter 2

With Question/Answer Animations

Copyright © McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education.
Kenneth H. Rosen, Discrete
Mathematics and Its Applications,
8th ed., McGraw-Hill, 2019.

2
Chapter Summary
Sets
The Language of Sets
Set Operations
Set Identities
Functions
Types of Functions
Operations on Functions
Computability
Sequences and Summations
Types of Sequences
Summation Formulae
Set Cardinality
Countable Sets
Matrices
Matrix Arithmetic

3
 Sets
Section 2.1
Section Summary
Definition of sets
Describing Sets
Roster Method
Set-Builder Notation
Some Important Sets in Mathematics
Empty Set and Universal Set
Subsets and Set Equality
Cardinality of Sets
Tuples
Cartesian Product
5
Introduction
Sets are one of the basic building blocks for the types
of objects considered in discrete mathematics.
Important for counting.
Programming languages have set operations.
Set theory is an important branch of mathematics.
Many different systems of axioms have been used to
develop set theory.
Here we are not concerned with a formal set of axioms
for set theory. Instead, we will use what is called naïve
set theory.

6
Sets
A set is an unordered collection of objects.
 the students in this class
 the chairs in this room
The objects in a set are called the elements, or
members of the set. A set is said to contain its
elements.
The notation a ∈ A denotes that a is an element of
the set A.
If a is not a member of A, write a ∉ A

7
Describing a Set: Roster Method
S = {a,b,c,d}
Order not important
S = {a,b,c,d} = {b,c,a,d}
Each distinct object is either a member or not; listing
more than once does not change the set.
S = {a,b,c,d} = {a,b,c,b,c,d}
Elipses (…) may be used to describe a set without
listing all of the members when the pattern is clear.
S = {a,b,c,d, ……,z }

8
Roster Method
Set of all vowels in the English alphabet:
V = {a,e,i,o,u}
Set of all odd positive integers less than 10:
O = {1,3,5,7,9}
Set of all positive integers less than 100:
S = {1,2,3,……..,99}
Set of all integers less than 0:
S = {…., -3,-2,-1}

9
Some Important Sets
N = natural numbers = {0,1,2,3….}
Z = integers = {…,-3,-2,-1,0,1,2,3,…}
Z⁺ = positive integers = {1,2,3,…..}
R = set of real numbers
R+ = set of positive real numbers
C = set of complex numbers.
Q = set of rational numbers

10
Set-Builder Notation
Specify the property or properties that all members must
satisfy:
S = {x | x is a positive integer less than 100}
O = {x | x is an odd positive integer less than 10}
O = {x ∈ Z⁺ | x is odd and x < 10}
A predicate may be used:
S = {x | P(x)}
Example: S = {x | Prime(x)}
Positive rational numbers:
Q+ = {x ∈ R | x = p/q, for some positive integers p,q}
11
Interval Notation
[a , b ] = { x | a ≤ x ≤ b }
[a , b ) = { x | a ≤ x < b }
(a, b ] = { x | a < x ≤ b }
(a,b) = {x | a < x < b}

closed interval [a,b]

open interval (a,b)

12
Universal Set and Empty Set
The universal set U is the set containing everything
currently under consideration.
Sometimes implicit Venn Diagram
Sometimes explicitly stated.
Contents depend on the context. U

The empty set is the set with no V aei

elements. Symbolized ∅, but ou

{} also used.
John Venn (1834-1923)
Cambridge, UK

13
Russell’s Paradox
Let S be the set of all sets which are not members of
themselves. A paradox results from trying to answer
the question “Is S a member of itself?”
Related Paradox:
 Henry is a barber who shaves all people who do not
shave themselves. A paradox results from trying to
answer the question “Does Henry shave himself?”

Bertrand Russell (1872-1970)

Cambridge, UK
Nobel Prize Winner

14
Some things to remember
Sets can be elements of sets.
{{1,2,3},a, {b,c}}
{N,Z,Q,R}
The empty set is different from a set containing the
empty set.
∅ ≠{∅}

15
Set Equality
Definition: Two sets are equal if and only if they have
the same elements.
Therefore if A and B are sets, then A and B are equal if
and only if .
We write A = B if A and B are equal sets.
{1,3,5} = {3, 5, 1}
{1,5,5,5,3,3,1} = {1,3,5}

16
Subsets
Definition: The set A is a subset of B, if and only if
every element of A is also an element of B.
The notation A ⊆ B is used to indicate that A is a subset
of the set B.
A ⊆ B holds if and only if is true.
1. Because a ∈ ∅ is always false, ∅ ⊆ S ,for every set S.
2. Because a ∈ S → a ∈ S, S ⊆ S, for every set S.

17
Showing a Set is or is not a Subset of
Another Set
Showing that A is a Subset of B: To show that A ⊆ B,
show that if x belongs to A, then x also belongs to B.
Showing that A is not a Subset of B: To show that A is
not a subset of B, A ⊈ B, find an element x ∈ A with x ∉ B.
(Such an x is a counterexample to the claim that x ∈ A
implies x ∈ B.)
Examples:
1. The set of all computer science majors at your school is a
subset of all students at your school.
2. The set of integers with squares less than 100 is not a
subset of the set of nonnegative integers.
18
Another look at Equality of Sets
Recall that two sets A and B are equal, denoted by
A = B, iff

Using logical equivalences we have that A = B iff

 This is equivalent to
A⊆B and B⊆A

19
Proper Subsets
Definition: If A ⊆ B, but A ≠B, then we say A is a
proper subset of B, denoted by A ⊂ B. If A ⊂ B, then

is true.

U
Venn Diagram B
A

20
Set Cardinality
Definition: If there are exactly n distinct elements in S where
n is a nonnegative integer, we say that S is finite. Otherwise it
is infinite.
Definition: The cardinality of a finite set A, denoted by |A|,
is the number of (distinct) elements of A.
Examples:
1. |ø| = 0
2. Let S be the letters of the English alphabet. Then |S| = 26
3. |{1,2,3}| = 3
4. |{ø}| = 1
5. The set of integers is infinite.
21
Power Sets
Definition: The set of all subsets of a set A, denoted
P(A), is called the power set of A.
Example: If A = {a,b} then
P(A) = {ø, {a},{b},{a,b}}

If a set has n elements, then the cardinality of the

power set is 2ⁿ. (In Chapters 5 and 6, we will discuss
different ways to show this.)

22
Tuples
The ordered n-tuple (a1,a2,…..,an) is the ordered
collection that has a1 as its first element and a2 as its
second element and so on until an as its last element.
Two n-tuples are equal if and only if their
corresponding elements are equal.
2-tuples are called ordered pairs.
The ordered pairs (a,b) and (c,d) are equal if and only
if a = c and b = d.

23
 René Descartes
(1596-1650)

Cartesian Product
Definition: The Cartesian Product of two sets A and B, denoted
by A × B is the set of ordered pairs (a,b) where a ∈ A and b ∈
B.

Example:
A = {a,b} B = {1,2,3}
A × B = {(a,1),(a,2),(a,3), (b,1),(b,2),(b,3)}

Definition: A subset R of the Cartesian product A × B is called a

relation from the set A to the set B. (Relations will be covered in
depth in Chapter 9. )

24
Cartesian Product
Definition: The cartesian products of the sets A1,A2,……,An,
denoted by A1 × A2 × …… × An , is the set of ordered n-
tuples (a1,a2,……,an) where ai belongs to Ai for i =
1, … n.

Example: What is A × B × C where A = {0,1}, B = {1,2} and C

= {0,1,2}
Solution: A × B × C = {(0,1,0), (0,1,1), (0,1,2),(0,2,0), (0,2,1),
(0,2,2),(1,1,0), (1,1,1), (1,1,2), (1,2,0), (1,2,1), (1,2,2)}
25
Truth Sets of Quantifiers
Given a predicate P and a domain D, we define the
truth set of P to be the set of elements in D for which
P(x) is true. The truth set of P(x) is denoted by

Example: The truth set of P(x) where the domain is

the integers and P(x) is “|x| = 1” is the set {-1,1}

26
Set Operations
Section 2.2
Section Summary
Set Operations
Union
Intersection
Complementation
Difference
More on Set Cardinality
Set Identities
Proving Identities
Membership Tables

28
Boolean Algebra
Propositional calculus and set theory are both
instances of an algebraic system called a Boolean
Algebra. This is discussed in Chapter 12.
The operators in set theory are analogous to the
corresponding operator in propositional calculus.
As always there must be a universal set U. All sets are
assumed to be subsets of U.

29
Union
Definition: Let A and B be sets. The union of the sets
A and B, denoted by A ∪ B, is the set:

Example: What is {1,2,3} ∪ {3, 4, 5}?

Venn Diagram for A ∪ B

Solution: {1,2,3,4,5} U
A B

30
Intersection
Definition: The intersection of sets A and B, denoted
by A ∩ B, is

Note if the intersection is empty, then A and B are said

to be disjoint.
Example: What is? {1,2,3} ∩ {3,4,5} ?
Venn Diagram for A ∩B
Solution: {3}
U
Example:What is?
A B
{1,2,3} ∩ {4,5,6} ?
Solution: ∅
31
Complement
Definition: If A is a set, then the complement of the A
(with respect to U), denoted by Ā is the set U - A
Ā = {x ∈ U | x ∉ A}
(The complement of A is sometimes denoted by Ac .)
Example: If U is the positive integers less than 100,
what is the complement of {x | x > 70}
Solution: {x | x ≤ 70} Venn Diagram for Complement
U
Ā
A

32
Difference
Definition: Let A and B be sets. The difference of A
and B, denoted by A – B, is the set containing the
elements of A that are not in B. The difference of A
and B is also called the complement of B with respect
to A.
A – B = {x | x ∈ A  x ∉ B} = A ∩B

U Venn Diagram for A − B

A
B

33
The Cardinality of the Union of Two
Sets
• Inclusion-Exclusion
U
|A ∪ B| = |A| + | B| − |A ∩ B|
A B

Venn Diagram for A, B, A ∩ B, A ∪ B

• Example: Let A be the math majors in your class and B be the CS majors. To count
the number of students who are either math majors or CS majors, add the number of
math majors and the number of CS majors, and subtract the number of joint
CS/math majors.
• We will return to this principle in Chapter 6 and Chapter 8 where we will derive a
formula for the cardinality of the union of n sets, where n is a positive integer.

34
Review Questions
Example: U = {0,1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9,10} A = {1,2,3,4,5}, B ={4,5,6,7,8}
1. A∪B
Solution: {1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8}
2. A ∩ B
Solution: {4,5}
3. Ā
Solution: {0,6,7,8,9,10}
4.
Solution: {0,1,2,3,9,10}
5. A – B
Solution: {1,2,3}
6. B – A
Solution: {6,7,8}

35
Symmetric Difference (optional)
Definition: The symmetric difference of A and B,
denoted by is the set

Example:
U = {0,1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9,10}
A = {1,2,3,4,5} B ={4,5,6,7,8} U
What is : A B
Solution: {1,2,3,6,7,8}

Venn Diagram

36
Set Identities
Identity laws

Domination laws

Idempotent laws

Complementation law

Continued on next slide 

37
Set Identities
Commutative laws

Associative laws

Distributive laws

Continued on next slide 

38
Set Identities
De Morgan’s laws

Absorption laws

Complement laws

39
Proving Set Identities
 Different ways to prove set identities:
1. Prove that each set (side of the identity) is a subset of
the other.
2. Use set builder notation and propositional logic.
3. Membership Tables: Verify that elements in the same
combination of sets always either belong or do not
belong to the same side of the identity. Use 1 to
indicate it is in the set and a 0 to indicate that it is not.

40
Proof of Second De Morgan Law
Example: Prove that
Solution: We prove this identity by showing that:

1) and

2)

Continued on next slide 

41
Proof of Second De Morgan Law
These steps show that:

Continued on next slide 

42
Proof of Second De Morgan Law
These steps show that:

43
Set-Builder Notation: Second De Morgan
Law

44
Membership Table
Example: Construct a membership table to show that the distributive law
holds.

Solution:
A B C
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
1 1 0 0 1 1 1 1
1 0 1 0 1 1 1 1
1 0 0 0 1 1 1 1
0 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
0 1 0 0 0 1 0 0
0 0 1 0 0 0 1 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
45
Generalized Unions and Intersections
Let A1, A2 ,…, An be an indexed collection of sets.
We define:

These are well defined, since union and intersection are

associative.
For i = 1,2,…, let Ai = {i, i + 1, i + 2, ….}. Then,

46
Functions
Section 2.3
Section Summary
Definition of a Function.
Domain, Codomain
Image, Preimage
Injection, Surjection, Bijection
Inverse Function
Function Composition
Graphing Functions
Floor, Ceiling, Factorial
Partial Functions (optional)

48
Functions
Definition: Let A and B be nonempty sets. A function f
from A to B, denoted f: A → B is an assignment of each
element of A to exactly one element of B. We write
f(a) = b if b is the unique element of B assigned by the
function f to the element a of A. Students Grades
Functions are sometimes A
Carlota Rodriguez
called mappings or B
transformations. Sandeep Patel C

Jalen Williams D

F
Kathy Scott
49
Functions
A function f: A → B can also be defined as a subset of
A×B (a relation). This subset is restricted to be a
relation where no two elements of the relation have
the same first element.
Specifically, a function f from A to B contains one, and
only one ordered pair (a, b) for every element a∈ A.

and

50
Functions
Given a function f: A → B:
We say f maps A to B or
f is a mapping from A to B.
A is called the domain of f.
B is called the codomain of f.
If f(a) = b,
then b is called the image of a under f.
a is called the preimage of b.
The range of f is the set of all images of points in A under f. We denote it
by f(A).
Two functions are equal when they have the same domain, the same
codomain and map each element of the domain to the same element of the
codomain.

51
Representing Functions
Functions may be specified in different ways:
An explicit statement of the assignment.
Students and grades example.
A formula.
f(x) = x + 1
A computer program.
 A Java program that when given an integer n, produces the nth
Fibonacci Number (covered in the next section and also
inChapter 5).

52
 Questions
f(a) = ? z A B
a
The image of d is ? z x

b
The domain of f is ? A y
c
The codomain of f is ? B
d z
The preimage of y is ? b
f(A) = ? {y,z}
The preimage(s) of z is (are) ? {a,c,d}
53
Question on Functions and Sets
If and S is a subset of A, then

A B
f {a,b,c} is ? {y,z} a
x

b
f {c,d} is ? {z} y
c

d z

54
Injections
Definition: A function f is said to be one-to-one , or
injective, if and only if f(a) = f(b) implies that a = b for
all a and b in the domain of f. A function is said to be
an injection if it is one-to-one.
A B
a x

v
b
y
c
z
d

w 55
Surjections
Definition: A function f from A to B is called onto or
surjective, if and only if for every element
there is an element with . A
function f is called a surjection if it is onto.

A B
a x

b
y
c
z
d
56
Bijections
Definition: A function f is a one-to-one
correspondence, or a bijection, if it is both one-to-one
and onto (surjective and injective).

A
a
B
x

b
y
c

d z

w
57
Showing that f is one-to-one or onto

58
Showing that f is one-to-one or onto
Example 1: Let f be the function from {a,b,c,d} to {1,2,3}
defined by f(a) = 3, f(b) = 2, f(c) = 1, and f(d) = 3. Is f an
onto function?
Solution: Yes, f is onto since all three elements of the
codomain are images of elements in the domain. If the
codomain were changed to {1,2,3,4}, f would not be onto.
Example 2: Is the function f(x) = x2 from the set of
integers to the set of integers onto?
Solution: No, f is not onto because there is no integer x
with x2 = −1, for example.

59
Inverse Functions
Definition: Let f be a bijection from A to B. Then the
inverse of f, denoted , is the function from B to A
defined as
No inverse exists unless f is a bijection. Why?

60
Inverse Functions
A f
B A B
a V V
a

b b
W W
c c

d X X
d

Y Y
61
Questions
Example 1: Let f be the function from {a,b,c} to {1,2,3}
such that f(a) = 2, f(b) = 3, and f(c) = 1. Is f invertible
and if so what is its inverse?

Solution: The function f is invertible because it is a one-to-one

correspondence. The inverse function f-1 reverses the correspondence
given by f, so f-1 (1) = c, f-1 (2) = a, and f-1 (3) = b.

62
Questions
Example 2: Let f: Z  Z be such that f(x) = x + 1. Is f
invertible, and if so, what is its inverse?

Solution: The function f is invertible because it is a one-to-one

correspondence. The inverse function f-1 reverses the correspondence so f-1
(y) = y – 1.

63
Questions
Example 3: Let f: R → R be such that . Is f
invertible, and if so, what is its inverse?

Solution: The function f is not invertible because it is not one-to-one .

64
Composition
Definition: Let f: B → C, g: A → B. The composition of
f with g, denoted is the function from A to C
defined by

65
Composition
g f
A B C A C
V a
a h h
b i b
W i
c
c
X j
d
d j
Y

66
Composition
Example 1: If and ,
then

and

67
Composition Questions
Example 2: Let g be the function from the set {a,b,c} to itself
such that g(a) = b, g(b) = c, and g(c) = a. Let f be the function
from the set {a,b,c} to the set {1,2,3} such that f(a) = 3, f(b) =
2, and f(c) = 1.
What is the composition of f and g, and what is the
composition of g and f.
Solution: The composition f∘g is defined by
f∘g (a)= f(g(a)) = f(b) = 2.
f∘g (b)= f(g(b)) = f(c) = 1.
f∘g (c)= f(g(c)) = f(a) = 3.
Note that g∘f is not defined, because the range of f is not a subset of
the domain of g.
68
Composition Questions
Example 2: Let f and g be functions from the set of
integers to the set of integers defined by f(x) = 2x + 3
and g(x) = 3x + 2.
What is the composition of f and g, and also the
composition of g and f ?
Solution:
f∘g (x)= f(g(x)) = f(3x + 2) = 2(3x + 2) + 3 = 6x + 7
g∘f (x)= g(f(x)) = g(2x + 3) = 3(2x + 3) + 2 = 6x + 11

69
Graphs of Functions
Let f be a function from the set A to the set B. The
graph of the function f is the set of ordered pairs
{(a,b) | a ∈A and f(a) = b}.

Graph of f(n) = 2n + 1 Graph of f(x) = x2

from Z to Z from Z to Z
70
Some Important Functions
The floor function, denoted

is the largest integer less than or equal to x.

The ceiling function, denoted

is the smallest integer greater than or equal to x

Example:

71
Floor and Ceiling Functions

Graph of (a) Floor and (b) Ceiling Functions

72
Floor and Ceiling Functions

73
Proving Properties of Functions
Example: Prove that x is a real number, then
⌊2x⌋= ⌊x⌋ + ⌊x + 1/2⌋
Solution: Let x = n + ε, where n is an integer and 0 ≤ ε< 1.
Case 1: ε < ½
2x = 2n + 2ε and ⌊2x⌋ = 2n, since 0 ≤ 2ε< 1.
⌊x + 1/2⌋ = n, since x + ½ = n + (1/2 + ε ) and 0 ≤ ½ +ε < 1.
Hence, ⌊2x⌋ = 2n and ⌊x⌋ + ⌊x + 1/2⌋ = n + n = 2n.
Case 2: ε ≥ ½
2x = 2n + 2ε = (2n + 1) +(2ε − 1) and ⌊2x⌋ =2n + 1, since 0 ≤
2 ε - 1< 1.
⌊x + 1/2⌋ = ⌊ n + (1/2 + ε)⌋ = ⌊ n + 1 + (ε – 1/2)⌋ = n + 1 since 0≤ε–
1/2< 1.
Hence, ⌊2x⌋ = 2n + 1 and ⌊x⌋ + ⌊x + 1/2⌋ = n + (n + 1) = 2n + 1.

74
Factorial Function
Definition: f: N → Z+ , denoted by f(n) = n! is the
product of the first n positive integers when n is a
nonnegative integer.

f(n) = 1 ∙ 2 ∙∙∙ (n – 1) ∙ n, f(0) = 0! = 1

Examples: Stirling’s Formula:

f(1) = 1! = 1

f(2) = 2! = 1 ∙ 2 = 2

f(6) = 6! = 1 ∙ 2 ∙ 3∙ 4∙ 5 ∙ 6 = 720

f(20) = 2,432,902,008,176,640,000.

75
Partial Functions (optional)
Definition: A partial function f from a set A to a set B is an
assignment to each element a in a subset of A, called the
domain of definition of f, of a unique element b in B.
 The sets A and B are called the domain and codomain of f,
respectively.
 We day that f is undefined for elements in A that are not in the
domain of definition of f.
 When the domain of definition of f equals A, we say that f is a
total function.
Example: f: N → R where f(n) = √n is a partial function from
Z to R where the domain of definition is the set of nonnegative
integers. Note that f is undefined for negative integers.
76
Sequences and
Summations
Section 2.4
Cardinality of Sets
Section 2.5
Section Summary
Cardinality
Countable Sets
Computability

107
Cardinality
Definition: The cardinality of a set A is equal to the
cardinality of a set B, denoted
|A| = |B|,
if and only if there is a one-to-one correspondence (i.e., a
bijection) from A to B.
If there is a one-to-one function (i.e., an injection) from A
to B, the cardinality of A is less than or the same as the
cardinality of B and we write |A| ≤ |B|.
When |A| ≤ |B| and A and B have different cardinality, we
say that the cardinality of A is less than the cardinality of B
and write |A| < |B|.
108
Cardinality
Definition: A set that is either finite or has the same
cardinality as the set of positive integers (Z+) is called
countable. A set that is not countable is uncountable.
 The set of real numbers R is an uncountable set.
When an infinite set is countable (countably infinite)
its cardinality is ℵ0 (where ℵ is aleph, the 1st letter of
the Hebrew alphabet). We write |S| = ℵ0 and say that S
has cardinality “aleph null.”

109
Showing that a Set is Countable
 An infinite set is countable if and only if it is possible
to list the elements of the set in a sequence (indexed
by the positive integers).
The reason for this is that a one-to-one
correspondence f from the set of positive integers to a
set S can be expressed in terms of a sequence a1,a2,
…, an ,… where a1 = f(1), a2 = f(2),…, an = f(n),…

110
Hilbert’s Grand Hotel David Hilbert
(1862-1943)
The Grand Hotel (example due to David Hilbert) has countably infinite number of
rooms, each occupied by a guest. We can always accommodate a new guest at this
hotel. How is this possible?

Explanation: Because the rooms of Grand

Hotel are countable, we can list them as Room
1, Room 2, Room 3, and so on. When a new
guest arrives, we move the guest in Room 1 to
Room 2, the guest in Room 2 to Room 3, and
in general the guest in Room n to Room n + 1,
for all positive integers n. This frees up Room
1, which we assign to the new guest, and all
the current guests still have rooms. The hotel can also accommodate a
countable number of new guests, all the
guests on a countable number of buses
where each bus contains a countable
number of guests (see exercises).
111
Showing that a Set is Countable
Example 1: Show that the set of positive even integers E is
countable set.
Solution: Let f(x) = 2x.
1 2 3 4 5 6 …..

2 4 6 8 10 12 ……
Then f is a bijection from N to E since f is both one-to-one
and onto. To show that it is one-to-one, suppose that f(n)
= f(m). Then 2n = 2m, and so n = m. To see that it is onto,
suppose that t is an even positive integer. Then t = 2k
for some positive integer k and f(k) = t.
112
Showing that a Set is Countable
Example 2: Show that the set of integers Z is
countable.
Solution: Can list in a sequence:
0, 1, − 1, 2, − 2, 3, − 3 ,………..
Or can define a bijection from N to Z:
When n is even: f(n) = n/2
When n is odd: f(n) = −(n−1)/2

113
The Positive Rational Numbers are
Countable
Definition: A rational number can be expressed as the
ratio of two integers p and q such that q ≠ 0.
¾ is a rational number
√2 is not a rational number.
Example 3: Show that the positive rational numbers
are countable.
Solution:The positive rational numbers are countable
since they can be arranged in a sequence:
r1 , r2 , r3 ,…
The next slide shows how this is done. →
114
 The Positive Rational Numbers are
Countable
First row q = 1.
Second row q = 2.
etc.

Constructing the List

First list p/q with p + q = 2.

Next list p/q with p + q = 3

And so on.

1, ½, 2, 3, 1/3,1/4, 2/3, ….

115
Strings
Example 4: Show that the set of finite strings S over a finite
alphabet A is countably infinite.
Assume an alphabetical ordering of symbols in A
Solution: Show that the strings can be listed in a sequence. First
list
1. All the strings of length 0 in alphabetical order.
2. Then all the strings of length 1 in lexicographic (as in a
dictionary) order.
3. Then all the strings of length 2 in lexicographic order.
4. And so on.
This implies a bijection from N to S and hence it is a countably
infinite set.
116
The set of all Java programs is countable.
Example 5: Show that the set of all Java programs is countable.
Solution: Let S be the set of strings constructed from the
characters which can appear in a Java program. Use the ordering
from the previous example. Take each string in turn:
Feed the string into a Java compiler. (A Java compiler will determine
if the input program is a syntactically correct Java program.)
If the compiler says YES, this is a syntactically correct Java program,
we add the program to the list.
We move on to the next string.
In this way we construct an implied bijection from N to the set of
Java programs. Hence, the set of Java programs is countable.

117
 Georg Cantor
(1845-1918)

The Real Numbers are Uncountable

Example: Show that the set of real numbers is uncountable.
Solution: The method is called the Cantor diagnalization argument, and is a proof by contradiction.
1. Suppose R is countable. Then the real numbers between 0 and 1 are also countable (any subset of a
countable set is countable - an exercise in the text).
2. The real numbers between 0 and 1 can be listed in order r1 , r2 , r3 ,… .
3. Let the decimal representation of this listing be

4. Form a new real number with the decimal expansion

where
5. r is not equal to any of the r1 , r2 , r3 ,... Because it differs from ri in its ith position after the decimal
point. Therefore there is a real number between 0 and 1 that is not on the list since every real
number has a unique decimal expansion. Hence, all the real numbers between 0 and 1 cannot be
listed, so the set of real numbers between 0 and 1 is uncountable.
6. Since a set with an uncountable subset is uncountable (an exercise), the set of real numbers is
uncountable.

118
Computability (Optional)
Definition: We say that a function is computable if
there is a computer program in some programming
language that finds the values of this function. If a
function is not computable we say it is uncomputable.
There are uncomputable functions. We have shown
that the set of Java programs is countable. Exercise 38
in the text shows that there are uncountably many
different functions from a particular countably infinite
set (i.e., the positive integers) to itself. Therefore
(Exercise 39) there must be uncomputable functions.

119
Matrices
Section 2.6
Section Summary
Definition of a Matrix
Matrix Arithmetic
Transposes and Powers of Arithmetic
Zero-One matrices

121
Matrices
Matrices are useful discrete structures that can be used in many
ways. For example, they are used to:
describe certain types of functions known as linear transformations.
Express which vertices of a graph are connected by edges (see
Chapter 10).
In later chapters, we will see matrices used to build models of:
Transportation systems.
Communication networks.
Algorithms based on matrix models will be presented in later
chapters.
Here we cover the aspect of matrix arithmetic that will be needed
later.
122
Matrix
Definition: A matrix is a rectangular array of
numbers. A matrix with m rows and n columns is
called an m n matrix.
 The plural of matrix is matrices.
 A matrix with the same number of rows as columns is called
square.
 Two matrices are equal if they have the same number of rows and
the same number of columns and the corresponding entries in
every position are equal.

3 2 matrix

123
Notation
Let m and n be positive integers and let

The ith row of A is the 1 n matrix [ai1, ai2,…,ain]. The jth column
of A is the m 1 matrix:

The (i,j)th element or entry of A is the

element aij. We can use A = [aij ] to denote the matrix with its
(i,j)th element equal to aij.
124
Matrix Arithmetic: Addition
Defintion: Let A = [aij] and B = [bij] be m n matrices.
The sum of A and B, denoted by A + B, is the m n
matrix that has aij + bij as its (i,j)th element. In other
words, A + B = [aij + bij].
Example:

Note that matrices of different sizes can not be added.

125
Matrix Multiplication
Definition: Let A be an m k matrix and B be a k n matrix.
The product of A and B, denoted by AB, is the m n matrix
that has its (i,j)th element equal to the sum of the products of the
corresponding elements from the ith row of A and the jth column
of B. In other words, if AB = [cij] then cij = ai1b1j + ai2b2j + … + akjb2j.
Example:

The product of two matrices is undefined when the number of

columns in the first matrix is not the same as the number of rows
in the second.

126
Illustration of Matrix Multiplication
The Product of A = [aij] and B = [bij]

127
Matrix Multiplication is not
Commutative
Example: Let

Does AB = BA?
Solution:

AB ≠ BA

128
Identity Matrix and Powers of Matrices
Definition: The identity matrix of order n is the m n
matrix In = [ij], where ij = 1 if i = j and ij = 0 if i≠j.

AIn = ImA = A
when A is an m n matrix

Powers of square matrices can be defined. When A is

an n  n matrix, we have:
A0 = In Ar = AAA∙∙∙A
r times 129
Transposes of Matrices
Definition: Let A = [aij] be an m n matrix. The
transpose of A, denoted by At ,is the n m matrix
obtained by interchanging the rows and columns of A.

If At = [bij], then bij = aji for i =1,2,…,n

and j = 1,2, ...,m.

130
Transposes of Matrices
Definition: A square matrix A is called symmetric if
A = At. Thus A = [aij] is symmetric if aij = aji for i and j
with 1≤ i≤ n and 1≤ j≤ n.

Square matrices do not change when their rows and

columns are interchanged.

131
Zero-One Matrices
Definition: A matrix all of whose entries are either 0
or 1 is called a zero-one matrix. (These will be used in
Chapters 9 and 10.)
Algorithms operating on discrete structures
represented by zero-one matrices are based on
Boolean arithmetic defined by the following Boolean
operations:

132
Zero-One Matrices
Definition: Let A = [aij] and B = [bij] be an m  n
zero-one matrices.
The join of A and B is the zero-one matrix with (i,j)th
entry aij ∨ bij. The join of A and B is denoted by A ∨ B.
 The meet of of A and B is the zero-one matrix with
(i,j)th entry aij ∧ bij. The meet of A and B is denoted
by A ∧ B.

133
Joins and Meets of Zero-One Matrices
Example: Find the join and meet of the zero-one
matrices

Solution: The join of A and B is

The meet of A and B is

134
Boolean Product of Zero-One Matrices
Definition: Let A = [aij] be an m k zero-one
matrix and B = [bij] be a k n zero-one matrix. The
Boolean product of A and B, denoted by A ⊙ B, is the
m n zero-one matrix with(i,j)th entry
cij = (ai1 ∧ b1j)∨ (ai2 ∧ b2j) ∨ … ∨ (aik ∧ bkj).
Example: Find the Boolean product of A and B, where

Continued on next slide 

135
Boolean Product of Zero-One Matrices
Solution: The Boolean product A ⊙ B is given by

136
Boolean Powers of Zero-One Matrices
Definition: Let A be a square zero-one matrix and
let r be a positive integer. The rth Boolean power of
A is the Boolean product of r factors of A, denoted
by A[r] . Hence,

We define A[r] to be In.

(The Boolean product is well defined because the
Boolean product of matrices is associative.)

137
Boolean Powers of Zero-One Matrices
Example: Let

Find An for all positive integers n.

Solution:

138