Database Management Systems

CSE-Artificial Intelligence and Machine Learning

V-Semester
AL-502 Database Management Systems

Syllabus
UNIT V: Case Study of Relational Database Management Systems through
Oracle/PostgreSQL /MySQL: Architecture, physical files, memory structures, background
process. Data dictionary, dynamic performance view. Security, role management, privilege
management, profiles, invoker defined security model. SQL queries, Hierarchical quires,
inline queries, flashback queries. Introduction of ANSI SQL, Cursor management: nested and
parameterized cursors. Stored procedures, usage of parameters in procedures. User defined
functions their limitations. Triggers, mutating errors, instead of triggers.

Prof. Vineeta Shrivastava

A.P CSE
LNCTE
 Database Management Systems
Case Study of Relational Database Management Systems (RDBMS)
Overview
Relational Database Management Systems (RDBMS) are systems that use the relational
model to manage and query structured data using SQL. Popular RDBMS examples include
Oracle, PostgreSQL, and MySQL. This case study examines their architecture, features, and
use cases.
Case Study: Oracle RDBMS
1. Overview
Oracle is a robust and enterprise-level RDBMS developed by Oracle Corporation, known for
its advanced features and scalability.
 Target Audience: Large organizations and mission-critical applications.
 Licensing: Commercial, with some free versions (e.g., Oracle Express Edition).
2. Key Features
 PL/SQL Support: Combines SQL with procedural programming.
 High Availability: Supports clustering (RAC), replication, and fault tolerance.
 Data Security: Strong security features like data encryption and user roles.
 Advanced Analytics: Built-in tools for data mining and analytics.
 Partitioning: Optimizes the performance of large databases.
3. Example Use Case
A multinational banking institution uses Oracle to:
 Handle high-volume transactions with ACID compliance.
 Perform complex queries for real-time fraud detection.
 Implement disaster recovery using Oracle Data Guard.
Case Study: PostgreSQL
1. Overview
PostgreSQL is an open-source, object-relational database system known for extensibility and
compliance with SQL standards.
 Target Audience: Developers and organizations needing flexibility.
 Licensing: Open-source under PostgreSQL License.
2. Key Features
 JSON/JSONB Support: Handles semi-structured data efficiently.

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A.P CSE
LNCTE
 Database Management Systems
 Advanced Indexing: Includes GIN, GiST, and BRIN indexes.
 Extensibility: Supports user-defined functions, data types, and operators.
 MVCC (Multi-Version Concurrency Control): Provides high concurrency.
 Foreign Data Wrappers (FDW): Access external data sources like APIs and other
databases.
3. Example Use Case
A startup builds an e-commerce platform using PostgreSQL to:
 Store structured customer and product data in relational tables.
 Manage inventory with JSONB for product metadata.
 Handle concurrent access by multiple users during peak sales.
Case Study: MySQL
1. Overview
MySQL, developed by Oracle Corporation, is a widely-used open-source RDBMS known for
simplicity and speed.
 Target Audience: Web applications and small to medium-sized businesses.
 Licensing: Open-source under GPL, with commercial versions available.
2. Key Features
 Simple Architecture: Easy setup and management.
 High Performance: Optimized for read-heavy operations.
 Replication: Master-slave and group replication for scalability.
 Storage Engines: InnoDB for transactions, MyISAM for simplicity.
 Cross-Platform Support: Works on Windows, Linux, macOS.
3. Example Use Case
A blogging platform uses MySQL to:
 Store user-generated content in a relational structure.
 Ensure data consistency using InnoDB with ACID properties.
 Support global traffic using read replicas for scalability.
Comparison Table
Feature Oracle PostgreSQL MySQL
Open-source + Commercial
License Commercial Open-source
versions
Best For Enterprise-level Flexible and standards- Web apps and small
Prof. Vineeta Shrivastava
A.P CSE
LNCTE
 Database Management Systems
Feature Oracle PostgreSQL MySQL
applications compliant businesses

Advanced locking
Concurrency MVCC MVCC
mechanisms
Extensibility Limited High Moderate
Rich (LOBs, XML, Extensive (JSONB, Limited (JSON support via
Data Types
JSON) arrays) plugin)
High for complex High for analytical
Performance High for simple workloads
queries workloads
Excellent (RAC, Data Good (sharding,
Scalability Good (replication)
Guard) replication)

Summary of Insights
 Oracle: Ideal for large-scale, mission-critical applications requiring robust
performance and advanced analytics.
 PostgreSQL: Suited for complex applications requiring customization and standards
compliance.
 MySQL: Best for lightweight, read-heavy applications with simple requirements, like
web apps.
Architecture, Physical Files, Memory Structures, and Background Processes in RDBMS
1. General RDBMS Architecture
An RDBMS architecture generally consists of:
 Client Layer: Interfaces like applications or tools for users to query and interact.
 Server Layer: The database engine that processes queries, manages transactions, and
stores data.
 Storage Layer: Physical files where the data resides
Physical Files in RDBMS
RDBMS stores data in structured physical files on disk.
 Data Files: Store actual database data in tables.
 Redo Logs: Record changes for recovery in case of failure.

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A.P CSE
LNCTE
 Database Management Systems
 Control Files: Contain metadata about the database structure.
 Temporary Files: Used for intermediate operations like sorting.
 Index Files: Maintain quick access paths for data retrieval.
Memory Structures
Memory is critical for query processing, caching, and performance optimization.
 Buffer Cache: Caches frequently accessed data blocks to reduce disk I/O.
 Shared Pool: Stores SQL statements, execution plans, and metadata for reuse.
 Redo Log Buffer: Temporarily stores redo log entries before writing to disk.
 Sort Area: Allocates memory for sorting operations.
 Session Memory: Isolates resources for individual user sessions.
Example (Oracle-Specific Memory Structure)
 System Global Area (SGA): Shared memory for all users.
 Program Global Area (PGA): Private memory for individual sessions.
Background Processes
Background processes handle essential operations like recovery, synchronization, and I/O.
Key Background Processes
1. DB Writer (DBWn): Writes dirty pages from buffer cache to disk.
2. Log Writer (LGWR): Writes redo log entries to disk from redo log buffer.
3. Checkpoint (CKPT): Signals DBWn to write all modified buffers to disk and
updates control files.
4. System Monitor (SMON): Handles instance recovery after a crash.
5. Process Monitor (PMON): Cleans up processes after failures and releases resources.
6. Archiver (ARCn): Archives redo logs for backup and recovery.
MySQL Example
In MySQL:
 The Query Optimizer ensures efficient query execution.
 The InnoDB Background Threads include:
o Master Thread: Manages I/O and transaction logs.
o Purge Thread: Cleans up obsolete undo logs.
Example Use Case: Query Execution Process
1. SQL Query Execution:
o Parsing: The SQL statement is parsed in memory and checked for syntax.

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A.P CSE
LNCTE
 Database Management Systems
o Optimization: Execution plans are generated and optimized using available
indexes.
o Execution: Data is fetched or modified by accessing buffer caches or data
files.
2. Write Operation:
o Changes are written to the Redo Log Buffer and marked as "dirty" in the
Buffer Cache.
o Background processes (e.g., DBWn) write the dirty buffers to disk.
3. Recovery:
o During a failure, SMON and LGWR ensure data consistency by replaying
redo logs and undoing incomplete transactions.
Summary Table
Component Description
Physical Files Data files, redo logs, control files, temporary files, index files.
Buffer cache, shared pool, redo log buffer, sort area, session
Memory Structures
memory.
Background Processes DBWn, LGWR, CKPT, SMON, PMON, ARCn.
Oracle (SGA/PGA), MySQL (InnoDB threads), PostgreSQL
Examples
(WAL).

Data Dictionary and Dynamic Performance Views

Data Dictionary
The data dictionary is a set of read-only tables and views containing metadata about the
database. It provides information about schema objects, users, storage structures, and system
performance.
 System-Owned Tables: Automatically maintained by the database system.
 Examples:
o USER_TABLES, ALL_TABLES, DBA_TABLES: Information about tables.
o USER_INDEXES, ALL_INDEXES: Metadata about indexes.
o USER_TAB_COLUMNS: Column details of tables.

Prof. Vineeta Shrivastava

A.P CSE
LNCTE
 Database Management Systems
Dynamic Performance Views (V$ Views)
Dynamic performance views monitor the real-time state of the database. These views are
prefixed with V$.
 Examples:
o V$SESSION: Current sessions in the database.
o V$SQL: Execution plans and query statistics.
o V$LOCK: Information on locks held by sessions.
o V$DATABASE: Details about the database instance.
Security, Role Management, and Privilege Management
Security
Security ensures only authorized users can access or manipulate data. Common mechanisms
include:
 Authentication: Ensuring valid user credentials.
 Encryption: Encrypting data at rest and in transit.
 Auditing: Monitoring and logging user activities.
Role Management
Roles are collections of privileges that simplify permission management.
 Predefined Roles: Provided by the database (e.g., DBA, CONNECT).
 Custom Roles: Defined by administrators for specific use cases.
 Granting and Revoking Roles: Using SQL statements:
sql

CREATE ROLE analyst;

GRANT SELECT ON employees TO analyst;
GRANT analyst TO user1;
Privilege Management
Privileges are permissions for performing specific actions.
 System Privileges: Database-wide operations (e.g., CREATE TABLE).
 Object Privileges: Specific operations on objects (e.g., SELECT, INSERT).
 SQL Statements:
Sql

Prof. Vineeta Shrivastava

A.P CSE
LNCTE
 Database Management Systems
GRANT SELECT ON employees TO user1;
REVOKE INSERT ON employees FROM user1;
Profiles
Profiles define resource limits for users, such as:
 Password complexity.
 Session timeouts.
 SQL Example:
sql

CREATE PROFILE app_user LIMIT PASSWORD_LIFE_TIME 30;

ALTER USER user1 PROFILE app_user;

Invoker-Defined Security Model

 Determines whether the privileges of the invoker (user executing the
function/procedure) or the definer (creator of the function/procedure) are used.
 SQL Example:
sql

CREATE OR REPLACE FUNCTION get_salary RETURN NUMBER AUTHID

CURRENT_USER IS
BEGIN
-- Code accessing tables based on invoker's privileges.
END;

SQL Queries

Hierarchical Queries

Used to retrieve hierarchical data (e.g., organizational structures).

 SQL Example:

sql

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A.P CSE
LNCTE
 Database Management Systems
SELECT employee_id, manager_id, LEVEL
FROM employees
CONNECT BY PRIOR employee_id = manager_id
START WITH manager_id IS NULL;
Inline Queries

A subquery defined within the main query, typically in the SELECT or FROM clause.

 SQL Example:

sql

SELECT emp_name, (SELECT dept_name FROM departments WHERE dept_id =

employees.dept_id)
FROM employees;
Flashback Queries

Recover past states of data using the database's undo logs.

 SQL Example:

sql

SELECT * FROM employees AS OF TIMESTAMP SYSDATE - INTERVAL '1'

DAY;

Summary Table

Concept Description

Data Dictionary Metadata tables (e.g., USER_TABLES, DBA_USERS)

Dynamic Views Real-time database stats (V$SESSION, V$LOCK)

Security Authentication, encryption, auditing

Role Management Roles for grouping privileges (DBA, CONNECT)

Prof. Vineeta Shrivastava

A.P CSE
LNCTE
 Database Management Systems
Concept Description

Privilege Management Grants/revokes object and system privileges

Profiles Define user-specific resource constraints

Invoker Security Model Uses invoker's privileges in procedures/functions

SQL Types Hierarchical queries, inline queries, flashback queries

Introduction to ANSI SQL

What is ANSI SQL?
ANSI SQL (American National Standards Institute SQL) is a standardized language for
managing and manipulating relational databases. It defines a set of rules and syntax that
ensure consistency across database systems.
Key Features of ANSI SQL
1. Portability: Queries written in ANSI SQL work on most RDBMS platforms (e.g.,
Oracle, MySQL, SQL Server).
2. Standardized Operations: Includes operations for data manipulation (CRUD),
schema definition, and data control.
3. Levels of Compliance:
o Entry Level: Basic features like SELECT, INSERT, UPDATE, DELETE.
o Intermediate Level: Advanced features like joins, subqueries, and views.
o Full Level: More sophisticated features like triggers and advanced data types.
ANSI SQL Components
1. DDL (Data Definition Language):
o Used for schema-related operations.
o Commands: CREATE, ALTER, DROP.
sql

CREATE TABLE employees (id INT, name VARCHAR(50), salary DECIMAL(10,

2));
2. DML (Data Manipulation Language):
o Used for managing data.
o Commands: SELECT, INSERT, UPDATE, DELETE.

Prof. Vineeta Shrivastava

A.P CSE
LNCTE
 Database Management Systems
sql

INSERT INTO employees (id, name, salary) VALUES (1, 'John Doe', 5000);
3. DCL (Data Control Language):
o Controls access to data.
o Commands: GRANT, REVOKE.
sql

GRANT SELECT ON employees TO user1;

4. TCL (Transaction Control Language):
o Manages transactions.
o Commands: COMMIT, ROLLBACK, SAVEPOINT.
sql

BEGIN;
UPDATE employees SET salary = salary + 500 WHERE id = 1;
COMMIT;
5. SQL Extensions: While ANSI SQL provides the foundation, most RDBMS systems
extend it with proprietary features.
Cursor Management
What is a Cursor?
A cursor is a database object used to retrieve, manipulate, and navigate through rows in a
query result set sequentially.
Types of Cursors
1. Implicit Cursors: Automatically created by the database for single-row queries.
2. Explicit Cursors: Defined by users to handle multi-row queries.

Cursor Management in SQL

Basic Cursor Lifecycle:
1. Declare: Define the cursor and its associated query.
2. Open: Initialize and populate the cursor with query results.
3. Fetch: Retrieve one row at a time from the cursor.
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A.P CSE
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 Database Management Systems
4. Close: Release the cursor and its resources.

Nested Cursors
Nested cursors are cursors defined and used inside another cursor. They allow processing
complex multi-level query results.
 Example:
Sql

DECLARE outer_cursor CURSOR FOR SELECT department_id FROM departments;

DECLARE inner_cursor CURSOR FOR SELECT employee_id FROM employees WHERE
department_id = ?;

OPEN outer_cursor;
FETCH NEXT FROM outer_cursor INTO @dept_id;

WHILE @@FETCH_STATUS = 0
BEGIN
OPEN inner_cursor FOR SELECT employee_id FROM employees WHERE
department_id = @dept_id;
FETCH NEXT FROM inner_cursor INTO @emp_id;

WHILE @@FETCH_STATUS = 0
BEGIN
PRINT @emp_id; -- Process the employee ID
FETCH NEXT FROM inner_cursor INTO @emp_id;
END;

CLOSE inner_cursor;
FETCH NEXT FROM outer_cursor INTO @dept_id;
END;

CLOSE outer_cursor;

Prof. Vineeta Shrivastava

A.P CSE
LNCTE
 Database Management Systems
Parameterized Cursors
Parameterized cursors accept input parameters to customize query execution.
 Example:
sql

DECLARE employee_cursor CURSOR FOR SELECT employee_id, name FROM

employees WHERE department_id = @dept_id;

SET @dept_id = 10; -- Pass parameter value

OPEN employee_cursor;
FETCH NEXT FROM employee_cursor INTO @emp_id, @emp_name;

WHILE @FETCH_STATUS = 0
BEGIN
PRINT @emp_id + ' ' + @emp_name;
FETCH NEXT FROM employee_cursor INTO @emp_id, @emp_name;
END;

CLOSE employee_cursor;

Key Points
1. ANSI SQL ensures cross-platform compatibility and standardization.
2. Cursors provide controlled access to query results, especially useful in procedural
logic.
3. Nested and Parameterized Cursors handle complex scenarios like multi-level
queries and dynamic data retrieval.

Stored Procedures

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A.P CSE
LNCTE
 Database Management Systems
What is a Stored Procedure?
A stored procedure is a precompiled collection of one or more SQL statements that can be
executed as a single unit. Stored procedures are stored within the database and are executed
by calling their name. They help improve performance by reducing the need to send multiple
SQL queries from the client application.
Usage of Parameters in Stored Procedures
Parameters in stored procedures allow dynamic and flexible execution. Stored procedures can
accept input parameters, output parameters, or input/output parameters.
1. Input Parameters: Used to pass values into the stored procedure.
sql

CREATE PROCEDURE GetEmployeeDetails (IN emp_id INT)

BEGIN
SELECT name, salary FROM employees WHERE id = emp_id;
END;
2. Output Parameters: Used to return values from the procedure to the caller.
sql

CREATE PROCEDURE GetEmployeeSalary (IN emp_id INT, OUT emp_salary

DECIMAL)
BEGIN
SELECT salary INTO emp_salary FROM employees WHERE id = emp_id;
END;
3. Input/Output Parameters: Can both receive and return values.
sql

CREATE PROCEDURE UpdateSalary (INOUT emp_id INT, IN salary_change

DECIMAL)
BEGIN
UPDATE employees SET salary = salary + salary_change WHERE id = emp_id;
SELECT salary FROM employees WHERE id = emp_id;

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 Database Management Systems
END;

User-Defined Functions (UDFs)

What is a User-Defined Function?
A User-Defined Function (UDF) is a function created by the user in the database that can be
used to perform specific operations and return a result. UDFs can be scalar (returning a single
value) or table-valued (returning a table).
 Scalar UDF: Returns a single value.
sql

CREATE FUNCTION GetEmployeeSalary (emp_id INT)

RETURNS DECIMAL
BEGIN
DECLARE emp_salary DECIMAL;
SELECT salary INTO emp_salary FROM employees WHERE id = emp_id;
RETURN emp_salary;
END;
 Table-Valued UDF: Returns a table of data.
sql

CREATE FUNCTION GetEmployeesByDept (dept_id INT)

RETURNS TABLE
AS
RETURN (SELECT name, salary FROM employees WHERE department_id =
dept_id);
Limitations of User-Defined Functions
 Side Effects: UDFs should be free from side effects, such as modifying the database
state (i.e., no INSERT, UPDATE, or DELETE operations).
 Performance: They can be less efficient in certain cases, especially when used in
large result sets.

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A.P CSE
LNCTE
 Database Management Systems
 Limited Execution Context: UDFs may not have access to certain system-level
resources, and their execution is generally restricted to return a value without side
effects.

Triggers
What is a Trigger?
A trigger is a stored procedure that automatically executes in response to certain events on a
table or view, such as INSERT, UPDATE, or DELETE. Triggers are typically used for
enforcing business rules, auditing, and preventing invalid transactions.
 Example of a Trigger:
sql

CREATE TRIGGER BeforeEmployeeInsert

BEFORE INSERT ON employees
FOR EACH ROW
BEGIN
IF NEW.salary < 0 THEN
SIGNAL SQLSTATE '45000' SET MESSAGE_TEXT = 'Salary cannot be
negative';
END IF;
END;
Mutating Table Errors in Triggers
A mutating table error occurs when a trigger tries to modify or query the same table that
caused the trigger to fire. This leads to inconsistency or recursion.
 Example: If an AFTER UPDATE trigger tries to query or update the same table (e.g.,
employees), it causes a mutating table error because the data in the table is in an
inconsistent state.
sql

CREATE TRIGGER AfterEmployeeUpdate

AFTER UPDATE ON employees
FOR EACH ROW

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 Database Management Systems
BEGIN
UPDATE employees SET salary = salary * 1.1 WHERE department_id
= :NEW.department_id;
END;
-- This may cause a mutating error because we are modifying the same table within
the trigger.
Instead of Triggers
An INSTEAD OF trigger allows you to define a custom action for a DML operation
(INSERT, UPDATE, or DELETE) instead of performing the default operation. This is useful
for views or complex logic that cannot directly be handled with the base table.
 Example of an INSTEAD OF Trigger:
sql

CREATE TRIGGER InsteadOfInsertForView

INSTEAD OF INSERT ON employee_view
FOR EACH ROW
BEGIN
INSERT INTO employees (id, name, salary) VALUES
(:NEW.id, :NEW.name, :NEW.salary);
END;
 In this example, the INSTEAD OF trigger ensures that when an insert is attempted on
the employee_view, the trigger inserts the data into the actual employees table.

Key Points Summary

Concept Description
Stored Precompiled SQL code executed as a unit; can accept input, output, or
Procedures I/O parameters.
User-Defined Functions created by users to perform calculations or return values.
Functions Limitations include no side effects (no INSERT, UPDATE, or DELETE).
Automated procedures that execute on data changes. Useful for auditing
Triggers
or enforcing rules.
Mutating Errors Occurs when a trigger modifies or queries the same table that triggered it.
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LNCTE
 Database Management Systems
Concept Description

INSTEAD OF Customizes the actions for DML operations on views or tables. Executes
Triggers instead of the default action.

Prof. Vineeta Shrivastava

A.P CSE
LNCTE