Module 1

Basics of Communication System

Module 1 contents
• 1.1 Block diagram, electromagnetic spectrum, signal bandwidth and
power, types of communication channels, Introduction to time and
frequency domain. Basic concepts of wave propagation.

• 1.2 Types of noise, signal to noise ratio, noise figure, noise

temperature and Friss formula.
Historical Background

Telegraph
Radio
Telephone
Electronics
Television
Digital Communications
Computer Networks
Satellite Communications
Optical Communications
Let us discuss….
• What is Communication?
The word communication arises from the Latin word commūnicāre, which means
“to share”. Communication is the basic step for exchange of information.
• What is Electronic Communication?

Electronic communication uses electronic circuits to transmit, process, and receive

information between two or more locations.

The basic components of an Electronic communication system include a

transmitter, a communication medium or channel, a receiver and noise.

Information is transmitted into the system in analog or digital form, it is then

processed and decoded by the receiver.
 Terminologies in communication systems
• Terminology is a general word for the group of specialized words or meanings relating to a
particular field, and also the study of such terms and their use, this also known
as terminology science.

• Basic terminology used in electronic communication systems:

Signal: Conveying an information by some means such as gestures, sounds, actions, etc., can
be termed as signaling
- A signal carries information and contains energy.
- function that conveys information about a phenomenon.
- In electronics and telecommunications, it refers to any time varying voltage, current or
electromagnetic wave that carries information.
- A signal may also be defined as an observable change in a quality such as quantity
• Signals are classified into the following categories:
Continuous Time and Discrete Time Signals
Deterministic and Non-deterministic Signals
Even and Odd Signals
Periodic and Aperiodic Signals
Energy and Power Signals
Real and Imaginary Signals
• Continuous Time and Discrete Time Signals
A signal is said to be continuous when it is defined for all instants of time.
• A signal is said to be discrete when it is defined at only discrete instants of time

• A digital signal is a signal that is constructed from a discrete set of waveform of a

physical quantity so as to represent a sequence of discrete values
Transducer
• The transducer is a device that converts one form of energy into another form of
energy.

• In electronic communication, Transducer is mainly a device that converts one form

of physical variables such as temperature, pressure and force etc. into a
corresponding electrical signal and provides it as an output.

• Transducer converts the mechanical input into electrical energy.

• The simplest example of a Transducer is the receiver of our phone. A mechanical

input, our voice in the form of sound waves, is provided to the phone which in turn
converts it into an electrical signal and transmits it.
• Other common examples include loud-speakers and antennas.
• Communication Channel:

This is the medium by which a signal can be transmitted from the sender to the receiver. It can be a simple
copper wire or a satellite system.
Transmission channel may be analog or digital
• Receiver
A receiver is a device that receives the signals sent/ transmitted by the senders and decodes them into a form that is
understandable by the humans.
A common example of a receiver is the television.
• Data Transfer Rate
The speed of data transferred or received over transmission channel, measured per
unit time, is called data transfer rate. The smallest unit of measurement is bits per
second (bps). 1 bps means 1 bit (0 or 1) of data is transferred in 1 second.
1 Bps = 1 Byte per second = 8 bits per second
1 kbps = 1 kilobit per second = 1024 bits per second
1 Mbps = 1 Megabit per second = 1024 Kbps
1 Gbps = 1 Gigabit per second = 1024 Mbps
• Attenuation
Attenuation refers to the reduction in the strength of the analog or digital signal as it is
transmitted over a communication medium or channel. Attenuation often occurs when
signals are transmitted over long distances.
• Amplitude
An amplitude of the signal refers to the strength of the signal.

• Amplification
Sometimes when the distance between the sender of the signal and the receiver of the
signal is too large, the amplitude of the signals drop significantly. To remedy the problem of
weak signals, amplification of the signals is carried out to rejuvenate their strength.
Amplification is the process to strengthening the amplitude of the signals using an electronic
circuit.
• Bandwidth
Bandwidth describes the range of frequency over which a signal has been transmitted.
Modern day networks provide bandwidth in Kbps, Mbps and Gbps.
Some of the factors affecting a network’s bandwidth include.
Network devices used
Protocols used
Number of users connected
Network overheads like collision, errors, etc.

• Range:
It is the largest distance between a source and a destination up to which the signal is received with
sufficient strength.
• Modulation
Modulation refers to the act of adding information to an electronic or optical waveform. The information
may be added by altering the frequency, phase of the waveform and, its amplitude.
• Need of Modulation
1) Modulation is needed because most of the time information is generated and transmitted via
signals having low frequencies.
A low-frequency signal is highly susceptible to attenuation and therefore it cannot be transferred to
long distant locations.
In order to rectify this problem, the original carrier wave having a low frequency is superimposed
upon a high-frequency carrier wave. This process is known as modulation.
AM and FM are both examples of Modulation.

2) Height of Antenna
For efficient transmission & reception, the antenna height should be at least one-fourth the signal
wavelength (λ/4).
To transmit a signal of f = 10kHz , Minimum antenna height = λ/4 = c/(4f) = 7500 m 
This is practically impossible !!
Consider a modulated signal at f = 1 MHz , Minimum antenna height = λ/4 = c/(4f) = 75 m  This can
be installed practically.
 • 3) Avoids mixing of signals
All sound is concentrated within the range from 20 Hz to 20 kHz. 
If no modulation is used, all the signals would get mixed up.
The receiver would not be able to separate them from each other.
If each baseband signal is used to modulate a different carrier, then they will
occupy different slots in the frequency domain.
• 4) Allows Multiplexing
Multiplexing – Two or more signals can be transmitted over the same channel simultaneously.
Multiplexing allows the same channel to be used by many signals.
Therefore, many TV channels can use the same frequency range without getting mixed up with
each other.

5) Increases Range of communication

• Low frequency signal – low energy – travels low distances
• High frequency signal – high energy –travels longer distances
• Demodulation
Demodulation reverses modulation. It takes a
signal and extracts the original message out of it.

• Repeater
The job of the repeater is to extend the range of the communication systems
by amplifying the signals.
The repeaters act as both the sender and the receiver in the communication
system.
A weak signal is received at the repeater which is then amplified and
retransmitted.
• Noise
Any electrical signal that interferes with the information signal is known as noise
It can come from a variety of sources in the environment such as the rain, hailstorms or
thunderstorms etc.
Noise is always present in the system, it can be diminished but it can never be completely
eliminated.
In some instances, noise may even be generated by the receiver and hinder the demodulation
process.
 Basic Parts of a Communication System

•Sender is the person who sends a message. It could be a transmitting station from where the
signal is transmitted.

•Channel is the medium through which the message signals travel to reach the destination.

•Receiver is the person who receives the message. It could be a receiving station where the
transmitted signal is being received.
Basic analog communications system
Baseband signal
(electrical EM waves (modulated
signal)+ Transmitter signal)

Input Transmission
transducer Modulator
Channel

EM waves (modulated
Carrier signal)
Baseband signal
(electrical signal) Receiver

Output
Demodulator
transducer
Electromagnetic spectrum and Applications
•What is the Electromagnetic Spectrum?
The Electromagnetic Spectrum refers to the full range of all
possible Electromagnetic Field energy frequencies. This
energy traveling through space is called radiation.

Radiation is a process by which energy particles or waves

travel though space.
Radiant Energy is made up of small packets of particles,
called photons.
Photons can travel alone or move around together in synchrony.
When photons move together, they do so in waves.
These waves are all categorized by least powerful to most powerful,
depending on their
Energy (E),
Wavelength (λ), and
Frequency (f).
• Energy is how much “juice” it carries.
• The frequency of a wave is the number of waves per
second.

• The wavelength is the distance from the peak of one wave

to the next one.

To visualize these different spans of waves, scientists came up with

the Electromagnetic Spectrum.
• visible energy or the light energy we see with our eyeballs
lands in the middle of the spectrum.
• Visible light energy is generally not harmful. It’s considered a
safe zone.
• To the right, you have high energy ionizing radiation, which is
bad for you.
• Ultraviolet light is famous for wrinkling skin, mutating skin
cells and causing melanoma.
• Even further out, X-rays or Gamma rays are capable of
annihilating atomic structure.
Frequencies on the Electromagnetic
Spectrum
• The Frequency (F) spectrum starts close to zero (0) and can extend to
infinity. The Wavelength (W) spectrum also starts around zero and extends
to infinity, in reverse.
The following identifies frequency band designations, nominal frequency
ranges, nominal wavelengths, and application uses.

Band Designation Frequency (Hz) Wavelength Applications

Extremely Low 30 Hz - 300 Hz 10,000 km - 1,000 km Electronics, Submarine

Frequency (ELF) Radio Communications
 3.2.4 Time and Frequency Domains

A sine wave is comprehensively defined by its amplitude, frequency,

and phase. We have been showing a sine wave by using what is
called a time domain plot. The time-domain plot shows changes in
signal amplitude with respect to time (it is an amplitude-versus-time
plot). Phase is not explicitly shown on a time-domain plot.
 Figure 3.8: The time and frequency-domain plots of a sine wave

3.32
 Example 3.7

The frequency domain is more compact and useful when we

are dealing with more than one sine wave. For example,
Figure 3.9 shows three sine waves, each with different
amplitude and frequency. All can be represented by three
spikes in the frequency domain.

3.33
 Figure 3.9: The time and frequency domain of three sine waves

3.34
 3.2.5 Composite Signals

So far, we have focused on simple sine waves.

Simple sine waves have many applications in daily
life. We can send a single sine wave to carry electric
energy from one place to another. For example, the
power company sends a single sine wave with a
frequency of 60 Hz to distribute electric energy to
houses and businesses. As another example, we can
use a single sine wave to send an alarm to a security
center when a burglar opens a door or window in
the house. In the first case, the sine wave is carrying
energy; in the second, the sine wave is a signal of
danger.
3.35
 Example 3.8

Figure 3.10 shows a periodic composite signal with

frequency f. This type of signal is not typical of those found
in data communications. We can consider it to be three
alarm systems, each with a different frequency. The analysis
of this signal can give us a good understanding of how to
decompose signals. It is very difficult to manually
decompose this signal into a series of simple sine waves.
However, there are tools, both hardware and software, that
can help us do the job. We are not concerned
about how it is done; we are only interested in the result.
Figure 3.11 shows the result of decomposing the above
signal in both the time and frequency domains.

3.36
 Figure 3.10: A composite periodic signal

3.37
 Figure 3.11: Decomposition of a composite periodic signal

3.38
 Example 3.9

Figure 3.12 shows a nonperiodic composite signal. It can be

the signal created by a microphone or a telephone set when a
word or two is pronounced. In this case, the composite
signal cannot be periodic, because that implies that we are
not repeating the same word or words with exactly the
same tone.

3.39
 Figure 3.12: Time and frequency domain of a non-periodic signal

3.40
 3.2.6 Bandwidth

The range of frequencies contained in a composite

signal is its bandwidth. The bandwidth is normally a
difference between two numbers. For example, if a
composite signal contains frequencies between 1000
and 5000, its bandwidth is 5000 − 1000, or 4000.

3.41
 Figure 3.13: The bandwidth of periodic and nonperiodic composite
signals

3.42
 Example 3.10

If a periodic signal is decomposed into five sine waves with

frequencies of 100, 300, 500, 700, and 900 Hz, what is its
bandwidth? Draw the spectrum, assuming all components
have a maximum amplitude of 10 V.

Solution
Let fh be the highest frequency, fl the lowest frequency, and
B the bandwidth. Then

3.43
 Figure 3.14: The bandwidth for example 3.10

3.44
 Example 3.11

A periodic signal has a bandwidth of 20 Hz. The highest

frequency is 60 Hz. What is the lowest frequency? Draw the
spectrum if the signal contains all frequencies of the same
amplitude.
Solution
Let fh be the highest frequency, fl the lowest frequency, and
B the bandwidth. Then

The spectrum contains all integer frequencies. We show this

by a series of spikes (see Figure 3.15).

3.45
 Figure 3.15: The bandwidth for example 3.11

3.46
 Example 3.12

A nonperiodic composite signal has a bandwidth of 200

kHz, with a middle frequency of 140 kHz and peak
amplitude of 20 V. The two extreme frequencies have an
amplitude of 0. Draw the frequency domain of the signal.

Solution
The lowest frequency must be at 40 kHz and the highest at
240 kHz. Figure 3.16 shows the frequency domain and the
bandwidth.

3.47
 Figure 3.16: The bandwidth for example 3.12

3.48
 Example 3.15

Another example of a nonperiodic composite signal is the

signal received by an old-fashioned analog black-and-white
TV. A TV screen is made up of pixels (picture elements)
with each pixel being either white or black. The screen is
scanned 30 times per second. If we assume a resolution of
525 × 700 (525 vertical lines and 700 horizontal lines),
which is a ratio of 3:4, we have 367,500 pixels per screen. If
we scan the screen 30 times per second, this is 367,500 × 30
= 11,025,000 pixels per second. The worst-case scenario is
alternating black and white pixels. In this case, we need to
represent one color by the minimum amplitude and the other
color by the maximum amplitude. We can send 2 pixels per
cycle.
3.49
 Example 3.15 (continued)

Therefore, we need 11,025,000 / 2 = 5,512,500 cycles per

second, or Hz. The bandwidth needed is 5.5124 MHz. This
worst-case scenario has such a low probability of occurrence
that the assumption is that we need only 70 percent of this
bandwidth, which is 3.85 MHz. Since audio and
synchronization signals are also needed, a 4-MHz
bandwidth has been set aside for each black and white TV
channel. An analog color TV channel has a 6-MHz
bandwidth.

3.50
Types of Communication channels.
• 1. Guided Media:
It is also referred to as Wired or Bounded transmission media.
Signals being transmitted are directed and confined in a narrow
pathway by using physical links.
• Features:
High Speed
Secure
Used for comparatively shorter distances

There are 3 major types of Guided Media:

It consists of 2 separately insulated conductor wires wound about each
other.

Generally, several such pairs are bundled together in a protective

sheath.

They are the most widely used Transmission Media. Twisted Pair is of
two types:
• Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP):

This type of cable has the ability to block interference and does not depend
on a physical shield for this purpose.
It is used for telephonic applications.
Advantages:
• Least expensive
• Easy to install
• High speed capacity
• Disadvantages:
• Susceptible to external interference
• Lower capacity and performance in comparison to STP
• Short distance transmission due to attenuation
• Shielded Twisted Pair (STP):

This type of cable consists of a special jacket to block external interference.

It is used in fast-data-rate Ethernet and in voice and data channels of
telephone lines.
Advantages:
• Better performance at a higher data rate in comparison to UTP
• Eliminates crosstalk
• Comparatively faster

• Disadvantages:
• Comparatively difficult to install and manufacture
• More expensive
• Bulky
It has an outer plastic covering containing 2 parallel conductors each having a
separate insulated protection cover.
Coaxial cable transmits information in two modes:
Baseband mode(dedicated cable bandwidth) and
Broadband mode(cable bandwidth is split into separate ranges).
Cable TVs and analog television networks widely use Coaxial cables.

• Advantages:
High Bandwidth
Better noise Immunity
Easy to install and expand
Inexpensive
• Disadvantages:
Single cable failure can disrupt the entire network
 • It uses the concept of reflection of light through a core made up of glass
or plastic. The core is surrounded by a less dense glass or plastic
covering called the cladding. It is used for transmission of large volumes
of data.
• Advantages:
Increased capacity and bandwidth
Light weight
Less signal attenuation
Immunity to electromagnetic interference
Resistance to corrosive materials
• Disadvantages:
Difficult to install and maintain
High cost
Fragile
unidirectional, ie, will need another fibre, if we need bidirectional
communication
• Unguided Media:

It is also referred to as Wireless or Unbounded transmission media.

No physical medium is required for the transmission of
electromagnetic signals.

• Features:
Signal is broadcasted through air
Less Secure
Used for larger distances
It is a line of sight transmission i.e. the sending and receiving antennas need
to be properly aligned with each other. The distance covered by the signal is
directly proportional to the height of the antenna. Frequency Range:1GHz –
300GHz. These are majorly used for mobile phone communication and
television distribution.
•Radio waves
These are easy to generate and can penetrate through buildings. The sending and
receiving antennas need not be aligned. AM and FM radios and cordless phones use
Radio waves for transmission.
• Further Categorized as (i) Terrestrial and (ii) Satellite.
Wave propagation
 Noise
• Noise is an unwanted signal which interferes with the original message signal and corrupts the
parameters of the message signal.
• This alteration in the communication process, leads to the message getting altered.
• It is most likely to be entered at the channel or the receiver.
• Hence, it is understood that noise is some signal which has
no pattern and no constant frequency or amplitude.
• It is quite random and unpredictable.
• Measures are usually taken to reduce it, though it can’t be completely eliminated.
• Most common examples of noise are −
• Hiss sound in radio receivers
• Buzz sound amidst of telephone conversations
• Flicker in television receivers, etc.
Effects of Noise

• Noise limits the operating range of the systems

• Noise indirectly places a limit on the weakest signal that can be amplified by an
amplifier. The oscillator in the mixer circuit may limit its frequency because of noise.
A system’s operation depends on the operation of its circuits. Noise limits the
smallest signal that a receiver is capable of processing.
• Noise affects the sensitivity of receivers
• Sensitivity is the minimum amount of input signal necessary to obtain the specified
quality output.
• Noise affects the sensitivity of a receiver system, which eventually affects the output.
 Types of NOISE

EXTERNAL NOISE INTERNAL NOISE

Atmospheric Noise Thermal Agitation Noise

(White/Johnson)
Extraterrestrial Noise
Shot Noise
• Solar Noise
Transit-Time Noise
• Cosmic Noise

Industrial Noise/
man-made
 EXTERNAL NOISE
External noise is defined as the type of Noise which is generated
externally due to communication system.

Atmospheric Noise

✔ Atmospheric noise is to listen to shortwaves on a receiver which is not well

equipped to receive them.

✔ The majority of these radio waves come from natural sources of disturbance
….They represent atmospheric noise, generally called static noise.

✔ Static is caused by lightning discharges in thunderstorms and other natural

electric disturbances occurring in the atmosphere

✔ The static is likely to be more severe but less frequent if the storm is local…
 EXTERNAL NOISE
Static field strength is inversely proportional to frequency, so that this noise will
interfere more with the reception of radio than that of television

Characteristics of atmospheric noise…

• Atmospheric noise becomes less severe at frequencies above about 30 MHz
Two separate factors.

1. The higher frequencies are limited to line-of-sight propagation i.e., less than
80 kilometers or so.

2. Nature of the mechanism generating this noise is such that very little of it is
created in the VHF range and above.
 EXTERNAL NOISE
Extra-terrestrial Noise
There are almost as many types of space noise as there are sources !!!
We divide into two sub groups

1. Solar : Surface temperature is over 6000 degree Celsius..

Two Types:

In normal " quiet'' conditions It radiates over a very broad frequency spectrum which
includes the frequencies we use for communication.

Undergoes cycles of peak activity from which electrical disturbances erupt, such as solar
flares and sunspots

2. Cosmic (Thermal/black-body ): Due to distance stars radiates RF noise like sun!

Characteristic : It is distributed fairly uniformly over the entire sky..

 SPACE NOISE FREQUENCIES

Space noise is observable at frequencies in the range from about 8

MHz to somewhat above 1.43 gigahertz (1.43 GHz)

Man-made noise it is the strongest component over the range of

about 20 to 120 MHz
 EXTERNAL NOISE
Industrial Noise: Sources of Industrial noise are auto-mobiles, aircraft, ignition of
electric motors and switching gear.

The main cause of Industrial noise is High voltage wires. These noises is generally
produced by the discharge present in the operations.

Lies between the frequencies of 1 to 600 MHz (in urban, suburban and other industrial
areas)

Characteristic: This noise obey the general principle that received noise increases as
the receiver bandwidth is increased

* The intensity of noise made by humans easily outstrips that created by any
other source
 INTERNAL NOISE
Internal Noise are the type of Noise which are generated internally or within the
Communication System or in the receiver. They may be treated qualitatively and
can also be reduced or minimized by the proper designing of the system

❑ Noise created by any of the active or passive devices found in receivers.

Characteristics:

Are described statistically

Random noise power is proportional to the bandwidth over

which it is measured.
 INTERNAL NOISE: THERMAL AGITATION NOISE

Thermal Agitation Noise :

• The noise generated in a resistance or the resistive component is random

and is referred to as thermal,

• White or Johnson noise is due to the rapid and random motion of the
molecules (atoms and electrons) inside the component itself.

• The kinetic energy of these particles becomes approximately zero {i.e.,

their motion ceases) at the temperature of absolute zero, which is 0
degree K and is very nearly equals - 273°C.
 2. Thermal Noise (Johnson Noise) (Cont’d)
The law relating noise power, N, to the temperature and bandwidth is

N = k TB watts

Thermal noise is often referred to as ‘white noise’ because it has a

uniform ‘spectral density’.

115
INTERNAL NOISE

(15)
THERMAL NOISE PROBLEM (Internal Noise)

K=1.380 649. 10^-23 J / K

Boltzmann constant
 INTERNAL NOISE (rms noise voltage
associated with a resistor)
If an ordinary resistor at the standard temperature of 17°C (290 K) is connected
to any voltage source, there may even be quite a large voltage across it.

Since it is random and therefore has a finite rms value but no dc component,
only the alternating current (ac) meter will register a reading.

This noise voltage is caused by the random movement of electrons within the
resistor, which constitutes a current.
INTERNAL NOISE (rms noise voltage
associated with a resistor)
PL=Vn2{RL/(R+RL)2}

(16)
INTERNAL NOISE (rms noise voltage
associated with a resistor)
 INTERNAL NOISE : Shot Noise
Shot noise occurs in all amplifying devices and virtually in all active devices.

It is caused by random variations in the arrival of electrons ( or holes) at the

output electrode of an amplifying device and appears as a randomly varying
noise current superimposed on the output.

When amplified, it is supposed to sound as though a shower of lead shot were

falling on a metal sheet. Hence the name shot noise.

Shot noise behaves in a similar manner to thermal agitation noise, apart from
the fact that it has a different source.
 3. Shot Noise
• Shot noise was originally used to describe noise due to random
fluctuations in electron emission from cathodes in vacuum tubes (called
shot noise by analogy with lead shot).
• Shot noise also occurs in semiconductors due to the liberation of charge
carriers.
• For pn junctions the mean square shot noise current is

Where
is the direct current as the pn junction (amps)
is the reverse saturation current (amps)
is the electron charge = 1.6 x 10-19 coulombs
B is the effective noise bandwidth (Hz)

• Shot noise is found to have a uniform spectral density as for thermal

noise 122
INTERNAL NOISE: Transit-Time Noise
(Active Device)
If the time taken by an electron to travel from the emitter to the collector of a
transistor becomes significant to the period of the signal being amplified, i.e., at
frequencies in the upper VHF (30-300 MHz) range and beyond, the so-called
transit-time effect takes place….

The minute currents induced in the input of the device by random fluctuations in
the output current become of great importance at VHF and above frequencies
and create random noise (frequency distortion).
 INTERNAL NOISE: Transit-Time Noise
(Active Device)
Once this high-frequency noise makes its presence felt, it goes on
increasing with frequency at a rate that soon approaches 6 decibels (6 dB)
per octave

The result of all this is that it is preferable to measure noise at such high
frequencies, instead of trying to calculate an input equivalent noise
resistance for it.
Analysis of Noise In Communication Systems
Resistors in Series
Assume that R1 at
temperature T1 and R2 at
temperature T2, then

i.e. The resistor in series at same temperature behave as a

single resistor 125
 Analysis of Noise In Communication Systems
(Cont’d)
Resistance in Parallel
NOISE CALCULATIONS :Addition of Noise due to Several
Sources
 Addition of Noise due to Several
Amplifiers in Cascade
Figure below shows a number of amplifying stages in cascade, each having a resistance at its input and
output.

The first such stage is very often an RF amplifier, while the second is a mixer. The problem is to find
their combined effect on the receiver noise
Addition of Noise due to Several
Amplifiers in Cascade
 Signal-to-Noise Ratio

The calculation of the equivalent noise resistance of an amplifier, receiver or device

may have one of two purposes or sometimes both.

The first purpose is comparison of two kinds of equipment in evaluating their

performance.

The second is comparison of noise and signal at the same point to ensure that the
noise is not excessive.

In the second instance, and also when equivalent noise resistance is difficult to
obtain, the signal-to-noise ratio (SIN) is very often used.

It is defined as the ratio of signal power to noise power at the same

point. ….
• To measure the quality of a system the SNR is often used. It indicates the strength
of the signal wrt the noise power in the system.
• It is the ratio between two powers.
• It is usually given in dB and referred to as SNRdB.
 Signal to Noise
The signal to noise ratio is given by

The signal to noise in dB is expressed by

for S and N measured in mW.

134
 Example

The power of a signal is 10 mW and the power of the noise is 1 μW; what are
the values of SNR and SNRdB ?

Solution
The values of SNR and SNRdB can be calculated as follows:

3.135
 Example 3.32

The values of SNR and SNRdB for a noiseless channel are

We can never achieve this ratio in real life; it is an ideal.

3.136
 Figure 3.30 Two cases of SNR: a high SNR and a low SNR

3.137
 Noise Factor- Noise Figure (Cont’d)
• The amount of noise added by the network is embodied in the
Noise Factor F, which is defined by

Noise factor F =

• F equals to 1 for noiseless network and in general F > 1. The noise figure in the noise
factor quoted in dB
i.e. Noise Figure F dB = 10 log10 F F ≥ 0 dB

• The noise figure / factor is the measure of how much a network degrades the
(S/N)IN, the lower the value of F, the better the network.
138
Calculation of noise figure
 Noise Figure – Noise Factor for Active Elements
For active elements with power gain G>1, we have

F= = But

Therefore

Since in general F v> 1 , then is increased by noise due to the active element i.e.

Na represents ‘added’ noise measured at the output. This added noise may
be referred to the input as extra noise, i.e. as equivalent diagram is
Noise Figure – Noise Factor for Active Elements (Cont’d)

Ne is extra noise due to active elements referred to the input; the

element is thus effectively noiseless.
Noise Figure – Noise Factor for Passive Elements

147
Review of Noise Factor – Noise Figure –Temperature

149
 Cascaded Network
A receiver systems usually consists of a number of passive or active elements
connected in series. A typical receiver block diagram is shown below, with example

In order to determine the (S/N) at the input, the overall receiver noise figure or noise
temperature must be determined. In order to do this all the noise must be referred to the same
point in the receiver, for example to A, the feeder input or B, the input to the first amplifier.

150
or is the noise referred to the input.
 System Noise Figure
Assume that a system comprises the elements shown below,

Assume that these are now cascaded and connected to an aerial at the input, with
from the aerial.

Now ,

Since

similarly
 system Noise Figure (Cont’d)

The overall system Noise Factor is

The equation is called FRIIS Formula. 152

System Noise Temperature

153
Example 14
•For three cascaded amplifier stages,
each with noise figure of 3 db and power
gain of 10 db. Determine the total noise
figure?