ANALOG AND DIGITAL

COMMUNICATION SYSTEM

MODULE 5
 ANALOG
COMMUNICATION
MODERN COMMUNICATION SYSTEM
 Communication engineering deals with the techniques of transmitting
information.
 Communication engineering means electrical communication, in
which information is transmitted through electrical signals.
 Electrical communication is a process by which the information
message is transmitted from one point to another, from one person to
another, or from one place to another in the form of electrical signals,
through some communication link.
 Basic communication system provides a link between the information
source and its destination. The process of electrical communication
involves sending, receiving, and processing information in electrical
form.
 The information to be transmitted passes through a number of stages
of the communication system prior it reaches its destination.
MODREN COMMUNICATION SYSTEM
The main elements of basic communication
system are:
(i) Information source and input transducer
(ii) Transmitter
(iii) Channel or medium
(iv) Noise
(v) Receiver
(vi) Output transducer and final destination.
Information source:
 A communication system transmits information
from an information source to a destination and
hence the first stage of a communication system is
the information source.
 Ex: A sentence or paragraph spoken by a person is a
message that contains some information. The
person, in this case, acts as information source. Few
other familiar examples of messages are voice, live
scenes, music, written text, and e-mail.
 A communication system transmits information in
the form of electrical signal or signals.
Input transducer:
 A transducer is a device that converts a non-electrical energy into its
corresponding electrical energy called signal and vice versa, e.g., during a
telephone conversation, the words spoken by a person are in the form of
sound energy.
 Example -- microphone.
Microphone converts sound signals into the corresponding electrical
signals.
 Similarly, a television (TV) picture tube converts electrical signals into its
corresponding pictures.
 Some other examples of transducers are movie cameras, Video Cassette,
Recorder (VCR) heads, tape recorder heads, and loudspeakers.
 The information produced by the information source is applied to the next
stage, termed the information or input /transducer. This in turn, produces
an electrical signal corresponding to the information as output. This
electrical signal is called the baseband signal. It is also called a message
signal s(t).
 There are two types of signals. (a) analog signal, and (b) digital signal.
Analog Signal
DIGITAL SIGNAL
 Transmitter

The transmitter section processes the signal prior

transmission. There are two following options for
processing signals prior transmission:
(i) The baseband signal, which lies in the low
frequency spectrum, is translated to a higher
frequency spectrum.
 The baseband signal is transmitted without translating it to a higher
(ii)
frequency spectrum.

 The baseband signal is converted into a corresponding series of sine

waves of two different frequencies prior to transmission. Figure 4.4
illustrates this processing.

 The carrier communication system is based on the principle of

translating a low frequency baseband signal to higher frequency
spectrum. This process is termed as modulation.

 If the baseband signal is a digital signal, the carrier communication

system is called a digital communication system. The digital modulation
methods are employed for this.

 If the baseband signal is an analog signal, the carrier communication

system is called as an analog communication system and for processing
the analog modulation techniques are used.
Channel or Medium:
 After the required processing, the transmitter
section passes the signal to the transmission
medium.
 The signal propagates through the
transmission medium and is received at the
other side by the receiver section. The
transmission medium between the transmitter
and the receiver is called a channel.
Channel :
 Channel is a very important part of a communication
system as its characteristics add many constraints to
the design of the communication system, e.g., most
of the noise is added to the signal during its
transmission through the channel.
 Depending on the physical implementations, one
can classify the channels in the following two groups:
 Hardware Channels
 Software Channels
Hardware Channels:
 These channels are manmade structure which can be used as
transmission medium.
 There are following three possible implementations of the hardware
channels.
 Transmission lines
 Waveguides
 Optical Fiber Cables (OFC)
 The examples of transmission lines are Twisted-pair cables used in
landline telephony and coaxial cables used for cable TV transmission.
However, transmission lines are not suitable for ultra-high frequency
(UHF) transmission.
 To transmit signals at UHF range, Waveguides are employed as medium.
Waveguides are hollow, circular, or rectangular metallic structures. The
signals enter the waveguide, are reflected at the metallic walls, and
propagate towards the other end of the waveguide.
 Optical fiber cables are highly sophisticated transmission media, in the
form of extremely thin circular pipes. e.g., landline telephony and cable
TV network.
Software Channels:

 There are certain natural resources which can be used as the transmission
medium for signals.

 Such transmission media are called software channels.

 The possible natural resources that can be used as software channels are:
air or open space and sea water.

 The most widely used software channel is air or open space. The signals
are transmitted in the form of electromagnetic (em) waves, also called
radio waves.

 Systems that use radio waves to transmit signals through open space are
called radio communication systems, e.g., radio broad cast, television
transmission, satellite communication, and cellular mobile communication.
Noise:
 In electronics and communication engineering,
noise is defined as unwanted electrical energy of
random and unpredictable nature present in the
system due to any cause.
 Obviously, noise is an electrical disturbance,
which does not contain any useful information.
Thus, noise is a highly undesirable part of a
communication system, and have to be
minimized.
SNR and Noise Figure (F):
• One can define the SNR as the ratio of the
signal power to the noise power at a point in
the circuit.
• Now, if Ps, is signal power and Pn, is noise
power, then SNR expressed as S/N, is given as
• is given as
(S/N) = (Ps/Pn)
 Receiver:

 The task of the receiver is to provide the original information to the

user.
 This information is altered due to the processing at the transmitter
side.
 The signal received by the receiver, thus does not contain
information in its original form.
 The receiver system receives the transmitted signal and performs
some processing on it to the original baseband signal.
 The function of the receiver section is to separate the noise from the
received signal, and then recover the original baseband signal by
performing some processing on it.
 The receiver performs an operation known as demodulation, which
brings the baseband signal from the higher frequency spectrum to
its original low-frequency spectrum.
 The demodulation process removes the high frequency carrier from
 From Fig. 4.6 it is evident that the received signal, r(t),
is first amplified by the front-end voltage amplifier.
 This is done to strengthen the received signal, which
is weak and to facilitate easy processing.
 Next, this signal is given to the demodulator, which in
turn, demodulates the received signal to recover the
original baseband signal.
 After recovering the original baseband signal, its
voltage and power is amplified prior it to final
destination block.
 MULTIPLEXING
 This is a technique that is most widely used in
nearly all types of communication systems,
radio and line communication systems.
 Basically, multiplexing is a process which allows
more than one signal to transmit through a
single channel.
 The use of multiplexing also makes the
communication system economical because
more than one signal can be transmitted
through a single channel.
 Multiplexing is possible in communication
system only through modulation.
MULTIPLEXING
 To consider multiplexing, let us consider the
following example.
 If many people speak loudly and simultaneously, then it
becomes nearly impossible to understand their
conversion because the overall result is noise.
 This noise is the result of mixing of all the speeches.
 The human ear is not capable of separating these
intermingled speeches and therefore no intelligent words
are communicated to brain.
 The same situation is now applied to the transmission of
audio signals.
 These audio signals may come from, say ten different
persons.
 While the speech frequency of different persons will be
different, all the ten signals will lie in the same audio
range of 20 Hz to 20 kHz.
TYPES OF MULTIPLEXING
Advantages of Multiplexing
Multiplexing allows the maximum possible
utilization of the available bandwidth of the
system.
The use of multiplexing also makes the
communication system economical because more
than one signal can be transmitted through a
single channel.
 TYPES OF COMMUNICATION SYSTEMS
One may categorize communication systems based
on:
• The physical infrastructure pertains to the type of
the channel used and the hardware design of the
transmitting and receiving equipment.
• The signal specifications signify the nature and
type of the transmitted signal
1. Communication System Based on
Physical Infrastructure:
2. Communication System Based on Signal
Specifications:

The signal specifications used to decide the type

of communication include:

 Nature of baseband or information signal

 Nature of the transmitted signal.
A.Based on the nature of the baseband signal
 Analog communication systems
 Digital communication systems.

B.Based on the nature of the transmitted signal

 Baseband communication systems
 Carrier communication systems.
 MODULATION
Modulation is the process of changing the
parameters of the carrier signal, in accordance with
the instantaneous values of the modulating signal.
TYPES OF MODULATION:
Continuous-wave Modulation
• Amplitude Modulation
• Frequency Modulation
• Phase Modulation
Pulse modulation
• PAM
• PWM
• PPM
• PCM
 Amplitude modulation (AM)
 AM is defined as the modulation technique in
which the instantaneous amplitude of the
carrier signal is varied in accordance with the
instantaneous amplitude of the analog
modulating signal to be transmitted while the
frequency and the phase of the carrier signal
remain unchanged.
 It can be clearly seen from the figure that the
modulating signal seems to be superimposed
on the carrier signal.
 The amplitude variations in the peak values of
the carrier signal exactly replicate the
modulating signal at different points in time
which is known as an envelope.
 Frequency Modulation:

 A modulating signal may vary the frequency of the carrier keeping the
amplitude and phase constant.
 This type of modulation is called Frequency modulation.
 Broadly speaking, the frequency modulation is the process of changing
the frequency of the carrier voltage in accordance with the
instantaneous value of the modulating voltage.
 The original frequency of the carrier signal is called Centre or resting
frequency and denoted by fc.
 The amount by which the frequency of the carrier wave changes or
shifts above or below the resting frequency is termed as frequency

 This means Δf ∝ m(t).

deviation (Δf).

 The total variation is frequency of F.M. wave from the lowest to the
highest is termed as carrier saving (CS), i.e.,
CS=2 Δf.
Modulation index in F.M. is the ratio of frequency deviation to
the modulating frequency,
 Phase modulation:

 PM is another form of angle modulation.

 Phase modulation is the process in which the

instantaneous phase of the carrier signal is
varied in accordance with the instantaneous
amplitude of the modulating signal.

 In this type of modulation, the amplitude and

frequency of the carrier signal remains
unaltered after pulse modulation.
 Pulse modulation:

 It may be used to transmit analog information,

such as continuous speech or data. It is system
in which continuous waveforms are sampled at
regular intervals. Pulse modulation may be
subdivided into two categories, analog and
digital.
 Pulse-amplitude and pulse-time modulation
are both analog, while the pulse code and delta
modulation system are both digital.
 Pulse-amplitude modulation (PAM):

 PAM is the simplest form of pulse modulation.

 PAM is a pulse modulation system in which the signal
is sampled at regular intervals, and each sample is made
proportional to the amplitude of the signal at the instant
of sampling.
 The pulses are then sent by either wire or cable, or else
are used to modulate a carrier.
 The ability to use constant-amplitude pulses is a major
advantage of pulse modulation, and since PAM does not
use constant- amplitude pulses, it is infrequently used.
 When it is used, the pulses frequency- modulate the
carrier.
Pulse-amplitude modulation (PAM):
 Pulse width or pulse-duration modulation (PWM or PDM):

 In this system, the starting time and amplitude of each pulse are
constant but the width or duration of each pulse is made
proportional to the instantaneous value of analog signal.

 PDM has the disadvantage, when compared with pulse-position

modulation (PPM), that its pulses are of varying width and
therefore of varying power content.

 This means that the transmitter must be powerful enough to

handle the maximum- width pulses, although the average power
transmitted is perhaps only half of the peak power.

 PWM still works if synchronization between transmitter and

receiver fails, whereas PPM does not.
 Pulse position-modulation (PPM):

 In this system, the amplitude and width of the pulses

is kept constant, while the position of each pulse, in
relation to the position of a recurrent reference pulse
is varied by instantaneous sampled value of the
modulating wave.

 As compared to PWM, PPM has the advantage of

requiring constant transmitter power output, but the
disadvantage of depending on transmitter receiver
synchronization.
Waveforms of PWM & PPM
Radio wave propagation (Ground, space, sky):

 In space communication electromagnetic waves of different frequencies

are used to carry information through the physical space acting as the
transmission medium.

 Electromagnetic waves with frequencies extending from about 10 kHz

to 300 GHz are classed as radio waves.

 Depending primarily on the frequency a radio wave travels from the

transmitting to the receiving antenna in several ways.

 On the basis of the mode of propagation, radio waves can be broadly

classified as:
 ground or surface wave.
 space or tropospheric wave.
 sky way.
 Ground wave propagation:
 In ground wave propagation, radio waves are guided by the earth
and move along its curved surface from the transmitter to the
receiver.

 As the waves moves over the ground, they are strongly influenced by
the electrical properties of the ground. As high frequency waves are
strongly absorbed by ground; ground wave propagation is useful
only at low frequencies.

 Below 500 kHz, ground waves can be used for communication

within distances of about 1500 km from the transmitter.

 AM radio broadcast in the medium frequency band cover local areas

and take place primarily by the ground wave. Ground wave
transmission is very reliable whatever the atmospheric conditions be.
 Space or tropospheric wave propagation:
 When a radio wave transmitted from an antenna, travelling in a straight
line directly reaches the receiving antenna, it is termed as space or
tropospheric wave.

 In space wave or line of sight propagation, radio waves move in the

earth's troposphere within about 15 km over the surface of the earth.

 The space wave is made up of two components:

 (a) a direct or line-of- sight wave form the transmitting to the receiving
antenna.
 (b) the ground-reflected wave traversing forms the transmitting antenna
to ground and reflected to the receiving antenna.

 Television frequencies in the range 100-220 MHz are transmitted

through this mode.
Sky wave propagation:

 In this mode of propagation, radio waves

transmitted from the transmitting antenna
reach the receiving antenna after reflection
form the ionosphere, i.e., the ionized layers
lying in the earth's upper atmosphere.
 Short wave transmission around the globe is
possible through sky wave via successive
reflections at the ionosphere and the earth's
surface.
DIGITAL COMMUNICATION
 Digital Modulation Schemes:

 In digital communications, the modulating signal consists of binary data.

 When it is required to transmit digital signals on a bandpass channel, the

amplitude, frequency or phase of the sinusoidal carrier is varied in
accordance with the incoming digital data.

 Since, the digital data is in discrete steps, the modulation of the bandpass
sinusoidal carrier is also done in discrete steps.

 Due to this reason, this type of modulation is known as digital

modulation.

 Digital modulation schemes as classified as under:

 Amplitude Shift Keying (ASK)
 Frequency Shift Keying (FSK)
 Phase Shift Keying (PSK)
• Because of constant amplitude of FSK or PSK, the effect of non-linearities,
noise interference is minimum on signal detection. However, these effects are
more pronounced on ASK. Therefore, FSK and PSK are preferred over ASK.

• Coherent digital modulation techniques are those techniques which employ

coherent detection. In coherent detection, the local carrier generated at the
receiver is phase locked with the carrier at the transmitter. Thus, the detection
is done by correlating the received noisy signal and locally generated carrier.
The coherent detection is also called synchronous detection.

• ASK signal may be generated by simply applying the incoming binary data
and the sinusoidal carrier to the two inputs of a product modulator.

• The demodulation of binary ASK waveform can be achieved with the help of
coherent detector.
Radio Signal Transmission:
 Radio Signal Transmission:
 Fig 4.14 shows the architecture of a wireless communication transmitter.
 In the figure, the transmitter usually processes the information in two
stages.
 In the first stage, a modulator accepts the incoming bits, and computes
symbols that represent the amplitude and phase of the outgoing wave.
 It then passes these to the analogue transmitter, which generates the
radio wave itself.
 The modulation scheme used in Fig. 4.14 is known as quadrature phase
shift keying (QPSK).
 A QPSK modulator takes the incoming bits two at a time and transmits
them using a radio wave that can have four different states. These have
phases of 45°, 135°, 225° and 315°
 Radio Signal Transmission:

Fig. 4.15 (a), which correspond to bit combinations of 00, 10, 11 and 01 respectively. We can
represent the four states of QPSK using the constellation diagram shown in Fig. 4.15 (b).
 Radio Signal Transmission:
 In this diagram, the distance of each state from the origin represents the
amplitude of the transmitted wave, while the angle (measured anti-
clockwise from the x-axis) represents its phase.
 Usually, it is more convenient to represent each symbol using two other
numbers, which are known as the in-phase (I) and quadrature (Q)
components.
 These are computed as follows:

I = a cos ɸ
Q = a sin ɸ

where a is the amplitude of the transmitted wave and ɸ is its phase.

 Mathematicians will recognize the in-phase and quadrature components as
the real and imaginary parts of a complex number.
Radio Signal Transmission:
 Radio Signal Transmission:
 As shown in Fig. 4.16, LTE uses four modulation schemes altogether.

 Binary phase shift keying (BPSK) sends bits one at a time, using two
states that can be interpreted as starting phases of 0° and 180°, or as
signal amplitudes of +1 and -1.

 LTE uses this scheme for a limited number of control streams, but
does not use it for normal data transmissions.

 16 quadrature amplitude modulation (16-QAM) sends bits four at a

time, using 16 states that have different amplitudes and phases.

 Similarly, 64-QAM sends bits six at a time using 64 different states, so

it has a data rate six times greater than that of BPSK.
Multiple Access Techniques
 Multiple Access Techniques
 The techniques described so far work well for one-to-one
communications.

 In a cellular network, however, a base station has to transmit to many

different mobiles at once.

 It does this by sharing the resources of the air interface, in a technique

known as multiple access.

 Mobile communication systems use a new different multiple access

techniques, two of which are shown in Fig. 4.17 frequency division
multiple access (FDMA) was used by the first-generation analogue
systems.

 In this technique, each mobile receives on its own carrier frequency,

which it distinguishes from the others by the use of analogue filters.

 In time division multiple access (TDMA), mobiles receive information on

the same carrier frequency but at different times.
 Multiple Access Techniques
 GSM uses a mix of frequency and time division multiple access, in which every
cell has several carrier frequencies that are each shared amongst eight different
mobiles.

 LTE uses another mixed technique known as orthogonal frequency division

multiple access (OFDMA)

 Third generation communication systems used a different technique altogether,

known as code division multiple access (CDMA).

 In this technique, mobiles receive on the same carrier frequency and at the same
time, but the signals are labelled by the use of codes, which allow a mobile to
separate its own signal from those of the others.

 LTE uses a few of the concepts from CDMA for some of its control signals, but
does not implement the technique otherwise.

 Multiple access is actually a generalization of a simpler technique known as

multiplexing.
 FDD and TDD Modes:
FDD:
 Same time but different carrier frequency
 Has same uplink and downlink
 Application-Voice communication
TDD:
 Same carrier frequency but different time.
 System adjusts for how much time allocated to
uplink and downlink.
 Has interference.
 Used in areas of isolated hotspots.
 Application-web browsing
 FDD and TDD Modes:
 A mobile communication system can operate in the transmission modes as
shown in Fig. 4.18.

 When using frequency division duplex (FDD), the base station and mobile
transmit and receive at the same time, but using different carrier frequencies.

 Using time division duplex (TDD), they transmit and receive on the same carrier
frequency but at different times.

FDD and TDD modes have different advantages and disadvantages:

 In FDD mode, the bandwidths of the uplink and downlink are fixed and are
usually the same. This makes it suitable for voice communications, in which the
uplink and downlink data rates are very similar.

 In TDD mode, the system can adjust how much time is allocated to the uplink
and downlink. This makes it suitable for applications such as web browsing.
 TDD mode can be badly affected by interference if, for example, one base station
is transmitting while a nearby base station is receiving.

 To avoid this, nearby base stations must be carefully time synchronized and must
use the same allocations for the uplink and downlink, so that they all transmit
and receive at the same time.

 This makes TDD suitable for networks that are made from isolated hotspots,
because each hotspot can have a different timing and resource allocation.

 In contrast, FDD is often preferred for widearea networks that have no isolated
regions.

 When operating in FDD mode, the mobile usually has to contain a high
attenuation duplex filter that isolates the uplink transmitter from the downlink
receiver.

 LTE supports each of the modes described above. A cell can use either FDD or
TDD mode.
Thank You!