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Care and repair of advanced composites 2nd ed Edition
Armstrong Digital Instant Download
Author(s): Armstrong, Keith B.; Bevan, L. Graham; Cole, William F
ISBN(s): 9780768010626, 0768010624
Edition: 2nd ed
File Details: PDF, 15.97 MB
Year: 2005
Language: english
 CARE AND REPAIR OF
ADVANCED COMPOSITES

SECOND EDITION

Keith B. Armstrong
L. Graham Bevan
William F. Cole II

Warrendale, Pa.
All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system,
or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording,
or otherwise, without the prior written permission of SAE.

For permission and licensing requests, contact:

SAE Permissions
400 Commonwealth Drive
Warrendale, PA 15096-0001 USA
E-mail: permissions@sae.org
Tel: 724-772-4028
Fax: 724-772-4891

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Armstrong, Keith B.
Care and repair of advanced composites / Keith B. Armstrong, L.
Graham Bevan, William F. Cole II.--2nd ed.
p. cm.
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN 0-7680-1062-4
1. Composite materials--Repairing. 2. Composite materials--
Bonding. 3. Airplanes--Materials. 4. Airframes--Maintenance and repair.
I. Bevan, L. Graham. II. Cole, William F. III. Title.

TA418.9.C6A76 2005
620.1’18’0288--dc22 2004065362

Cover photos (from top to bottom): Airbus A.340-600, Boeing 777, Airbus A.380, B-2 Stealth
Bomber, and Lockheed-Martin Joint Strike Fighter.

SAE
400 Commonwealth Drive
Warrendale, PA 15096-0001 USA
E-mail: CustomerService@sae.org
Tel: 877-606-7323 (inside USA and Canada)
724-776-4970 (outside USA)
Fax: 724-776-1615

Copyright © 2005 SAE International

ISBN 0-7680-1062-4
SAE Order No. R-336
Printed in the United States of America.

The information contained herein is believed by the authors to be the best available at the time
of printing, but it is given without acceptance of liability, whether expressed or implied, for loss
or damage attributable to reliance thereon. Users of this book should make their own assess-
ments of its contents for their own conditions of use, and by reference to original manufactur-
ers’ repair documentation.
This book is dedicated to the members of the original International Air Transport Association
(IATA) Task Force (1988–1991) set up to standardize composite repairs, for which the first
author acted as chairman, and to the members of the various Task Groups of the Commercial
Aircraft Composite Repair Committee (CACRC) and especially the Training Task Group
and its chairmen over several years: first Ed Herman of McDonnell-Douglas (now part
of Boeing), followed by Rick Barrett of Continental Airlines, and then by Ralph Edwards
of Northwest Airlines. Work from the Design, NDI, and Repair Techniques Task Groups is
included in this book and is gratefully acknowledged. We particularly wish to record the
great debt we all owe to Henk Lodewijk of KLM. When the IATA Task Force completed its
work and produced IATA Document DOC:GEN:3043, it made several recommendations.
Henk had the vision and enthusiasm to persuade three committees (ATA, IATA, and SAE)
to combine to form the CACRC and to implement the recommendations of the IATA Task
Force. This book is one of the many products of that vision.
 ABOUT THE AUTHORS

The authors (from left to right): L. Graham Bevan,

Keith B. Armstrong, and William F. Cole II

Dr. Keith Armstrong is well respected for his many years of experience in advanced com-
posite aircraft structures. He is best known for his involvement at British Airways in the
development of carbon fiber/Nomex honeycomb floor panels. These panels were the first
carbon fiber composites to fly on commercial aircraft, and most flooring in modern com-
mercial aircraft meets specifications that evolved from these early composite structures.

Dr. Armstrong earned an M.Sc. in 1978 and a Ph.D. in 1990 in adhesion science from The
City University in London, England. His career began in 1948 at Vickers-Armstrongs
(Aircraft) Ltd., Weybridge, as an aviation apprentice and then as a design draftsperson. He
subsequently served as a technical officer in the Royal Air Force and later as an experimental
officer at the National Physical Laboratory in Teddington.

Dr. Armstrong spent the next 24 years of his full-time career with British Airways. In
addition to his work on carbon fiber/Nomex honeycomb floor panels, he developed many
new methods during the infancy of the industry. For many years, he was responsible for
all composite and bonded metal repairs and for all windows in the British Airways fleet.
He later served as a consultant to Du Pont on composite repairs using Nomex honeycomb
and Kevlar and then as a quality audit engineer for Aerobond U.K. and a composite repair
specialist for Monarch Airlines.

From 1988 to 1991, Dr. Armstrong chaired the International Air Transport Association
(IATA) Composite Repair Task Force, and he continues to participate in the Training Task
Group of the SAE International (SAE), IATA, Air Transport Association (ATA) Commercial
Aircraft Composite Repair Committee (CACRC). He is a member of SAE International,
the Society for the Advancement of Material and Process Engineering (SAMPE), and

637
CARE AND REPAIR OF ADVANCED COMPOSITES

ASTM International. He is also a Fellow of the Institution of Mechanical Engineers, the

Royal Aeronautical Society, and the Institution of Materials, Minerals, and Mining. He has
received awards from the FAA and SAE for his work for CACRC.

Dr. Armstrong has written more than 30 technical papers and compiled the Composites and
Metal Bonding Glossary published by SAE. He has lectured part time at Brunel, Bristol,
and Plymouth universities and at Brooklands College and East Surrey College. He continues
to work part time at Kingston University. He held a private pilot’s license for 28 years, is keen
on family history, and has been a member of the Methodist Church for more than 50 years.

Graham Bevan has worked in or been associated with the aircraft industry most of his
working life. His involvement with composites started in 1969 when he joined Rolls-Royce
Composite Materials (RRCM) as a materials engineer, from the Structural and Materials
Test Laboratories of the then British Aircraft Corporation. During the past 35 years, he has
maintained this involvement with composites with a number of companies and has acquired
considerable knowledge on the subject.

Mr. Bevan joined the In-Service Support Department of Airbus (U.K.) Ltd. in 1991 as a
composites specialist and has remained at Airbus to the present day. His work at Airbus
is now involved with composite repairs and other in-service issues. He has many years of
experience related to the manufacture of Airbus composite components.

Mr. Bevan is a past member of the Airbus Industrie (AI) Composite Repairs Task Group,
and he was and still is involved with providing input to the Airbus Structural Repair Manu-
als (SRMs). He also was closely involved with the draft preparation of data for the Airbus
Industrie composite repair courses for airline engineers.

Mr. Bevan is a member of the Repair Task Group of the SAE/IATA/ATA Commercial Aircraft
Composite Repair Committee (CACRC). He has worked closely with Dr. Keith Armstrong
on the development and subsequent production of carbon fiber/Nomex floor panels while
at RRCM. This was recognized in 1994 when Dr. Armstrong and Mr. Bevan both
received an award from Du Pont for their pioneering development work related to the
application of Nomex honeycomb in aircraft flooring. Fibrelam floor panels (now from
Hexcel) also were qualified to the British Airways specification raised as the result of this
work, and “these are now qualified by every aircraft manufacturer currently operating in
the Western world.” [Quote taken from the Hexcel booklet, “Composite Materials for
the Aerospace Industry,” May 2003.] In addition, Mr. Bevan has written and presented
a number of papers on the fatigue properties of carbon fiber composites.

638
 ABOUT THE AUTHORS

William F. Cole II is the chairman of the Commercial Aircraft Composite Repair Committee,
a group committed to the standardization of materials, design, testing, and repair for com-
mercial aircraft composites, as well as education about them. He is a routine contributor to
multiple industry and FAA-sponsored working groups to define the best uses and regulatory
needs for commercial aircraft composite structures.

Mr. Cole is the director of engineering at a corporation specializing in commercial aircraft

maintenance, and he previously managed a large composite manufacturing program for a
military surveillance aircraft. He also has managed engineering teams supporting heavy
aircraft maintenance, component maintenance, and line maintenance. Mr. Cole has advanced
degrees in both mechanical and aerospace engineering, with years of hands-on experience
as an engineer supporting aircraft operations.

Mr. Cole is a routine guest lecturer at various colleges and universities, speaking on the topic
of composite structures, composite repair, and engineering analysis. He also is the author
of several articles and the co-author of three textbooks on the subject of composite aircraft
design and composite repair design.

639
 PREFACE TO THE FIRST EDITION

This book is intended to meet the background information needs of composite repair techni-
cians who repair aircraft composite components and structures for return to airline service. It
supplements the practical work required to achieve the necessary level of skill in performing
these repairs. The syllabus was developed by the Training Task Group and approved by
the Commercial Aircraft Composite Repair Committee (CACRC). It has been published
by the Society of Automotive Engineers (SAE) as SAE AIR 4938 Composite and Bonded
Structure Technician/Specialist Training Document and covers materials, handling and
storage, design aspects, damage assessment, repair techniques, manufacturers’ documents,
fastening systems, tools and equipment, health and safety aspects, and care of composite
parts. Chapter 15 covers metal bonding, partly because some composite parts include metal
reinforcements and fittings and partly because the term “composite” is sometimes used to
mean any combination of two or more materials such as a skin and honeycomb core, for
example. Repair design engineers should also find the book useful.

This book is designed primarily for aerospace use, but these notes have been compiled for
all composite repair technicians, regardless of the type of vehicle or component they have
to repair. Although some of the materials used may be either different from, or less strictly
regulated than, those used in the aerospace industries, we hope that this book will be useful
to the marine, automobile, railway, wind power generation, and sporting goods industries
and others using composite components. The general principles involved are very similar
for all composite materials, regardless of their end use.

A book of this size and topic range cannot cover any subject in great detail; therefore, more
extensive references should be studied when necessary. For detailed specific repair proce-
dures, the Original Equipment Manufacturers’ (OEMs’) Structural Repair Manuals (SRMs),
Overhaul Manuals (OHMs), etc., should be used. SAE (CACRC) produced Aerospace
Recommended Practices (ARPs) will be included in these manuals as alternative means of
compliance as opportunity arises during normal amendment procedures and as these ARPs
become available.

Metal bonding has been covered in Chapter 15 because there are occasions when metal parts
are bonded to composites, and the design guide in Chapter 16 documents experience and
shows where small design improvements could extend the service lifetimes of composite
parts. The support of SAE for all of the CACRC work is greatly appreciated. This book
has been written to meet the CACRC syllabus, and it has been reviewed by some CACRC
members. The book has not been approved by the CACRC; therefore, the views expressed
are those of the authors and do not necessarily reflect the opinions of the committee as a
whole or of the organizations that sponsor the committee.

The purpose of training is to improve performance and to provide leadership for others. We
hope that the following thoughts will inspire further effort.

xxvii
CARE AND REPAIR OF ADVANCED COMPOSITES

“Education expands the boundaries of our known ignorance faster than it expands the
boundaries of our knowledge.”

If we wish to be good leaders, we have a vast amount of study and research to do.

As an old poem states,

1. He that knows and knows that he knows is wise, follow him,

2. He that knows not and knows he knows not is willing to learn, teach him,

3. He that knows not and knows not that he knows not is a fool, shun him.

Let us all try to become at least “Type 2” and strive to reach “Type 1.”

xxviii
 PREFACE TO THE SECOND EDITION

This second edition has been prepared to make improvements and additions to keep the
book up to date. At the same time, the opportunity has been taken to correct some minor
errors in the first edition. Some diagrams have been improved, some have been deleted,
and others have been added.

At the present time, it is quite a challenge to keep pace with takeovers, amalgamations,
and company name changes. These have been included up to the point of submission for
printing, but in the future, there may be more.

A few new nondestructive inspection (NDI) methods have been added, together with some
new fasteners for composite materials and one new method for the surface preparation of
metals prior to adhesive bonding. A number of water-based primers have been included,
and a few new books and papers have been added to the references.

It has been encouraging to receive favorable comments on the first edition from the practical
people who carry out repairs and say they have found it a very readable volume.

This second edition has been co-authored by Graham Bevan of Airbus (U.K.) Ltd. and
William F. Cole II of AAR Corporation, as Rick Barrett (who co-authored the first edition)
is no longer working in the aerospace industry. Graham has been involved with compos-
ites almost all his working life and is a recognized expert in this field. He has made useful
improvements to this second edition. Bill Cole, chairman of the Analytical Repair Tech-
niques Task Group of the Commercial Aircraft Composite Repair Committee (CACRC),
has produced a new chapter on repair design (Chapter 17) for this second edition, and we
hope it will be particularly helpful.

xxv
 FOREWORD

This book is a detailed work of reference, drawing from many industry sources around the
world. It is a comprehensive, in-depth look at the principal materials and processes involved
in manufacturing, inspecting, and repairing advanced composite aircraft structures. It should
also be useful to those working with composites in non-aerospace industries.

This book becomes even more valuable considering the background of the authors. Dr. Keith
Armstrong is extremely well respected for his many years of experience and leadership in
advanced composite aircraft structures. He was involved in the development of carbon fiber/
Nomex® honeycomb floor panels for the VC-10 airliner with Graham Bevan of Rolls-Royce
Composite Materials and now with Airbus (U.K.) Ltd. These were the first carbon fiber
composites to fly on commercial aircraft. Almost all flooring used in commercial aircraft
today meets specifications that have evolved from these early composite structures. Dr.
Armstrong developed many new methods in the infancy of the industry during his 24
years with British Airways. He led the effort to standardize composite repair as chairman of
the International Air Transport Association (IATA) Composite Repair Task Force from 1988
to 1991. He continues to be a key player in the effort to improve composites education via
his ongoing participation in the Training Task Group of the SAE/IATA/ATA Commercial
Aircraft Composite Repair Committee (CACRC). As part of this work, he compiled a glos-
sary of terms, published by SAE as AIR 4844 Composites and Metal Bonding Glossary.

Dr. Armstrong possesses a unique combination of theoretical and practical knowledge. He

earned an M.Sc. (1978) and a Ph.D. (1991) in Adhesion Science and Technology from The
City University in London, England. He also has spent many years performing simple but
valuable hands-on experiments, such as wedge testing of composite and aluminum alloy
samples after years of immersion in water. These have now been published and are listed
as references in this book.

This second edition is co-authored by L. Graham Bevan and William F. Cole II. Dr. Arm-
strong and Mr. Bevan have worked together on lightweight floor panels and other projects
for more than 30 years. Mr. Bevan has worked in or has been associated with the aircraft
industry for most of his working life. His involvement with composites started in 1969 when
he joined Rolls-Royce Composite Materials, from the then British Aircraft Corporation. He
has maintained this involvement with composites without a break during the past 35 years.
Mr. Bevan currently works in Customer Support at Airbus (U.K.) Ltd. and is involved in
composite repairs on all Airbus aircraft. He is a past member of the Airbus Composite Repair
Task Force and a past member of the Repair Techniques Task Group of the CACRC.

Bill Cole, now Director of Engineering at AAR Corporation, has done an exceptional job
as chairman of the Analytical Repair Techniques Task Group of the CACRC. Rick Barrett,
co-author of the first edition has, unfortunately, left the aerospace industry. His leadership
helped to establish the syllabus for this book while he was chairman of the CACRC Train-
ing Task Group from 1992 to 1994. He also contributed valuable practical experience of
hands-on repair work.

xxiii
CARE AND REPAIR OF ADVANCED COMPOSITES

This book will become a standard by which future efforts are judged. All of us in this
evolving field owe the authors of this book a debt of gratitude, not only for this work but
also Dr. Armstrong’s many fundamental contributions to composites technology, Graham
Bevan’s 35 years of dedication to this subject, Bill Cole’s extremely valuable mathematical
ability, and Rick Barrett’s ideas and enthusiasm that made this project possible.

Mike Hoke, President

Abaris Training Inc.
Reno, Nevada

xxiv
 TABLE OF CONTENTS

Foreword ....................................................................................................................... xxiii

Preface to the Second Edition .......................................................................................xxv

Preface to the First Edition ........................................................................................ xxvii

Chapter 1 Introduction to Composites and Care of Composite Parts ....................1

1.1 Definition of Composites ...............................................................1
1.2 History of Composite Materials .....................................................2
1.3 Advantages and Disadvantages of Composites ..............................2
1.3.1 Advantages of Composites............................................2
1.3.2 Disadvantages of Composites .......................................3
1.3.3 Advantages of Thermoset Resin Composites ...............3
1.3.4 Disadvantages of Thermoset Resin Composites ...........4
1.3.5 Advantages of Thermoplastic Resin Composites .........4
1.3.6 Disadvantages of Thermoplastic Resin Composites .....5
1.4 Applications of Composites to Modern Aircraft, Yachts,
Cars, and Trains ..............................................................................5
1.4.1 Early Aircraft Structures ...............................................5
1.4.2 Modern Aircraft Structures and Other
Applications ..................................................................6
1.5 Care of Composite Parts.................................................................7
1.5.1 Sources of Damage to Composite Parts ......................10
1.5.1.1 Physical or Chemical Damage ...................10
1.5.1.2 Deterioration in Normal Service ................12
1.5.2 Avoidance of Damage and Reduction of
Deterioration in Service ..............................................13
1.6 References ....................................................................................16

Chapter 2 Materials ..................................................................................................17

2.1 Fiber Reinforcement.....................................................................17
2.1.1 Comparison of Some High-Performance Fibers
and Common Metals ...................................................17
2.1.2 Glass Fiber ..................................................................19
2.1.2.1 Glass Manufacture......................................22
2.1.2.2 Glass Fiber Manufacture ............................23
2.1.3 Carbon Fibers ..............................................................25
2.1.3.1 Carbon Fiber Manufacture .........................25
2.1.3.2 Future Development ...................................25
2.1.3.3 Further Details of Carbon
and Graphite Fibers ....................................26
2.1.4 Aramid Fibers .............................................................32

ix
CARE AND REPAIR OF ADVANCED COMPOSITES

2.1.5 Boron Fibers ................................................................34

2.1.6 Other New Fibers ........................................................34
2.2 Forms of Reinforcement ..............................................................37
2.2.1 Tapes ...........................................................................37
2.2.2 Fabrics .........................................................................38
2.2.2.1 Woven Fabric Weave Styles .......................38
2.2.2.2 Effect of Weave Style .................................42
2.2.2.3 Noncrimp Fabrics .......................................43
2.2.2.4 Nonwoven Randomly Oriented Mats .........43
2.2.2.5 Fiber and Fabric Glossary ..........................45
2.3 Fiber Sizing and Finish ................................................................47
2.3.1 Glass Fiber Finishes ....................................................47
2.3.2 Carbon Fiber Finishes .................................................50
2.3.3 Aramid Fiber Finishes .................................................51
2.3.4 Sizing and Finish for New Types of Fibers
and Fabrics ..................................................................52
2.4 Matrix (Resin) Systems ................................................................52
2.4.1 Thermoplastic Resins ..................................................52
2.4.2 Thermosetting Resins ..................................................53
2.4.3 Properties Required of Matrix Resins and
Adhesives ....................................................................57
2.4.3.1 Physical and Chemical Properties ..............57
2.4.3.2 Mechanical Properties ................................59
2.4.3.3 Epoxy-Based Matrix Resins and
Adhesives for Aerospace Use .....................59
2.4.4 Epoxy and Phenolic Pre-Pregs and Film
Adhesives—Curing Stages .........................................61
2.4.5 Mixing and Mix Ratios for Epoxy Wet Resins ...........63
2.4.5.1 Weighing ....................................................63
2.4.5.2 Mixing ........................................................64
2.4.5.3 Definitions Related to Mixing and
Application .................................................65
2.4.6 Polyester Resins ..........................................................66
2.5 Adhesives .....................................................................................66
2.5.1 Liquid and Paste Adhesives ........................................66
2.5.2 Foaming Adhesives .....................................................68
2.5.3 Film Adhesives ............................................................69
2.5.4 Glue-Line Thickness Control ......................................71
2.5.5 In-Service Effects on Resin Systems ..........................76
2.6 Core Materials ..............................................................................76
2.6.1 Wood ...........................................................................79
2.6.2 Foam Core Materials ...................................................80
2.6.2.1 Material Types ...........................................80
2.6.2.2 Foam Density .............................................81
2.6.2.3 Advantages and Disadvantages ..................81
2.6.3 Honeycomb Core Materials ........................................82

x
 TABLE OF CONTENTS

2.6.3.1 Honeycomb Material Types .......................85

2.6.3.2 Cell Shapes .................................................88
2.6.3.3 Honeycomb Densities and Cell Sizes.........88
2.6.4 Fluted Core ..................................................................90
2.6.5 Syntactic Core .............................................................90
2.7 Syntactic Foams and Potting Compounds....................................90
2.7.1 Filler Materials for Potting Compounds, Resin
Systems, and Adhesives ..............................................92
2.7.2 Other Fillers ................................................................93
2.8 Protective Coatings ......................................................................93
2.8.1 Sealants .......................................................................93
2.8.1.1 Old-Generation Thiokol Sealants ...............96
2.8.1.2 New-Generation Polythioether
Sealants.......................................................96
2.8.1.3 Silicone Sealants ........................................97
2.8.1.4 Viton Rubber Sealants ................................98
2.8.2 Primers ........................................................................98
2.8.3 Finishes .......................................................................99
2.8.4 Conductive Coatings ................................................101
2.8.5 Erosion-Resistant Coatings .......................................102
2.8.6 Other Protective Coatings .........................................103
2.9 References ..................................................................................104
2.10 Bibliography ...............................................................................106

Chapter 3 Handling and Storage ............................................................................107

3.1 Shipping and Receiving .............................................................107
3.2 Temperature Requirements ........................................................107
3.3 Storage Practices ........................................................................108
3.3.1 Temperature Requirements .......................................108
3.3.1.1 Dry Fabrics ...............................................108
3.3.1.2 Storage of Pre-Preg, Film, and Paste
Adhesives, Potting Compounds, and
Primers .....................................................108
3.3.1.3 Storage of Sealants for Aircraft Use .........109
3.3.1.4 Storage of Consumable Items for
Composite and Bonded Metal
Repairs ......................................................110
3.3.2 Cleanliness and Damage Prevention .........................110
3.3.3 Moisture Damage Prevention....................................112
3.3.4 Identification .............................................................113
3.3.5 Release Notes and Approved Certificates .................114
3.4 Shelf Life/Out Time ...................................................................116
3.5 Kitting ........................................................................................117
3.6 Recertification ............................................................................118
3.7 Care of Materials in the Hangar or Workshop ...........................118

xi
CARE AND REPAIR OF ADVANCED COMPOSITES

Chapter 4 Manufacturing Techniques ...................................................................121

4.1 Filament Winding .......................................................................121
4.2 Lay-Up Methods for Fabrics and Tapes .....................................123
4.2.1 Hand Lay-Up (Wet and Pre-Preg Laminating) .........123
4.2.2 Automated Lay-Up ...................................................124
4.3 Pultrusion ...................................................................................125
4.4 Resin Transfer Molding..............................................................126
4.5 Injection Molding .......................................................................128
4.6 Tow Placement ...........................................................................130
4.7 Press Molding.............................................................................130
4.8 Vacuum Bonding ........................................................................131
4.9 Autoclave Bonding.....................................................................131
4.10 Oven Curing ...............................................................................135
4.11 References ..................................................................................136
4.12 Other Useful Reading .................................................................136

Chapter 5 Original Design Criteria ........................................................................137

5.1 Principal, Primary, and Secondary Structures ............................137
5.1.1 Sources of Damage to Composite Airframe
Components ..............................................................141
5.1.2 Consequences of Failure ...........................................142
5.2 Types of Composite Structures ..................................................142
5.2.1 Monolithic Laminated Structures (Solid
Laminates) .................................................................142
5.2.2 Sandwich Structures ..................................................143
5.3 Ply Orientation ...........................................................................149
5.3.1 Warp Clock................................................................149
5.3.2 Balance and Symmetry .............................................152
5.3.3 Nesting and Stacking ................................................153
5.4 Core Orientation .........................................................................154
5.5 Operational Environment ...........................................................155
5.5.1 Temperature ..............................................................155
5.5.2 Humidity ...................................................................156
5.5.3 Contaminants ............................................................156
5.5.4 Erosion ......................................................................156
5.5.5 Thermal Stresses .......................................................158
5.5.6 Hygrothermal Effects ................................................158
5.5.7 Fire Resistance ..........................................................158
5.6 Electrical Requirements .............................................................159
5.6.1 Galvanic Corrosion ...................................................159
5.6.2 Electromagnetic Interference ....................................163
5.6.3 Electrostatic Discharge..............................................163
5.6.4 Lightning Strike Energy Dispersion..........................164
5.6.5 Radar Transmissivity.................................................165
5.7 Mechanical Requirements ..........................................................166
5.7.1 Tensile and Flexural Strength ...................................166

xii
 TABLE OF CONTENTS

5.7.2 Stiffness .....................................................................167

5.7.3 Fatigue .......................................................................167
5.7.4 Impact Resistance (Damage Tolerance) ....................169
5.7.5 Creep .........................................................................170
5.8 Attachments/Joints .....................................................................171
5.8.1 Bonded Joints ............................................................172
5.8.2 Mechanically Fastened/Riveted Joints ......................175
5.9 Other Design Requirements .......................................................176
5.9.1 Aerodynamic Smoothness.........................................176
5.9.2 Weight and Balance...................................................177
5.10 References ..................................................................................177

Chapter 6 Safety and Environment ........................................................................181

6.1 Introduction ................................................................................181
6.2 Workshop Conditions for Good Bonding...................................184
6.3 Respirable Fibers and Dust ........................................................186
6.3.1 Fiberglass ..................................................................186
6.3.2 Carbon and Graphite Fibers ......................................187
6.3.3 Aramid Fibers ...........................................................187
6.3.4 Sanding Dust .............................................................187
6.4 Fumes and Vapors ......................................................................188
6.4.1 Resin Fumes ..............................................................188
6.4.2 Solvent Vapors ..........................................................189
6.4.3 Sealant Vapors ...........................................................190
6.4.4 Coatings ....................................................................190
6.4.5 Fuel............................................................................190
6.4.6 Acid Fumes and Splash .............................................190
6.4.7 Exposure Limits ........................................................191
6.5 Skin Contact ...............................................................................192
6.5.1 Fibers in Contact with the Skin .................................192
6.5.2 Resins in Contact with the Skin ................................192
6.5.3 Solvents in Contact with the Skin .............................193
6.5.4 Selection of Suitable Gloves .....................................193
6.5.5 Skin Creams for Personal Protection ........................194
6.6 Material Safety Data Sheets .......................................................195
6.7 Exothermic Reactions ................................................................195
6.8 Waste Disposal ...........................................................................196
6.9 Safety Procedures .......................................................................197
6.9.1 Emergency Action First-Aid Procedures ..................197
6.9.2 General Safety Procedures ........................................197
6.9.3 Personal Safety Precautions ......................................198
6.9.4 Dermatitis ..................................................................199
6.10 Action in the Event of a Chemical Spillage ...............................201
6.11 Explosion Risk ...........................................................................202
6.12 Static Discharge and Fire Prevention .........................................202
6.12.1 Static Discharge Prevention ......................................202

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CARE AND REPAIR OF ADVANCED COMPOSITES

6.12.2 Fire Prevention ..........................................................203

6.13 Safety Requirements for Electrical Appliances..........................204
6.14 ISO Environmental Management Standards ..............................205
6.15 References ..................................................................................206
6.16 Bibliography ...............................................................................207

Chapter 7 Damage and Repair Assessment ...........................................................209

7.1 Visual Inspection ........................................................................210
7.2 Tap Test ......................................................................................213
7.3 Ultrasonic Inspection .................................................................215
7.4 X-Ray Methods ..........................................................................220
7.5 Eddy Current Inspection ............................................................221
7.6 Thermography ............................................................................222
7.7 Bond Testers ...............................................................................223
7.8 Moisture Meters .........................................................................224
7.9 Interferometry/Shearography .....................................................226
7.10 Damage Types ............................................................................226
7.11 Sources of Mechanical Damage .................................................232
7.12 Damage Mapping .......................................................................233
7.13 Assessment of Damage Significance .........................................233
7.14 References ..................................................................................239

Chapter 8 Source Documents ..................................................................................241

8.1 Revision Systems .......................................................................241
8.2 Effectivity ...................................................................................242
8.3 Drawing Numbering Systems ....................................................242
8.4 Internal Documents ....................................................................245
8.5 Material and Process Specifications ...........................................245
8.6 Original Equipment Manufacturer Documents ..........................247
8.7 Regulatory Documents ...............................................................248
8.8 Air Transport Association of America ATA 100 System ............249
8.9 Aircraft Maintenance Manual ....................................................249
8.10 Component Maintenance Manual ..............................................249
8.11 Overhaul Manual ........................................................................250
8.12 Illustrated Parts Catalog .............................................................250
8.13 Structural Repair Manual ...........................................................251
8.14 Engine Manual ...........................................................................252

Chapter 9 Structural Repair Manual (SRM) Repair Method Selection .............253

9.1 Component Identification ...........................................................253
9.2 Damage Classification ................................................................254
9.2.1 Damage Terminology ................................................254
9.2.2 Critical Areas.............................................................255
9.2.3 Allowable/Negligible Damage ..................................255
9.2.4 Repairable Damage ...................................................256
9.2.5 Overhaul or Replace..................................................256

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 TABLE OF CONTENTS

9.2.6 Other Considerations.................................................257

9.3 Repair Methods ..........................................................................258
9.3.1 Speedtape ..................................................................259
9.3.2 Resin Sealing.............................................................259
9.3.3 Potted Repairs ...........................................................259
9.3.4 Bolted Doublers (Metal Plates) and
Bonded Doublers (Composite Patches) ....................259
9.3.5 Pre-Cured Doublers Versus Co-Cured Doublers.......260
9.3.6 Room-Temperature Wet Lay-Up ...............................261
9.3.7 Elevated-Temperature Wet Lay-Up ..........................262
9.3.8 Pre-Preg Repairs .......................................................262
9.3.9 Scarfed and Stepped Lap Repairs .............................263
9.3.10 Composite Repairs to Metals ....................................265
9.4 References ..................................................................................266

Chapter 10 Repair Techniques ..................................................................................267

10.1 Preparation .................................................................................267
10.1.1 Paint Removal ...........................................................270
10.1.2 Disbonding Methods .................................................270
10.1.2.1 Disbonding Adhesively Bonded
Metal Parts................................................270
10.1.2.2 Disbonding Composite Parts ....................274
10.1.3 Damage Removal ......................................................274
10.1.3.1 Damage Removal from Metal Parts .........274
10.1.3.2 Removal of Skin and Doubler
Material ....................................................276
10.1.3.3 Damage Removal from Composite
Parts ..........................................................277
10.1.3.4 Removal of Core Material ........................277
10.1.3.5 Removal of Surface Corrosion .................278
10.1.4 Moisture and Contamination Removal .....................279
10.1.5 Surface Preparation of Composites—Repair
Sanding and Ply Determination ................................280
10.1.5.1 Abrading ...................................................281
10.1.5.2 Taper Sanding/Scarfing ............................281
10.1.5.3 Step Sanding and Cutting .........................282
10.1.6 Water Break Test .......................................................284
10.1.7 Metallic Surface Preparation .....................................285
10.2 Typical Repairs ...........................................................................285
10.2.1 Edge Band Repairs ....................................................285
10.2.2 Repair of Damage to Core and One Skin ..................286
10.2.3 Repair of Damage to Core and Both Skins ...............286
10.2.4 Hybrid Repairs ..........................................................286
10.2.5 Blind Repairs.............................................................291
10.2.6 Injected Repairs.........................................................291
10.2.7 Solid Laminate Repairs .............................................295

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CARE AND REPAIR OF ADVANCED COMPOSITES

10.2.8 Potted Repairs ...........................................................296

10.2.9 Metal-to-Metal Bonding ...........................................296
10.2.10 Plastic Welding (Solvent or Heat) .............................296
10.3 Adhesive Usage ..........................................................................297
10.4 Bagging Materials, Release Films, Release Fabrics, Peel
Plies, Breather Cloths, Bleeder Cloths, Bleed-Out Fabrics,
and Application Techniques .......................................................297
10.4.1 Terminology ..............................................................298
10.4.2 Selection Criteria.......................................................301
10.4.3 Surface Versus Envelope Bagging ............................302
10.4.4 Pleating......................................................................304
10.4.5 Bagging Sequence .....................................................304
10.4.6 Vacuum Requirements and Principles.......................304
10.4.6.1 Vacuum Bonding ......................................305
10.4.6.2 Application of Vacuum Pressure to
Plates and Assemblies Using
Nonperforated Honeycomb ......................306
10.4.6.3 Practical Techniques to Ensure
Adequate Applied Vacuum Pressure to
Parts Under Repair ...................................310
10.4.7 Caul Plate and Dam Usage........................................314
10.4 8 Vertical Bleed Method ..............................................316
10.4.9 Squeeze-Out (Edge Bleed-Out) Method ...................316
10.4.10 Zero-Bleed Method ...................................................317
10.4.11 Ply Compaction and Debulking ................................318
10.4.12 Debagging Precautions and Typical Problems ..........318
10.5 Curing Stages and Temperatures—Heating Techniques ............319
10.5.1 Curing Stage Definitions ...........................................319
10.5.2 Low-Temperature Cure .............................................320
10.5.3 Elevated-Temperature Cure ......................................320
10.5.4 Direct Versus Indirect Heating ..................................321
10.5.5 Ramp Rates and Soak Cycles....................................321
10.5.6 Temperature Control and Monitoring .......................321
10.5.7 Thermocouple Placement ..........................................323
10.5.8 Temperature Control Problems .................................324
10.5.9 Hot Bonder and Heater Blanket Usage .....................324
10.5.10 Heat Sinks .................................................................327
10.5.11 Thermocouples ..........................................................328
10.5.12 Distortion of Parts During Heating or Cooling .........329
10.6 Post-Repair Inspection ...............................................................330
10.7 Surface Restoration ....................................................................333
10.8 References ..................................................................................335

Chapter 11 Mechanical Fastening Systems .............................................................337

11.1 Introduction ................................................................................337
11.2 Fastener Types ............................................................................338

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 TABLE OF CONTENTS

11.2.1 Fastener Standards ....................................................339

11.2.2 Fastener Compatibility ..............................................339
11.2.3 Rivets ........................................................................340
11.2.3.1 Solid Rivets ..............................................340
11.2.3.2 Blind Rivets ..............................................341
11.2.3.3 Hollow End Rivets ...................................343
11.3 Screws, Nuts, and Bolts .............................................................343
11.3.1 Specialty Fasteners (Special Bolts) ...........................343
11.3.2 Lockbolts ...................................................................346
11.3.3 Hex Drive Bolts ........................................................350
11.3.4 Specialty Blind Bolts ................................................350
11.4 Spacers, Bolt Inserts, and Grommets .........................................353
11.5 Hole Preparation.........................................................................357
11.5.1 Drilling ......................................................................357
11.5.2 Hole Sizes and Tolerances ........................................360
11.5.3 Edge Distance and Fastener Pitch .............................361
11.5.4 Hole Protection .........................................................361
11.6 Fastener Installation and Removal .............................................362
11.6.1 Fastener Installation ..................................................362
11.6.2 Fastener Removal ......................................................371
11.7 Fastener Substitution ..................................................................372
11.8 Bonded Fasteners .......................................................................372
11.9 Composite Fasteners ..................................................................374
11.10 References ..................................................................................375

Chapter 12 Documentation .......................................................................................377

12.1 Process Control Documents .......................................................377
12.1.1 Cure Chart/Data Strip................................................377
12.1.2 Routine and Nonroutine Work Documents ...............378
12.1.2.1 Routine Work Documents ........................378
12.1.2.2 Nonroutine Work Documents ...................391
12.1.3 Nondestructive and Destructive Inspection Data ......392
12.1.4 Coupon Test Results ..................................................392
12.1.5 Clean-Room Temperature and Humidity ..................392
12.1.6 Return to Service/Log Book Sign-Offs .....................392
12.2 Calibration Records ....................................................................393
12.3 Material Control Records ...........................................................395
12.4 Component Documentation .......................................................396
12.5 Training Records ........................................................................397

Chapter 13 Shop Equipment and Hand Tools .........................................................399

13.1 Hand Tools and Techniques........................................................399
13.1.1 Drills..........................................................................399
13.1.2 High-Speed Grinders.................................................401
13.1.3 Cutting Utensils.........................................................404
13.1.4 Hand Routers.............................................................405

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CARE AND REPAIR OF ADVANCED COMPOSITES

13.1.5 Orbital Sanders ..........................................................406

13.1.6 Cast Cutter (Oscillating Saw) ...................................407
13.1.7 Painting Equipment ...................................................408
13.1.8 Resin Applicators ......................................................408
13.2 Shop Equipment .........................................................................408
13.2.1 Bandsaws ..................................................................408
13.2.2 Air Compressors .......................................................409
13.3 Heating Devices .........................................................................411
13.4 Measuring Devices .....................................................................412
13.5 Health and Safety Equipment.....................................................414
13.6 References ..................................................................................416

Chapter 14 Tooling and Mold Making .....................................................................417

14.1 Introduction ................................................................................417
14.2 Caul Plate and Dam Fabrication ................................................418
14.3 Splash Mold Making ..................................................................420
14.4 Release Agents/Films .................................................................420
14.5 Simple Room-Temperature Tooling ...........................................421
14.6 Room-Temperature Curing Pre-Preg Tooling ............................422
14.6.1 Lay-Up ......................................................................423
14.6.2 Debulk Procedure ......................................................424
14.6.3 Final Bagging Procedure ...........................................425
14.6.4 Autoclave Cure .........................................................425
14.6.5 Time Limits ...............................................................426
14.6.6 Step Post-Curing Procedure After Room-
Temperature or Low-Temperature Initial Cure .........426
14.6.7 Support Structures .....................................................427
14.6.8 Initial Release Priming of New Composite
Tools ..........................................................................429
14.6.9 Developments in Low-Temperature Curing
Materials....................................................................430
14.7 References ..................................................................................430

Chapter 15 Metal Bonding ........................................................................................431

15.1 Introduction ................................................................................431
15.1.1 History and Requirements .........................................431
15.1.1.1 Metal Bonding ..........................................433
15.1.1.2 Epoxy Adhesives ......................................435
15.1.1.3 Requirements for Adhesives.....................435
15.1.2 Principles of Adhesion ..............................................436
15.1.2.1 Adhesion Theory ......................................436
15.1.2.2 Environmental Durability .........................439
15.1.2.3 Temperature Effects .................................440
15.1.2.4 Humidity Effects ......................................441
15.1.3 Advantages and Disadvantages of Metal
Bonding .....................................................................441

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 TABLE OF CONTENTS

15.2 Surface Preparation Methods .....................................................442

15.2.1 Abrasive Cleaning .....................................................444
15.2.2 Pasa-Jell ....................................................................444
15.2.3 Hydrofluoric Acid Etching ........................................446
15.2.4 Grit Blast/Silane ........................................................448
15.2.5 Alodine or Alochrom 1200 .......................................448
15.2.6 Boeing Boegel EPII Sol-Gel Process ........................450
15.2.7 FPL Etch....................................................................450
15.2.8 Chromic Acid Anodizing ..........................................451
15.2.9 Phosphoric Acid Anodizing ......................................451
15.2.9.1 Phosphoric Acid Containment System
(PACS)......................................................452
15.2.9.2 Phosphoric Acid Non-Tank Anodizing
(PANTA)...................................................452
15.2.10 Metadalic/Sifco Selective Plating (U.K.) Ltd. ..........457
15.2.11 Ciba Laser Pretreatment ............................................457
15.2.12 Other Surface Preparations .......................................457
15.3 Primers .......................................................................................458
15.3.1 Reasons for Using Primers ........................................458
15.3.2 Primer Types .............................................................459
15.3.3 Application of Primers ..............................................459
15.3.4 Curing/Drying ...........................................................461
15.3.5 Thickness Verification ...............................................461
15.4 Handling Primers .......................................................................462
15.5 References ..................................................................................463
15.6 Bibliography ...............................................................................464

Chapter 16 Design Guide for Composite Parts .......................................................465

16.1 Introduction ................................................................................465
16.2 Analysis of Reports Received ....................................................465
16.3 Other Required Design Features Not Mentioned in the
Analyzed Reports .......................................................................490
16.4 References ..................................................................................494

Chapter 17 Repair Design .........................................................................................495

17.1 General Repair Design ...............................................................495
17.1.1 Introduction to Repair Design ...................................495
17.1.2 Laminate Loading .....................................................495
17.1.2.1 Tension and Compression Loads
and Strains ................................................495
17.1.2.2 Shear Stress and Strain .............................497
17.1.2.3 Poisson’s Ratio .........................................498
17.1.3. Repair Philosophy and Design Requirements ...........500
17.1.3.1 Certification Load Capacity .....................500
17.1.3.2 Repair Categorization ...............................505
17.2 Laminate Repair Design .............................................................507

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CARE AND REPAIR OF ADVANCED COMPOSITES

17.2.1 Introduction to Laminate Repair Design ...................507

17.2.2 Laminate Repair Design Considerations...................507
17.2.2.1 Stiffness ....................................................507
17.2.2.2 Strength ....................................................510
17.2.2.3 Stability ....................................................511
17.2.2.4 Environmental Effects and Protection ......511
17.2.2.4.1 Operational and Glass
Transition Temperatures
(Tg) ........................................511
17.2.2.4.2 Lightning and Electrostatic
Protection ..............................512
17.2.2.5 Other Repair Design Considerations ........520
17.2.2.6 Laminate Repair Recommendations ........521
17.2.3 Laminate Analysis Techniques for Repair
Design .......................................................................522
17.2.3.1 Introduction to Simplified Analysis
Techniques ................................................522
17.2.3.2 Elastic Modulus (E) Analysis ...................524
17.2.3.3 Strength (F) Analysis ................................529
17.2.3.4 Poisson’s Ratio (ν0) Analysis ...................531
17.2.3.5 In-Plane Shear Modulus (G) ....................534
17.2.4 In-Plane Shear Strength (τ) .......................................535
17.3 Core Repair Design ....................................................................540
17.3.1 Function and Loading of Core in Sandwich
Construction ..............................................................540
17.3.2 Core Material, Density, and Cell Size .......................544
17.3.3 Core Repair Design Recommendations ....................544
17.4 Bonded Joint Repair Design.......................................................545
17.4.1 Introduction to Bonded Joints ...................................545
17.4.2 Types of Bonded Joints .............................................545
17.4.3 Failure Modes of Bonded Joints ...............................547
17.4.4 Adhesive Behavior in Bonded Joints ........................549
17.4.4.1 Adhesive Shear Stress and Strain .............549
17.4.4.2 Elastic and Plastic Adhesive
Behavior ...................................................551
17.4.4.3 Temperature and Moisture Effects ...........560
17.4.4.4 Joint Adherend Effects—Stiffness
Imbalance and Thermal Mismatch ...........563
17.4.4.5 Recommended Joint Overlaps and
Simplistic Analysis ...................................568
17.4.5 Adhesive Peel Stress and Displacement ...................570
17.4.6 Durability—Fatigue, Creep, and Environmental
Effects .......................................................................581
17.4.7 Bonded Joint Repair Considerations .........................582
17.4.8 Bonded Joint Repair Design Recommendations .......583
17.5 Mechanically Fastened Joints ....................................................584

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 TABLE OF CONTENTS

17.5.1 Introduction to Mechanically Fastened Joints ..........584

17.5.2 Fastened Laminate Failure Modes ............................585
17.5.3 Fastener Failure Modes .............................................588
17.5.4 Open-Hole Stress Concentrations—Composites
Versus Metals ............................................................588
17.5.5 Loading of Mechanically Fastened Joints .................588
17.5.6 Loaded Fastener Holes ..............................................592
17.5.7 Fastener Load Distribution and Joint Geometry .......594
17.5.8 Lay-Up Orientation for Fastened Joints ....................596
17.5.9 Pad-Ups and Hybrid Material Application................597
17.5.10 Fatigue of Fastened Composite Joints ......................600
17.5.11 Effects of Gaps and Shims ........................................601
17.5.12 Fastener Selection .....................................................601
17.5.13 Mechanically Fastened Repairs in Sandwich
Panels ........................................................................604
17.5.14 Fastened Joint Repair Recommendations .................608
17.6 References ..................................................................................609
17.7 Bibliography ...............................................................................612

Index ................................................................................................................................617

About the Authors ..........................................................................................................637

xxi
 Chapter 1

INTRODUCTION TO COMPOSITES AND

CARE OF COMPOSITE PARTS

This book is presented in the same sequence as the ATA/IATA/SAE syllabus of training
recommended for composite repair mechanics. With additions, it is also suitable for repair
design engineers. Chapter 15, Metal Bonding, has been included partly because the defi-
nition of “composite” can be interpreted to include metal-skinned honeycomb panels and
partly because some composite parts have metal fittings or reinforcements that must be
treated before bonding. Chapter 16 covers a number of the problems experienced in service,
some of which may also be applicable to metallic sandwich panels, and offers suggestions
for design improvements. Chapter 17, by William F. Cole II, has been added to meet the
needs of repair design engineers. The Commercial Aircraft Composite Repair Committee
(CACRC) considered it necessary to provide training for a wider range of staff and recom-
mended that aircrew, managers, aircraft mechanics, storekeepers, and delivery drivers all
should be given some knowledge of composites. Extracts from this book may be useful
for this purpose.

1.1 Definition of Composites

Composite materials are quite different from metals. Composites are combinations of mate-
rials differing in composition or form where the individual constituents retain their separate
identities and do not dissolve or merge together. These separate constituents act together
to give the necessary mechanical strength or stiffness to the composite part. Today, this
definition is usually used to mean fibers as reinforcement in a resin matrix, but it can also
include metal-skinned honeycomb panels, for example.

Reinforced concrete is a good example of a composite material. The steel and concrete retain
their individual identities in the finished structure. However, because they work together, the
steel carries the tension loads, and the concrete carries the compression loads. Although not
covered by this book, metal and ceramic matrix composites are being studied intensively.
Composites in structural applications have the following characteristics:

1. They generally consist of two or more physically distinct and mechanically separable
materials.

2. They are made by mixing the separate materials in such a way as to achieve controlled
and uniform dispersion of the constituents.

1
CARE AND REPAIR OF ADVANCED COMPOSITES

3. Mechanical properties of composites are superior to and in some cases uniquely differ-
ent from the properties of their constituents. This is clearly seen with glass-reinforced
plastics (GRP), where the epoxy resin is a relatively weak, flexible, and brittle material,
and, although the glass fibers are strong and stiff, they can be loaded in tension only
as a bare fiber. Under compression loading, a bundle of fibers has no strength until
combined with a resin to support them. When combined, the cured resin and fiber give
a strong, stiff composite with excellent toughness characteristics.

1.2 History of Composite Materials

By definition, a composite is something made from two or more components—in our case
here, a fiber and a resin. Composites are not a new idea. Moses floated down the Nile in a
basket made from papyrus reeds coated with pitch. Papyrus is a form of paper with a vis-
ible fibrous reinforcement, so it would not have been difficult to make a waterproof basket
from it. From ancient times, it was known that bricks were stronger if filled with chopped
straw. African “mud” huts were reinforced with grasses and thin sticks. The Butser Hill
farm project shows that woven sticks, bonded with a mixture of cow dung and mud, were
used to build house walls in England in 1500 B.C. It would be interesting to know how the
correct mix ratio for the cow dung and the mud was determined! The lath and plaster walls
in old English houses were a form of composite. Although the concept is old, the materials
have changed. Carbon, aramid, and glass fibers are very expensive compared with straw,
and epoxy resins are costly compared to a mixture of cow dung and mud! Fortunately, the
performance for a given weight is much higher. There also are natural composites such as
wood. The structure of a tree consists of long, strong cellulose fibers bonded together by a
protein-like substance called lignin. The fibers that run up the trunk and along the branches
are thus aligned by nature in the optimum way to resist the stresses experienced from grav-
ity and wind forces. Large radii are provided at the trunk-to-branch and branch-to-branch
joints to reduce stress concentrations at high-load points.

1.3 Advantages and Disadvantages of Composites

Composite parts have both advantages and disadvantages when compared to the metal parts
they are being used to replace.

1.3.1 Advantages of Composites

1. A higher performance for a given weight leads to fuel savings. Excellent strength-to-
weight and stiffness-to-weight ratios can be achieved by composite materials. This is
usually expressed as strength divided by density, and stiffness (modulus) divided by
density. These are so-called “specific” strength and “specific” modulus characteris-
tics.

2. Laminate patterns and ply buildup in a part can be tailored to give the required mechani-
cal properties in various directions.

2
 INTRODUCTION TO COMPOSITES AND CARE OF COMPOSITE PARTS

3. It is easier to achieve smooth aerodynamic profiles for drag reduction. Complex

double-curvature parts with a smooth surface finish can be made in one manufacturing
operation.

4. Part count is reduced.

5. Production cost is reduced. Composites may be made by a wide range of processes.

6. Composites offer excellent resistance to corrosion, chemical attack, and outdoor weath-
ering; however, some chemicals are damaging (e.g., paint stripper), and new types of
paint and stripper are being developed to deal with this. Some thermoplastics are not
very resistant to some solvents. Check the data sheets for each type.

1.3.2 Disadvantages of Composites

1. Composites are more brittle than wrought metals; thus, they are more easily damaged.
Cast metals also tend to be brittle.

2. Repair introduces new problems, for the following reasons:

• Materials require refrigerated transport and storage and have limited shelf lives.

• Hot curing is necessary in many cases, requiring special equipment.

• Curing either hot or cold takes time. The job is not finished when the last rivet has
been installed.

3. If rivets have been used and must be removed, this presents problems of removal without
causing further damage.

4. Repair at the original cure temperature requires tooling and pressure.

5. Composites must be thoroughly cleaned of all contamination before repair.

6. Composites must be dried before repair because all resin matrices and some fibers absorb
moisture.

1.3.3 Advantages of Thermoset Resin Composites

Thermoset resin composites have the following advantages compared to thermoplastic resin
composites:

1. Thermosets will cure at lower temperatures than most thermoplastics will melt. There-
fore, thermosets can be manufactured at lower temperatures than thermoplastics.

2. Many two-part resin systems can be cured at room temperature, and their cure can be
speeded by heating up to approximately 80°C (176°F). Some 95°C (203°F) curing
two-part systems are now available.

3
CARE AND REPAIR OF ADVANCED COMPOSITES

3. A range of curing temperatures, particularly with epoxy systems, allows repair at lower
temperatures than the original cure.

4. Tooling can be used at lower temperatures than with thermoplastics.

5. Chemical resistance is generally good, but check for resistance to any chemicals that
may come into contact with the part. For example, some epoxies are more resistant to
chemicals than others.

6. Hot-curing systems are used for primary structures, but gliders and some light aircraft
use room-temperature curing systems.

1.3.4 Disadvantages of Thermoset Resin Composites

Thermoset resin composites have the following disadvantages compared to thermoplastic
resin composites:

1. Slow to process (cold store/thaw/cure).

2. Relatively low toughness, environmental performance, and strength.

3. Potential health hazards.

4. Slow to repair.

1.3.5 Advantages of Thermoplastic Resin Composites

The advantages of thermoplastic resin composites over thermoset resin composites include
the following:

1. Thermoplastic resin composites are much tougher than thermosets and offer fast pro-
cessing times and good environmental performance, except against certain solvents in
some cases. Again, check each material and its response to each solvent likely to be
encountered.

2. No health hazards.

3. More closely match fiber performance.

4. Good fire/smoke performance (interiors, fuel tanks, and engine parts).

5. Good fatigue performance.

6. High-temperature uses polyetheretherketone (PEEK) 250–300°C (482–572°F).

7. Commercial applications include helicopter rotor blades, some high-strength interior

parts, and fairing panels on civil aircraft, wing leading edges.

4
 INTRODUCTION TO COMPOSITES AND CARE OF COMPOSITE PARTS

8. Future possibility of resin transfer molding (RTM) around reinforcing fiber or use in
conventional application mode (i.e., pre-preg stacking). Single-crystal growth versions
could be used for engine parts.

1.3.6 Disadvantages of Thermoplastic Resin Composites

The disadvantages of thermoplastic resin composites over thermoset resin composites
include the following:

1. Cost.

2. New process methods.

3. Long-term fatigue characteristics are unknown.

4. Temperature to melt for repairs is very high in some cases. This could cause serious
problems for in-situ repairs to primary or secondary structures, especially if being done
near fuel tanks or hydraulic systems.

5. Polyimides suffer microcracking (Ref. 1.1).

1.4 Applications of Composites to Modern Aircraft, Yachts, Cars,

and Trains
1.4.1 Early Aircraft Structures
Early aircraft were composite-based structures because they were built from wood, which
is a composite material comprising a cellulose/lignin mixture that gives wood its excellent
strength-to-weight performance and properties of resilience and damage resistance. How-
ever, wood is subject to deterioration by moisture-induced decay and attack from fungal
growths. By the 1930s, wooden aircraft structures began to be replaced by stressed-skin,
monocoque aluminum alloy structures.

One notable exception to the trend toward all-metal aircraft structures was the De Havilland
Mosquito, an all-composite wooden aircraft in which adhesively bonded sandwich structures
were used extensively, consisting of plywood skins on a balsa wood core. The Mosquito
was a very successful aircraft, and more than 8,000 were built between 1940 and 1946.

The first documented use of fibrous composite aerospace structures was an experimental
Spitfire fuselage made in the early 1940s by Aero Research Ltd. at Duxford, near Cambridge,
England. This structure was made from untwisted flax fibers impregnated with phenolic
resin and formed into 6-in. (150-mm) wide unidirectional tape ribbons, which were then
assembled into 0°/90° ply sheets that were hot-pressed to their final form. These precured
sheets were assembled on the airframe structure with conventional riveting techniques. This
fuselage was tested at RAE (now the Defence Science and Technology Laboratory [DSTL]),
Farnborough, U.K., and was found to meet all the structural requirements of a conventional
duralumin aluminum alloy structure.

5
CARE AND REPAIR OF ADVANCED COMPOSITES

1.4.2 Modern Aircraft Structures and Other Applications

The introduction of glass fibers in the 1940s and their postwar use with polyester and epoxy
resins laid the foundations for the aerospace composites industry as we know it today. The
new, higher-performance fibers introduced in the 1960s, such as boron (1966), carbon
(1968), aramid (1972), and high-performance polyethylene (1987), have accelerated this
trend. Projections for the next decade indicate that the following aircraft types will use
composites to a large extent.

Projected Use of Composites

Type of Aircraft Percentage Usage
Rotorcraft and corporate aircraft 60–80% of structure weight
Fighter and attack aircraft 40–50% of structure weight
Large commercial and military aircraft 35–50% of structure weight

Composites started being used in modern aircraft for secondary structure, such as fairings;
however, composites now are used for principal and primary structures, and in some cases,
whole wings. Filament-wound composite fuselages are being seriously studied for medium
to large aircraft, and in some cases, prototypes have been built. They are already flying
in some corporate aircraft. Obviously, the quality of composite parts and repairs to these
parts is becoming a matter of great importance, and that is one of the reasons for producing
this book. Composites are here to stay. All of the major airframe manufacturers are heav-
ily engaged in further efforts to capitalize on the exceptional strength-to-weight ratio and
other benefits to be obtained with composites. However, to obtain and retain these benefits,
the airframe manufacturers must make these materials more repairable, and the airlines
must learn to take good care of them, to avoid needless damage, and to become skilled and
equipped for repair when necessary.

The first Boeing 707 had approximately 2% composite construction. In contrast, today’s
Boeing 767 has approximately 35%, and the Beech Starship was the first certified general
aviation aircraft to have a structure built entirely of composites. The Bell-Boeing V-22 tilt
rotor aircraft is also the first of its kind to be made entirely of composite materials.

Some aircraft using considerable amounts of composites are as follows:

Aerospatiale: ATR 42 and 72 and others in this series

Airbus: A.300, A.310, A.318, A.319, A.320, A.321,
A.330, A.340, A.350, A.380, and A.400M
Boeing: 717, 737, 747, 757, 767, 777, and 787
Dreamliner
BAE Systems Regional Aircraft Ltd.: 146, RJ Series, Jetstream Series
Fokker: F.50, F.70, and F.100
Boeing/McDonnell-Douglas: M.D.11 and C.17

6
 INTRODUCTION TO COMPOSITES AND CARE OF COMPOSITE PARTS

Fig. 1.1 Use of composites on the Airbus A.340. (Courtesy of Airbus Industrie.)

Composites are also being used extensively in modern racing cars, yachts, railway trains,
and sporting equipment such as skis.

For illustrations of some applications of composites, see Figs. 1.1 through 1.6.

1.5 Care of Composite Parts

A great opportunity exists to save money, time, and trouble by taking good care of compos-
ite parts, components, and structures. Composite construction offers the opportunity for
“parts integration,” that is, to make a large part in one piece and not to assemble it from a
large number of smaller parts (Ref. 1.2). A composite part may be made from a very large
number of tape or fabric plies all bonded at the same time; however, when finished, it is
only one large part, having one assembly number and requiring only one record card. This
means that the larger a part is and the more expensive it is, the less likely it is to be held as
a spare. Consequently, if damage or deterioration occurs, the choice must be made between
an expensive spare that is not in stock or a repair that may be difficult and time consuming.
Many large parts also have many bolt holes, and these are not always jig located. This
means that if a new part is fitted and the old part is repaired, then the holes in that part may
not fit the next airplane. Problems of this type are common and mean that these parts must
be repairable quickly so that they can be refitted to the airplane from which they came. All

7
CARE AND REPAIR OF ADVANCED COMPOSITES

Fig. 1.2 Use of composites on the Boeing 777. (Courtesy of

Boeing Commercial Airplane Group.)

Fig. 1.3 Use of composites on BAE Systems Regional Aircraft Ltd. 146/RJ Series.
(Courtesy of Avro International.)

8
 INTRODUCTION TO COMPOSITES AND CARE OF COMPOSITE PARTS

Fig. 1.4 Composites in a racing yacht. (Courtesy of Du Pont.)

Fig. 1.5 Composites in a sports car. (Courtesy of Du Pont.)

9
CARE AND REPAIR OF ADVANCED COMPOSITES

Fig. 1.6 Composites in high-speed trains. (Courtesy of SNCF–French Railways.)

repairs cause problems that airlines would prefer not to have; therefore, the value of taking
good care of composites is very high, especially if the parts are large, expensive, or not
easily obtained when required.

1.5.1 Sources of Damage to Composite Parts

Unfortunately, there are many potential sources of damage to composite parts, and most of
these apply, regardless of the material of construction. They can be listed under two basic
headings: physical damage, or chemical damage.

1.5.1.1 Physical or Chemical Damage

These types of damage can occur from the following sources and probably from a few
more:

• Collision with ground service vehicles, ladders, and other ground equipment.

• Taxiing into other aircraft or stationary objects.

• In severe storms, hail impact can cause extensive damage, even if the aircraft is on the
ground.

10
 INTRODUCTION TO COMPOSITES AND CARE OF COMPOSITE PARTS

• Lightning strike.

• Sand erosion.

• Careless use of screwdrivers and/or overtightening of screws can damage countersunk

holes.

• Damage can result from bad handling. Some long, thin panels can be fractured by bad
handling. They must be supported along their length by several people, in the same
way as a person with a back injury being carefully moved onto a stretcher. In addition,
corners are easily broken off if parts are moved around without protection. As men-
tioned in a later chapter, composite parts should be stored in their boxes until they are
removed for use on an aircraft. They should not be removed from their boxes to save
storage space as soon as they are received. The purpose of good packaging is to have
each part reach its final destination in good condition. This can be achieved only if the
packaging remains in place until the last possible moment.

• Damage in transit can result from incorrect, inadequate, or insufficient padding or pack-
aging. Trailers and vehicles must be softly sprung. Staff must appreciate the value and
importance of the parts they are moving.

• Store these parts under good conditions, particularly avoiding excessive heat.

• Dropped tools can cause damage. If personnel are working at some height above com-
posite parts, these parts should be covered with thick foam-rubber padding that would
be sufficient to offer protection from any tools that may be dropped.

• Chemical damage can occur. Paint stripper, “Skydrol,” other hydraulic fluids, and any
other damaging fluids should be removed from composite parts immediately if acci-
dental spillage occurs. The area should be thoroughly washed with warm soapy water
to remove any residual chemicals after first removing most of them with clean rags or
absorbent paper. On the inside faces of fairings and panels, which can be contaminated
with hydraulic fluid due to small leaks, a protective coating is not always provided. In
addition, these panels may have only one layer of skin, and fluid penetration into the
honeycomb is likely.

• Overheat damage can occur mainly to engine cowlings if engine components or acces-
sories overheat, and occasionally in wheel bay areas if brakes have been overheated.
Reflective aluminum layers and heat shields must be maintained in good condition.
It is a sad fact that more repairs are made to composites because of damage resulting
from lack of foresight or experience at the design stage and lack of care in handling
than because of deterioration or unavoidable damage such as severe hail impact and
lightning strikes. Even these are, to some extent, avoidable by cooperation between
pilots and ground controllers. In one sense, this is a compliment to composite parts,
but it is not encouraging to think that most damage is inflicted by airline or associated
personnel. Room for improvement exists in the care of composites to avoid the need
for repair. Chapter 16 shows that detail design can be improved in many areas.

11
CARE AND REPAIR OF ADVANCED COMPOSITES

Many of these problems could be resolved by improved staff training and more care on the
flight line.

1.5.1.2 Deterioration in Normal Service

If less important items were being described, this would probably be dismissed almost flip-
pantly as FW&T (fair wear and tear). Although this is always true to a degree, it is fair to
say that anything that significantly affects the safety, serviceability, or maintenance cost of
an airplane should be considered for design improvement if the type has enough aircraft
with sufficient remaining service life to justify the effort. This type of improvement is usu-
ally brought about by the issue of a manufacturer’s Service Bulletin, if the customer service
department has received enough complaints via its service representatives based at major
airports or with the large airline maintenance bases. This type of improvement depends on
airlines keeping good records of problems and passing this information on to the manufactur-
ers by the normal channels. It often requires reports from more than one airline to achieve
action, but it is essential for airlines to do this. Good reporting is particularly necessary if
the parts in question can be repaired fairly easily. If the manufacturer receives no orders
for spares and no complaints, it follows that nothing will be done.

Deterioration can occur in many ways:

• Rain, hail, or sand erosion.

• Cyclic heat, especially in engine cowlings.

• Weathering (moisture absorption) and ultraviolet (UV) radiation.

• Hydraulic oil damage to paint and resin and adhesive bonds if left on composite
parts.

• Vibration causing wear at bolt holes.

• Frequent panel removal for inspection or replenishment, causing wear at bolt holes.

• Careless use of screwdrivers when removing panels.

• Use of excessive torque when tightening bolts in composite parts. This can split the
edge or cause delamination around the hole.

• Minor damage that goes unnoticed.

• Minor lightning strikes causing pinholes in radomes, which allows moisture penetration
over a period of time.

• Paint or sealant that comes off and is not replaced quickly.

12
 INTRODUCTION TO COMPOSITES AND CARE OF COMPOSITE PARTS

1.5.2 Avoidance of Damage and Reduction of Deterioration in Service

Airlines and other users can minimize in-service damage and deterioration in the following
ways:

1. Maintain protective paint schemes in good condition.

2. Coat with resin any dry spots found in composite parts as soon as possible. Dry spots
need to be given a good brush coat of a high-quality, low-viscosity laminating resin,
preferably with a high glass transition temperature (Tg) and low water uptake. This
should be done under vacuum pressure and with mild heat (approximately 80°C [176°F]
maximum).

3. Replace any missing sealant quickly after drying the area.

4. Repair oil leaks promptly (hydraulic or engine oil), and wash all oil contamination from
composite parts as soon as possible.

5. Train staff to close all doors and access panels carefully to prevent damage from slam-
ming and to report immediately any doors that are difficult to close, so that rerigging
or other adjustments can be made before damage is done. Any doors and access panels
that are not properly flush should also be reported so that adjustments can be made to
reduce edge erosion damage and fuel wastage due to avoidable drag.

6. Ensure that any loose bolt inserts are removed, replaced, and correctly bonded.

7. Use the correct torque values when fitting bolts in composite parts.

8. Repair damage of a minor nature quickly. This can prevent repairs becoming larger if
the damage grows or water seepage occurs.

9. Seal any allowable damage immediately and in accordance with the Structural Repair
Manual (SRM) to prevent moisture penetration or damage growth while repairs are
organized.

10. Check erosion-resistant coatings on radomes and leading edges of wings, tailplanes,
fins, and helicopter rotor blades at regular intervals, and replace or repair them as
required.

11. Check radomes for moisture content at regular intervals, and dry and repair as
required.

12. Check lightning protection systems regularly, and replace any defective parts.

13. Report repetitive defects to the manufacturer, and request modification action to correct
the problem and prevent recurrence.

14. Design and apply local repairs or improvements if they have, or have access to, a design
authority to do so.

13
CARE AND REPAIR OF ADVANCED COMPOSITES

15. Encourage all personnel to report any deterioration or damage, however small, as soon
as it is found. This includes accidental damage caused by the person reporting it. It is
important to safety and economics of operation that airlines should not embarrass or
penalize staff for doing this, because everyone makes mistakes at times and often when
cutting corners to keep aircraft on schedule.

16. Store parts in the boxes in which they are delivered until they are needed on the air-
craft or assembled to a component. Note that the value of air space and floor space in
the stores, although not insignificant, is unlikely to compare with the cost of finding
that a part transported to the aircraft without a box is damaged and requires repair or
replacement when it is urgently needed. There is a tendency among storekeepers to
take everything out of its packaging to save space. This is understandable but should
be discouraged for all parts that can suffer damage in transit and especially for easily
damaged parts such as composite components and aircraft windows.

17. Conduct very minor modifications. In the case of panels or fairings contaminated by
hydraulic fluid, local minor modification is possible. The problem usually has two
causes:

• No protection has been provided.

• The inner skin may have only one fabric layer, and this may allow fluid penetration
into the honeycomb, especially if the resin content is low.

Several solutions are possible:

• Fit a protective layer after careful cleaning of the inner skin. This layer may be
made from a range of materials. A Tedlar plastic coating or a layer of aluminum
foil (Speedtape) may be applied, or a brush coating of polysulfide or polythioether
sealant may be used. These will prevent direct contact between the fluid and the
component inner skin.

• After cleaning the existing skin, additional layers of fabric may be applied with a
suitable epoxy resin to bring the total number of layers up to three. The additional
layers may be thin ones. Three layers is the minimum number to ensure that fluid
penetration of the skin is unlikely.

18. Use care in the rigging of parts that need correct and careful adjustment. Another point
where care may be very profitable is in ensuring the correct rigging of items such as
control surfaces and particularly undercarriage doors. The manufacture of jigs for this
purpose has been found to be well worth the cost. On one well-remembered occasion,
with which one of us is familiar, an undercarriage door was sent to the hangar for fitting
after many manhours had been spent repairing it. A shift change was in progress, and
the incoming shift thought that the rigging checks and adjustments on the new door
had been done by the previous shift. A retraction test was called for, and it was quickly
discovered that the door had not been rigged. It was almost instantly damaged to a far
worse degree than it had been when sent to workshop the first time! The workshop
staff members were not amused. The only good that arose from this incident was that

14
 INTRODUCTION TO COMPOSITES AND CARE OF COMPOSITE PARTS

the supervisor was so embarrassed that he measured several aircraft and designed a jig
to check and ensure that the rigging was correct. To date, no similar incidents have
occurred. Another good reason for rigging doors and access panels correctly and flush
with the skin is that drag is reduced, thereby saving a useful amount of fuel on each
flight.

19. Ensure that drain holes are clear of dirt and debris and that they are redrilled if covered
during repairs.

20. Ensure that any repairs do not encroach on necessary mechanical clearance required by
moving parts.

21. High-pressure washing of aircraft by untrained personnel may be acceptable for metal
structures but has proved damaging to composite parts. Composite honeycomb panels
suffer the most from this treatment, as any holes or delaminations are penetrated by the
high pressures employed, which significantly increases the amount of damage. Staff
training is required, together with a reduction of the pressure used, if damage is to be
avoided when cleaning composite parts by this method. Composite parts are usually
expensive. Although in many cases repairs are not difficult, any resin or adhesive takes
at least an hour to cure, even if it is a hot-curing system. These systems require heater
blankets and vacuum bags, and they take time to set up before curing can commence.
Room-temperature curing systems can be warm cured in a few hours, but both methods
usually take longer than riveting. A bonded repair cannot fly until the resin is cured.
A riveted repair may require time to complete, but it can fly as soon as the last rivet is
fitted (unless sealants are needed). It is easier to take care of a part, whatever its form of
construction, than it is to do a repair! Following the old principle that “a stitch in time
saves nine,” always make permanent repairs as soon as possible after damage is found,
before the damaged area can increase in size. On the same basis, a permanent repair
should always be made in preference to a temporary repair if time and other factors
permit. (However, it must be recognized that there will be times when a honeycomb
sandwich-type fairing panel is damaged, and the only way to meet a service deadline
is to drill a large number of holes and bolt a plate on the outside, with large washers on
the inside. If this makes a large wide-bodied jet take off on or near schedule with 400
passengers, thereby saving 400 hotel bills and an upset schedule the following day, then
the decision will have been a sound economic one, even if the panel is scrapped.) A
temporary repair must be removed before a permanent repair can be made, and further
damage is usually done in the process, which results in the second repair being larger
and nearer to the permitted limits. Parts in need of repair are unlikely to have pack-
ing cases available for transport to and from hangars or workshops. The best possible
provision should be made for covering, padding, physical support, and careful handling
during transport to and from the point of repair and any other necessary journeys such as
visits to the paint shop. Damage on the way to or from the paint shop is not unknown!
This provision should include training for the staff involved and should give them an
appreciation of the value of the parts they are handling and of the work they do.

22. One further action by which airlines could minimize long-term damage to the entire
external surface of the aircraft is to adopt a new paint system mentioned in more detail

15
CARE AND REPAIR OF ADVANCED COMPOSITES

in Chapter 15. This is the new scheme tried on aluminum surfaces where the chromate
or other corrosion-resistant primer remains on the aircraft for its entire life. This is
painted with an intercoat and a top coat, which are both capable of being stripped by
benzyl alcohol. This is a more environmentally friendly solvent than methylene chloride,
which was commonly used for many years. Benzyl alcohol does not damage the basic
primer; therefore, paint can be removed an almost unlimited number of times without
removing the primer and the underlying oxide layer produced by anodizing. This anodic
treatment provides a good bonding surface for the primer and gives corrosion resistance
to the aluminum alloy skin. Trials indicate that this primer and paint system may also
be used on composite surfaces. If this proves as successful as expected, then this paint
top coat, intercoat, and primer system will meet the protective needs of composite
components extremely well. Adoption of this paint system by airlines will make a great
contribution to the successful maintenance of composite parts, which are progressively
becoming an ever larger part of the external surface areas of modern aircraft.

1.6 References
1.1 Phillips, Leslie N. (ed.), Design with Advanced Composite Materials, The Design Council,
Springer-Verlag, London, ISBN 0-85072-238-1, 1989.

1.2 Armstrong, K.B., “Parts Integration—Advantages and Problems,” Carbon Fibers III, Third
International Conference, 8–10 October 1985, Kensington, London, U.K., The Plastics
and Rubber Institute (now part of The Institute of Materials, 1 Carlton House Terrace,
London, SW1Y-5DB, U.K.), 1985, pp. 15/1–15/6.

16
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 Now, secure a fair sized post or board. Have it nicely planed and
painted, if possible, polished, so it will present a finished
appearance. Take now a hammer and nail and drive one in, at short
distances, at every evil deed mentioned. He told a lie—drive in a
nail. He said a swear word—drive in a nail. He stole a book—drive in
a nail, and so continue this operation until there are fifteen or twenty
nails driven in. "How shall I get rid of my sins?" Let us see. For every
good word said, pull out a nail and continue in this fashion until the
nails are extracted. But good works will not blot out our evil deeds,
for you notice that the nail holes are there. We cannot pull the nail
holes out, the scar of sin is left, The only way the scar can be blotted
out is by the planing off of the board, or filling up the nail holes, or
better still, get a new piece of board. So God must give us a new
heart, and this He will do if we pray "Create in me a new heart, O
God."
 CHAPTER XXIX

"THE BURIED BIBLE"

Objects: A Large Bible; a Daily Newspaper; a Sunday Newspaper; a
Cash Book; Entertainment Program; a Theatrical Window Poster; a
Book of Fashions; a Book of Personal Engagements; a Popular
Work of Fiction; School Books; a Phonograph Catalogue

THE BURIED BIBLE

I
N the Old Testament days we read of the Scriptures or "The Law"
being hidden away under the rubbish of the neglected temple.
There is great danger in these days that we might lose our Bible
in this way also. We so easily and frequently put it aside, neglect it,
and then forget it and often forget where we put it. The cares of this
world and its sinful pleasures are the dust which so often covers our
Bible, and which covers it over to such an extent that we find it is not
even in our thoughts.
In many of our homes, the Bible is out of sight. The children do
not find it open and ever before their eyes. It is a buried book. There
should be a Bible in every room, always kept open, which will speak
in a silent tongue of power "Search me, and in so doing you will find
eternal life." To illustrate the fact that in most homes this is not done,
and that the Bible has been covered with the rubbish of life, secure a
good sized Bible, and before the children assemble, cover it all over
so it is entirely out of sight with, first, a Sunday newspaper, next, a
cash book used in business, next an entertainment program, then a
theatrical window poster folded up, then a fashion plate picture, after
this a book containing your engagements for every night, and late
night affairs; also a popular work of fiction, a pile of school books; a
well worn catalogue of Victor records, and at last a daily newspaper.
When the audience is assembled, explain you will talk to them about
the neglected book of God or the buried Bible. Let us all look and
see what we use to cover up our Bible, and thus put it out of sight.
This pile of stuff on the table covers up the dear word of God, and
prevents us from reading it as we should. The Bible is the world's
greatest medicine chest, and it is lost. The world is in dreadful pain
and we cannot find the medicine. Let us see together what has
covered it up, and search together under the rubbish until we find it.
First lift off the daily newspaper. This is always read first by most
people, and when we have finished reading it, there is no time to
read the Bible, and we are not in a good mental state to grasp its
meaning, so we neglect to read our Bible. We should go to the Holy
Book first, if only to find one verse for the day, for in so doing, we
begin the day with God. But the daily newspaper has hid it out of
sight. Next take up the Victor talking machine catalogue, which
should be much worn by frequent use, and in so doing explain that
one-half the time listening to God speak through His word, as we
give to the popular song and music of the day, our Bibles would be in
as prominent a place as the talking machine. Popular music is good
in its place but when it takes the Bible's place, it is all wrong and out
of its place. Don't hide the Bible back of the talking machine, or you
will lose it some day.
Next, take off the School books. "No time to read the Bible, | have
so many lessons to study." This is often the cry we hear from boys
who attend school. Sometimes the school books are enemies to the
word of God and destroy all taste for the Bible. Often when the boys
and girls have finished their book learning, they have not only no
time for the Bible but no use for it at all. They cast it into the rubbish
and say "The world has outgrown the Bible." So under the books of
the school, they have buried it and called it dead and that is the
reason they buried it. Bright boys and girls should know the Bible is
the king of all books of learning, and the highest crowning wisdom of
all is to know God, that alone is the perfect education. Don't
therefore, hide your Bible under your school books. Now pick from
the rubbish heap—the novel. "I am so interested in reading fiction I
have no time to read the Bible." This is just what the boys and girls
often say. They will sit up all night if possible to see how the story
"turns out." Of course there is no time to read the Bible if this is the
way we spend our reading time and so the Bible once more is
pushed aside by the novel. Reading is a splendid means of mental
culture, and it makes a full man, but the best reading of all is the
Bible. Mix a chapter of the good Book in with your other reading, and
you have a superb mixture. The Bible contains the world's best
literature, and it is more than good literature. Its words are life and
concentrated power. They are bits of radium. They glow with inside
light, they never lose their lustre. Their light is as penetrating as the
X-ray. They shine into the other life. Don't hide the light of the mighty
word with the novel or secular reading of the present day.
Now take from the pile of stuff your book of engagements. Open
it, and discover you have an engagement for every night in the week.
They are social functions. You must go; you will lose your standing
among the "high class" if you don't. Put down among your
engagements this one. I have an engagement of thirty minutes with
my Bible. This is imperative. Keep that engagement with your Bible
as you would keep all other engagements and you will never lose
your Bible under a heap of dates.
At this time take from the heap of rubbish the book of fashion
plates. "Must attend to this book—every month brings me something
new. If I hold my own with 'my set' I must follow the fashion plates to
appear just right." This is burning incense to the Goddess of Vanity,
and this Goddess is not satisfied with a fragment of time, but it
demands full time and it generally gets it. Fashion plates and the
scriptures are impossible mates. They never mix well because they
are not of one blood. So the plate stays and the Bible goes under it.
It is right that we should give attention to our dress and address, and
the way to do this is to seek the Bible way of beauty of dress and
character adornment. To look beautiful we must commence to be
beautiful inside, and at last it will shine forth and transfigure the
outside. Follow the teaching of the Bible and be pure in heart: put on
the robe of Christ's righteousness, and then you will be in heavenly
style and unmatched by anything the wide world can dream of for
personal adornment. Follow the Bible, the world's divine fashion
plate.
 Next remove the theatrical poster. In this day the popular
amusements have gripped the young people with a mad hand. No
time for the Bible. Much time for the show. "What shall I do to amuse
myself" is the cardinal question of this age and every moment
possible is given over to the answer. People grow white in the face in
their excessive seeking to find the latest thrill, and they stay white
until he cold hand of death gets them. Pleasures pure are pleasures
right. At the right hand of God there are pleasures forever more. If
they are right for heaven, they are right for the world, but pleasures
worshipped are always bad for they are tipped with sin and bar the
gates of heaven from the pleasures at the "right hand of God." There
is deep sweet pleasure in the reading of God's word. Sing with
Psalm 103. Whisper Psalm 23 when the night cometh. Read John 14
when the darkness is at hand, and nothing in the wide, wide world
can be compared to the heart pleasure this gives. It puts the soul in
touch with a little bit of heaven. Don't cover up God's great pleasure
garden—the Bible— with a ton of worthless worn out, dried and
faded earthly flowers.
Now take off the cash book. The Bible has often been hidden by
the business ledger,—so often business crowds the Bible out. Hard
work, mental strain, and the fierce fight of the present day business
man gives but short time for the reading of the Bible, and more often
no time at all. Head and nerves are worn out at the end of the day,
and the soul also is worn out with business cares, so the cash box,
the ledger and typewriter have covered up the Bible and it is out of
sight and buried under business activities. It must be remembered in
this day of fever heat and mad rush that a business man must give
his utmost to his trade if he wishes to put it over, but it should also be
remembered that in the soul's great ledger if "A man gains the whole
world" it is reckoned as loss in the Book of God. We can serve God
and read His Book and yet be successful. Mr. John Wanamaker, the
best known citizen, and foremost Christian of the business world of
America, blended the Bible with his great commercial enterprises by
always putting up a Bible verse over his office desk and mixing up its
truth with the trade of the day. He honored God's word and God
honored his trade. He never lost his Bible under his cash register.
 Now remove the bundle of Sunday newspapers. It is because
these are read on Sunday that no time is found to read God's book
on God's day. The newspaper is on the Sunday morning breakfast
table inviting us to spend Sunday with it. No time to read the Bible.
The Sunday Newspapers often contain as many words as the entire
New Testament. We will read the papers first, after that we have no
time or mind for the Book. Very often if all the words we read were
counted they would be more than the words of the four gospels and
yet we have no time to read even a chapter of God's good book. We
mean we have no mind to read it. We have buried it under the
sensational and often nauseous Sunday newspaper. After we lift up
the last paper from the Bible, we exclaim "God's Book—long lost—
now found." Lift the Bible up and say "I will place it next to my heart
and cover it with my love, so shall the Bible not be covered with sin.
'Thy word have I hid in my heart.' May it always thus be covered and
evermore in the battle and strife of life my Bible shall always be first."
A great merchant in the city of Philadelphia, submerged with
business cares and thoughtless about God, said to his little boy one
day he had no time to read the Bible, he was so bothered with bonds
and stocks. His little boy could not understand these big words, and
continued to ask him to read his Bible and be good. One morning the
father came down stairs with a quick step and hurried to his paper to
look over the morning news when the little boy just recovering from a
severe spell of sickness, crept up into his lap and said "Bible first,
Daddy." The father looked into his little pale face and his heart was
touched, his eyes filled with tears, and he said "It shall be as you
say, dear little fellow. God has given you back to me, and I will go
back to my Bible" and he did, and he said it made a great man of
him and a greater merchant also. Let this be your motto "Bible first"
and it will never be buried under the rubbish of the things of this life
again. "The Bible first, Daddy," is the voice of God.
 CHAPTER XXX

THE CHRISTMAS CANDLE

Objects used; A Small Candle; in a Common Candlestick; A
Representation of a Window. This is a Story Object Sermon

THE CHRISTMAS CANDLE

C
HRISTMAS fires and lights are as old as the story of the birth
of Jesus. The earliest form of lighting was the wood fire in the
cave. Around this light the ancients sat and told the stories of
old. Around the fire on the field of the shepherds, sat the ancient
guardians of the sheep, as they read from the holy parchment, of the
"coming ONE" and as they sat watching the dying embers of some
such fire, were startled by flash of heavenly light and heard the
angels' song of the new-born King. That was the first Christmas light.
Ever since that day, whenever the glad Christmas day approaches,
lights, beautiful and cheerful seem to shine out the glad light of the
first Christmas day and so from window on hill top or valley, from tree
and toy room of countless homes, the Christmas candle plays its
happy part in the drama of Merry Christmas. To illustrate this
Christmas candle story, construct a large background like the inside
view of a window, and place a tall candle in front of it. If the window
cannot be erected draw one on a blackboard or sketch one on a
piece of muslin. If there is a small window in the alcove of the pulpit
platform in good sight of the people, use that. Then tell the following
story: A little crippled child, in one of the back alleys of a great city,
wondered what she could do to brighten Christmas day for some one
else. She was too poor to give even "the widow's mite" yet she had a
kindly heart for other children poorer than herself. Her mother, with
tears dropping from her eyes, said "God had not made it possible for
us to do anything for the rest of the world except just to be glad and
they would both try to do that in the name of the little Lord Jesus,
who was once as poor as they." She remembered that in her own
native land, far over the sea, the children of her childhood always put
a lighted candle in the window (here light the candle in front of the
window) which sent out a cheerful light over the snow on Christmas.
They could do that, at least, and with a glad heart they lit the candle
and prayed "God bless the light." From the outside the little glittering
light looked like the star of Bethlehem. The darkness hid the ugly
surroundings of the dilapidated home and it looked supremely
beautiful on the "Night of Nights." A laboring man, hastening by to
the corner saloon, with his wages in his pocket, thinking only of
himself and a night of sin, saw the light in the window. Said he, "It is
Christmas eve" and all about him he saw, hastening to and fro, men
and women bearing Christmas gifts to the loved ones. It had been
many a year since he had made his little ones happy by Christmas
gifts. He had forgotten Christmas was so near until he saw the little
candle in the window. The light held him—a prisoner—It called him
back—back to his childhood days and the happy Christmas time he
had spent in his own home. His father and mother had taught him in
the early days to love God and keep His Commandments. He wiped
away a tear—turned about face as he looked again at the Christmas
candle, and went home. They had a Merry Christmas in that home
that glad day, and the poor little girl's Christmas candle blessed of
God, brought the wayward son back to God, home, and Christmas.
Just across the narrow alley, a window of a room, in which an old
man, worn out with years, trying to sleep, heard the snow beating
against the window pane, arose and looked out at the falling snow.
As he did so, he saw the light in the window across the way. That
reminded him it was again Christmas eve. Not for long years had he
even given it a serious or religious thought. He had lived for self
alone because he was alone. His children had forsaken him; wife
had died long years ago, but somehow this light had "got him" also.
Memories of other years came back and rang the Christmas bells of
long ago. In his thoughts he was back to his childhood day. How
happy those memories made him feel. "Christmas back again" said
he as he looked again at this lone light in the window across the way.
"I'll put one in my window" and he relit the candle he had
extinguished as he slipped into bed. Another window with a candle in
it was shining out until, when midnight came, the dark alley was
aglow with lighted windows. The old man said as he closed his eyes
in slumber, "Tomorrow I will make the day merry for the little mother
and child across the way" and he kept his promise.
A lady of high degree and great wealth, passed by in her car
loaded with Christmas gifts, saw the little girl's Christmas candle in
the window. She stopped at the house, hurried upstairs, there she
saw the poor little girl trying to keep Christmas with one candle. The
good lady's heart was touched by the child's simple faith and
beautiful little deed, left for her toys and little comforts, that the dear
mother and little girl accepted with tears of joy. When Christmas day
came, the sleepers in the alley were awakened by the carol singers
chanting "While shepherds watched their flocks by night." Our little
girl who put her Christmas candle in the window was the happiest
little girl in the great city that day. Yes, and not that day only, but the
good lady, attracted by the candle, became a constant friend, and in
all the coming days helped her to win out in life's battle. So it was
Christmas day every day in that humble home, and the lone
Christmas candle in the window had been a candle blessed by God.
THE END
 Benediction Taps
To be sung at the close of evening meeting
Day has gone
Night has come
Day has gone
Night has come
God is near
God is near
All is well
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