GS_3_ANSWER (1)

GS-III EXPLANATIONS
[Note: Answers can be extracted from these “Model Explanations” deliberately made
comprehensive for conceptual understanding and maximum coverage of topics. Use
diagrams, flowcharts, and keywords to represent answers within the stipulated number of
words.]
1. Why is Public Private Partnership (PPP) required in infrastructural projects? Examine

the role of PPP model in the redevelopment of Railway Stations in India. 10
United Nations defines public-private partnerships as “innovative methods used by the public sector to
contract with the private sector who bring their capital and their ability to deliver projects on time and
to budget, while the public sector retains the responsibility to provide these services to the public in a
way that benefits the public and delivers economic development and improvement in the quality of
life.”
The advantage of a PPP is that the management skills and financial acumen of private businesses
could create better value for money for taxpayers when proper cooperative arrangements between
the public and private sectors are used.
Importance of Public Private Partnership (PPP) in infrastructural projects
The creation of durable and high-quality infrastructure is a prerequisite for rapid economic
development and requires sustained investment supported well by technological innovation, a
skilled workforce and excellent project management. For governments alone to bring together all
these elements is not always possible. PPPs, while bringing in private capital and experience, also
involve the transfer of valuable public assets as well as foregoing future revenues in the form of
concessions.
PPPs provide a way of bringing needed additional investment to public infrastructure and also a
mechanism for improving infrastructure planning, implementation, operation and
maintenance.
There are several reasons for the growing collaboration with the private sector in developing and
providing infrastructure services, which include:
▪ Increased efficiency in project delivery, and operation and management;
▪ Availability of additional resources to meet the growing needs of investment in the sector; and
▪ Access to advanced technology (both hardware and software).
Properly executed planning and development of a project also allows better screening of options, and
helps in deciding appropriate project structure and choice of technology considering cost over the
whole life cycle of the project.
PPPs are important for infrastructure development as:
They can enhance the supply of much-needed infrastructure services. The Indian Railways is just an
example of realizing the benefits of PPP to accelerate infrastructural development. Fostering
innovation and incorporating learning from across the world will be the key to unlocking its plethora of
benefits and realizing the dream of the 5 trillion
dollar economy by 2024.
• They provide relief from the burden of the
costs of design and construction.
• They promise better project design, choice of
technology, construction, operation and
service delivery.
• Early Completion Bonus: To improve
efficiency, private companies are motivated
through bonus if they complete the project
before time.
• Cut Downs Tax: The cost-efficient infrastructure projects help the government to save funds and
thus, provides for a reduction in the tax rates.
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GS-III EXPLANATIONS
• Project Completion Efficiency: When the standard time for completing a project is estimated, its
execution and fulfilment become more competent.
• Project Feasibility: As the project’s risk involvement and practical implementation are well-
analyzed, the chances of failure reduce remarkably.
• Superior Quality Standards: PPP approach initiates benchmarking for the desired quality of the
project and ensures the same during the project’s life cycle.
• Excellent Infrastructure Solutions: This has been possible since, proficient private companies
work in collaboration with the government, where each of them contributes their best.
• Better Return on Investment: The ROI of the P3 infrastructure projects might be reasonably high
in the long run. The reason being it has been monitored and accomplished by both parties
together.
• Transfer of Risk: The government hands over the associated risk along with the project to private
firms who have relevant experience and knowledge in the area.
• Reduces Budget Deficits: In the PPP approach, the private companies determine the cost and
perform capital budgeting to avoid any shortage of funds in the future.
• Ensures Efficient Government Investment: Since P3 initially let private companies invest their
funds in infrastructure projects, the government can utilize its capital for socio-economic welfare.
India has a huge infrastructure need and it is associated with financing. A new World Bank
report estimates that India will need to invest $840 billion over the next 15 years—or an average of
$55 billion per annum—into urban infrastructure if it is to effectively meet the needs of its fast-growing
urban population. So, PPP can assist to meet the need and financing gap. Only 5 percent of the
infrastructure needs of Indian cities are currently being financed through private sources. Scaling up
public-private partnerships, improving the credibility of the regulatory regime, and introducing second-
generation infrastructure projects can promote Infrastructure development in India that is critical for
improving India's manufacturing competitiveness and achieving higher growth.
Role of PPP in Railways

Indian Railways has been the backbone of India’s mass public transportation network for decades. It
is an integral component of infrastructural development in the country. India boasts among the largest
rail systems under single management in the world.
But there are numberless problems in the path of steady growth:
▪ Old Track and Poor State of Rolling Stock.
▪ Railway Accidents.
▪ Lack of modern management.
▪ The discrepancy between freight charges and passenger fares seem to distort the Railways'
performance.
▪ Inadequate Investment.
▪ Indian Railways spends heavily on revenue expenditure - there is little left for capital expenditure.
▪ Missing Targets on electrification, track renewals, bridge works, and doubling of tracks.
▪ Stranded projects.
▪ Inordinate delays keep railroads from being preferred despite being cheaper (China ferries over 3x
freight for a similar route network).
The recent opening up of public-private partnership (PPP) opportunities by Indian Railways is a clear
indicator that a reform-driven agenda is being implemented. It is a controlled foray into PPP, where
market forces will help enhance the quality of services and in-transit experience, without the
Government relinquishing control over public safety and security.
The purpose of PPP in certain routes is to facilitate the introduction of new technology, provide
high-level service and reduce travel time. With the imminent commissioning of Dedicated Freight
Corridors and other infrastructure development, it is likely there would be the availability of additional
paths for operation.
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Rail Land Development Authority is spearheading the redevelopment of 60 railway stations across
India on a PPP Model. The station redevelopment comprises two components- i) Mandatory station
redevelopment ii) Station Estate (Commercial) development.
The mandatory station redevelopment will make travel smooth and hassle-free without diluting the
historical significance of these stations whereas commercial development will enable developers to
tap several revenue streams to ensure the viability of the entire project. These redeveloped stations
will be endowed with state-of-the-art amenities such as segregation of arrival and departure,
excellent road connectivity with multi-modal transport integration, and security and surveillance
systems to enhance the travel experience. It will augment the tourism potential, boost real estate,
encourage employment generation and lead to a cascading effect on the local economy.
Re-Development of Habibganj Station has been undertaken through Public Private Partnership (PPP). In
addition, Request for Qualification (RFQ) have been invited for four more stations i.e. Nagpur, Gwalior,
Amritsar and Sabarmati Stations on PPP mode.
In 2020, the Ministry of Railways invited Request for Qualifications (RFQ) for private participation to operate
passenger train services in over 109 routes through the introduction of 151 modern trains carrying a minimum
of 16 coaches.
India is redeveloping the 4 Railway Stations at Gwalior, Nagpur, Amritsar and Sabarmati by PPP
mode for which private sector shall be responsible for construction, redevelopment and maintenance.
Moreover, India is implementing to run 150 private trains on the Indian Railways network and to
‘actively pursue’ the Mumbai-Ahmedabad High-Speed project funded by Japan International
Cooperation Agency. It even planned to develop long due Bengaluru suburban rail network. Also,
working on other issues like Solar Power Plants along with railways tracks, Wi-Fi, introducing
Tejas Express semi-high-speed network.
Ministry of Railways (MoR) has taken initiatives in various areas viz. network expansion, setting up
of locomotive factories, induction of railway wagons, Station Re-Development, etc. to attract
private investment and participation.
The redeveloped stations would witness vertical growth with the creation of overhead spaces on
the stations which will have world-class facilities including waiting lounges and food courts, besides
amusement facilities for children. The renovated stations must also incorporate green technologies
and work with other means of transportation, such as the bus and metro.
Wrapping it up
The Indian Railways is just an example of realizing the benefits of PPP to accelerate
infrastructural development. Fostering innovation and incorporating learning from across the world
will be the key to unlocking its plethora of benefits and realizing the dream of the 5 trillion-dollar
economy.
Q2. Is inclusive growth possible under a market economy? State the significance of
financial inclusion in achieving economic growth in India. 10
Market Economy and Inclusive Growth
Inclusive growth is economic growth that is distributed fairly across society and creates
opportunities for all. The concept of inclusive growth has become central to economic development
due to rising economic inequality and its effects on human well-being and prosperity. But the
economy is an open market economy which, as Karl Marx famously wrote, functions essentially on
ever more concentration of capital in fewer and fewer hands. There is a need within the market
economy to reduce real wages to withstand competition and this leads to the ever-more
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marginalization of labour. Critiques argue that market economy leads to concentration of capital on
one hand and systematically excludes the labour force from participating in the economy. Hence, the
universal paradox is: Can market economy become inclusive?
A market economy is an economic system where two forces, known as supply and demand, direct the
production of goods and services. Market economies are not controlled by a central authority (like a
government) and are instead based on voluntary exchange.
Keeping this in cognizance India rightly adopted the Mixed Economy where both the private
sector and public sector function together. In mixed economic system, the state makes efforts to
provide maximum welfare to workers and other citizens. The government makes provision for the
employees for housing, education, minimum wages, good working conditions, etc. Food security to
all Indians is guaranteed under the National Food Security Act, 2013 where the government provides
food grains to people at a very subsidized rate.
Despite being a Welfare State and taking innumerable efforts inequality prevails in India.
Inequality in India
• The top 10% of the Indian
population holds 77% of the
total national wealth-
Oxfam.
• In 2021, the total wealth of
100 of India's wealthiest
people reached a record
high of Rs 57.3 Lakh Crore
($ 775 billion). In the same
year, the bottom 50% of
the population accounted
for only 6% of national wealth.
• Oxfam described inequality as economic violence, adding that lack of access to health care, gender-
based violence, hunger and climate change kill 21,000 people each day.
Financial Inclusion for Economic Growth

• Financial Inclusion, broadly defined, refers to universal access to a wide range of financial services at a
reasonable cost.
• The financial services not only include regular bank services but insurance, pension, saving, and
accessibility to other financial products, which has a positive role in economic growth.
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• Findings show that financial inclusion of supply side has only a positive impact on economic growth.
This finding is also supported by Chatterjee (2020), who noted that financial inclusion helps inclusive
growth by mobilizing savings and investment in the production sector.
• Financial inclusion improves the economic activity in society which in turn leads to fostering
economic growth. This result is supported by Allen et al. (2014), who suggested that financial
inclusion can affect economic growth positively by reducing income inequality and poverty.
Financial Inclusion Schemes in India

• The Government of India has been introducing several exclusive schemes for the purpose of financial
inclusion. These schemes intend to provide social security to the less fortunate sections of the society.
▪ Pradhan Mantri Jan Dhan Yojana (PMJDY)
▪ Atal Pension Yojana (APY)
▪ Pradhan Mantri Vaya Vandana Yojana (PMVVY)
▪ Stand Up India Scheme
▪ Pradhan Mantri Mudra Yojana (PMMY)
▪ Pradhan Mantri Suraksha Bima Yojana (PMSBY)
▪ Sukanya Samriddhi Yojana
▪ Jeevan Suraksha Bandhan Yojana
▪ Credit Enhancement Guarantee Scheme (CEGS) for Scheduled Castes (SCs)
▪ Venture Capital Fund for Scheduled Castes under the Social Sector Initiatives
▪ Varishtha Pension Bima Yojana (VPBY)
Challenges Facing Financial Inclusion

The biggest challenge facing financial inclusion is the lack of robust technology infrastructure. Further,
lack of awareness and trust in digital payments enhances the problem. While many people from rural
areas now have access to mobile devices, they still struggle for affordable and reliable internet
connectivity options. The government is taking significant steps to address this challenge, for
example, it aims to connect, 50,000 gram panchayats with rural broadband under BharatNet.
Additionally, issues like the large size of the unbanked population spread across vast geographies,
low skills, unfamiliarity with technology, limited access to credit, high loan default rates and lack of
financial literacy enhance the problem. The challenges are not limited to the demand side or rural
population alone. Even the financial institutions are reluctant to serve small value and unprofitable
customers and therefore, perceive inclusion as an obligation rather than an opportunity.
The growing number of cyber security issues further dissuades the rural population from being a part
of the digital economy. Though the government has taken many initiatives to overcome the
challenges, there are many loopholes in the system and a lot more needs to be done. For example,
beneficiaries of Direct Benefit Transfers (DBT) hardly have any knowledge about the process like
what to do when their payments get rejected. Corruption, inadequate rural banking infrastructure and
lack of accountability are also some of the many challenges discussed so far.
What can be done?

Substantial investments in physical and social infrastructure as well as in need-based products,
financial literacy along with innovative delivery mechanism is necessary to ensure inclusive
growth of the economy. Further, financial institutions need to focus more on tailor-made services and
deliver an effective mechanism. Measures need to be initiated to make credit disbursement more
flexible and attract the masses that are used to informal sources of credit.
Eliminating multiple layers of governance, leveraging modern technology, better participatory role by
benefactors and easing procedures can help in building a better delivery infrastructure that provides
efficiency and security. An affordable and accessible solution, based on mobile technology can be a
good platform to deliver financial services. Investing in audit studies, reducing the risk of agent
misconduct and conducting risk management assessments are some of the popular and effective
strategies that the government can adopt. There is a strong need to restructure the financial
system and these measures if effectively implemented can accelerate the process of inclusive
growth.
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Financial inclusion is a long-term goal and a progressive initiative, which will evolve. Also, there is no
one-size-fits-all solution to ensure inclusive growth. The short-term opportunities should be
leveraged to accelerate the process as opportunities, as well as challenges, provide insights
regarding innovative ways of economic value addition. It is required that all stakeholders, including the
regulators, policymakers, industry bodies and service providers focus on a sustainable services
delivery model while developing policies or initiatives for inclusive growth.
Some Suggestions
Fix credibility
To address the issue of credibility of BCs, banks could take advantage of a wide network of post
offices and fair price shops and provide banking counters for the unbanked population. Even multi-
language ATMs with audio-video services could be considered. On their part, the banks could pay a
‘rent fee’ to India Post and fair price shops, for use of their facilities/premises. To address the high
attrition rate, ascribed to low commission/earnings, banks could consider nominating housewives, and
owners of fair price shops, retired people and people with limited disabilities to become BCs to
supplement their regular income. To attract and retain people in the business of BCs, provision for
higher commission by routing more financial services through BCs can be considered as well as
providing them with respectable designation and identification cards, with incentivised structured
benefits in terms of bonus or promotion or absorption in mainstream banking.
Offer diverse products to suit different sections

India being a diverse country with unique regional and occupational characteristics, and following
different cropping pattern and income streams, it is necessary to have diverse products for its
unbanked population. Thus, there is a need to have granular schemes, preferably different schemes
for rural areas and urban areas. Further, distinct schemes can be made on the basis of nature of
employment of people. For example, daily wage laborers can be allowed to make tiny deposits on
daily basis.
Innovations backed by financial literacy

To address the issue of seamless connectivity, upgrading the hand-held device so that it contains
basic information in an offline mode and exploring satellite connectivity technology could be helpful.
Technological innovations like integrated machine that has functionality of cash withdrawal and
deposit and biometric identification of users, voice commands and narration for all facilities in multi-
language format could help increase banking penetration.
The most important aspect of financial inclusion is financial literacy. There is lack of awareness,
especially amongst people, both rural and urban about various schemes of FIs. To increase
awareness and interest in products offered under various schemes of FIs, increase in advertisement
in local language, on radio and television, and in print media, with local icons and artistes as brand
ambassadors of the campaign, could help in building public confidence. In this context, role of mobile
phones and reach of mobile banking is immensely promising.
Awareness of mobile banking is significantly low and there is reluctance, especially amongst rural
people, probably because of low technological and financial literacy. In addition, there were practically
no efforts, an observation based on our survey and consultations with unbanked people and
commercial bankers, from either the bank staff or BCs in promoting mobile banking services, probably
because of a conflict of interest, as increased adoption of the same could reduce commission of the
BC. The mobile phones could be used for targeted advertisement campaigns, devised for mass
media and locally effective media. Government agencies could actively participate in these
campaigns, communicating mobile banking to be user friendly and safe.
Also, common consumer knowledge in rural areas about dialing to a toll-free number should be
leveraged to provide introduction to financial literacy as well as instructing people on steps to use
mobile banking. The banks should educate their staff and BCs about latest developments in mobile
banking, and mandate them to promote these facilities during financial literacy campaigns in rural
areas. The banks could also revise their commission schemes, incentivizing BCs in increasing mobile
banking registrations in their respective territories. The government could consider commissioning an
audit system for banks, telecom operators and handset manufacturers to certify security levels of
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mobile banking services, across various channels, so that banks and telecom operators can then
favorably advertise these ratings to improve their customer base.
At present, post offices and commercial banks offer opportunity for saving bank accounts. This leads
to confusion as well as weaning away demand for banking facilities from commercial banks. Once
banking extension counters are provided at post offices, then fresh opening of accounts in existing
postal banking schemes can be discontinued, with a forward-looking approach for banks to
spearhead the financial inclusion process, through deposit mobilization. Post offices held an amount
of Rs 6,03,170 crore under postal banking schemes in 2013 which if released to banks through BCs
will probably provide volumes to commercial banking and make FI commercially attractive for
reluctant bankers.
Local bodies' role

Finally, to achieve a 100 per cent success, there is need to seek help from local governments, both in
villages and cities. The panchayati raj institutions, municipalities and city councils can help not only in
identifying but encourage the unbanked to start operating in formal banking channels. The new
government, with massive mandate and new hope can achieve this and set a blazing success story,
Made in India, for rest of the world.
Conclusion
By targeting bottom of the pyramid, financial inclusion will not only help promote financial
stability but also broaden the country’s socioeconomic growth. This will also enable the
participating institutions such as banks, NBFCs and insurance companies to improve their customer
base and expand into the rural sector. By leveraging technology and support through proper
grievance redressal systems, financial inclusion can reduce income inequality and serve the
underprivileged and the underserved.
Owing to 24% improvement in financial inclusion (from FY17 to FY21) and sharp focus of the policy
makers, the system is likely to become more efficient going forward. Based on this, financial
inclusion can be a lethal weapon in combatting poverty as well as spurring economic growth
across the country. Therefore, the improvement in financial inclusion is an important step towards a
better India, an inclusive India.
Q3. What are the major challenges of Public Distribution System (PDS) in India? How
can it be made effective and transparent? 10
PDS
Definition: Public distribution system is a government-sponsored chain of shops entrusted with the
work of distributing basic food
and non-food commodities to the
needy sections of the society at
very cheap prices.
Wheat, rice, kerosene, sugar, etc.
are a few major commodities
distributed by the public
distribution system.
Description: The Public

Distribution System (PDS) is an
Indian food security system that
was established by the
Government of India under the Ministry of Consumer Affairs, Food and Public Distribution to distribute
food and non-food items to India's poor at subsidised rates. A statutory body created by the Food
Corporation of India Act of 1964, the FCI was established for the "purchase, storage, movement,
transport, distribution and sale of foodgrains and other foodstuffs"
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The system is often blamed for its inefficiency and rural-urban bias. It has not been able to fulfil the
objective for which it was formed. Moreover, it has frequently been criticized for instances of
corruption and black marketing.
Issues in implementation of PDS

Identification of beneficiaries
Studies have shown that targeting mechanisms such as TPDS are prone to large inclusion and
exclusion errors. This implies that entitled beneficiaries are not getting food grains while those that are
ineligible are getting undue benefits. An expert group estimated that about 61% of the eligible
population was excluded from the BPL list while 25% of non-poor households were included in the
BPL list.
Production vs Procurement
Under the National Food Security Act, the centre procures millions of tonnes of food grains
consistently every year to deliver rights under the law. Procurement of this quantity of food grains
might be easier in years when production is high. However, in years of drought and domestic shortfall,
India will have to resort to large-scale imports of rice and wheat. This will exert significant upward
pressure on prices. This further raises questions regarding the Government’s ability to procure grains
without affecting open market prices and adversely impacting the food subsidy bill.
Allocation and offtake of food grain

The centre allocates food grains to states on the basis of the identified BPL population, the availability
of food grains stocks, and the quantity of food grains lifted by states for distribution under TPDS. The
allocation to a state changes every year on the basis of the state’s average consumption over the last
three years.
However, according to the CACP, consumption under TPDS was only 60% of the total offtake. This
implies that nearly 40% of offtake is being leaked into the open market.
Rising food subsidy

The food subsidy has increased over the years, having more than quadrupled from Rs 21,200 crore in
2002-03 to Rs 2.2-lakh crore in 2019-2020. In 2021-22, Rs 2.03 lakh crore has been allocated for
food subsidy to FCI.
The factors that contribute to the rising food subsidy are:
1. record procurements in recent years, as discussed above,
2. increasing costs of buying (at MSP) and handling food grains, and
• a stagnant CIP
Imbalances in the availability of storage capacity across states

There is an imbalance in the availability of storage capacity across regions. On the one hand, there is
a shortage of space in consuming states, such as Rajasthan and Maharashtra, and on the other
hand, 64 percent of the total storage capacity is concentrated in states undertaking large procurement
such as Punjab, Haryana, Andhra Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh and Chhattisgarh.
Maximum buffer norms not specified:

The minimum buffer norms prescribed by the government do not clearly delineate individual elements
of food security (e.g., emergency, price stabilization, food security reserve, and TPDS) within the
minimum buffer stock. The existing norms also do not specify the maximum stock that should be
maintained in the central pool for each of the above components.
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Low utilisation of existing capacity in various states/UTs:
CAG audit observed that despite storage constraints in FCI, utilization of existing storage capacity in
various states/UTs is abysmal.
Supreme Court order on rotting of food grains in storage

In August 2010, in the ongoing case of PUCL vs. Union of India, the Supreme Court found that
food grains were rotting due to inadequate storage. It directed the central government to adopt
long and short-term measures to store and preserve procured food grain, and prevent rotting,
including:
• constructing adequate FCI storage facilities in each state and division,
• increasing allocation to BPL families,
• opening FPSs for all days in the month, and
• Distributing food grains to beneficiaries at low or no costs.
Leakage of food grains

TPDS suffers from large leakages of food grains during transportation to and from ration shops into
the open market. In an evaluation of TPDS, the Planning Commission found 36% leakage of PDS rice
and wheat at the all-India level.
Issue prices and politics

Central Issue Price (CIP), has remained at Rs. 2 per kg for wheat and Rs. 3 per kg for rice for years,
though the NFSA, even in 2013, envisaged a price revision after three years.
What makes the subject more complex is the variation in the retail issue prices of rice and wheat, from
nil in States such as Karnataka and West Bengal for Priority Households (PHH) and Antyodaya Anna
Yojana (AAY) ration card holders, Rs. 1 in Odisha for both categories of beneficiaries to Rs. 3 and Rs.
2 in Bihar for the two categories.
The Centre stated that “the economic cost of food management in view of rising commitment” towards
food security, does not want the NFSA norms to be disturbed.
But, a mere increase in the CIPs of rice and wheat without a corresponding rise in the issue prices by
the State governments would only increase the burden of States, which are even otherwise reeling
under the problem of a resource crunch.
Urban Bias
PDS is also criticised for having an urban bias, despite having a higher quota for rural areas (75%
coverage for rural and 50% for urban areas).
Reforms undertaken by certain states

Technology-based
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Linkage with Aadhaar and Digitalization

According to a UIDAI paper by the Planning Commission, integration with Adhaar as has been done
would help eliminate duplicate and fake beneficiaries and make identification for entitlements more
effective.
Way Ahead
Universal TPDS
There are some alternatives to TPDS, which address some problems during implementation. Tamil
Nadu implements a Universal rather than a Targeted PDS.
Experts have noted that PDS could be replaced with cash transfers or food coupons.
Case study: Universal PDS in Tamil Nadu

Non-classification of beneficiaries - Subsidised PDS commodities are distributed to all residents
without classifying them into different categories. According to the Justice Wadhwa Committee Report,
non-classification helps the state avoid errors of exclusion of eligible and vulnerable families. However,
TN identifies AAY beneficiaries. Commodities provided under universal PDS - Rice is distributed at
the price of Re 1/ kg to everyone, lower than the central issue price. Families are not given 35 kg as
mandated by the central government; rice cardholders get anywhere between 12-20 kg rice depending
on the number of individuals in their family.
Groups involved in the distribution of food grains - No private trader is engaged in the PDS activity.
Ration shops are mainly run by the cooperative societies and the Tamil Nadu Civil Supplies Corporation,
the FCI counterpart in the state.
Cash Transfers
The National Food Security Act, 2013 includes cash transfers and food coupons as possible
alternative mechanisms to the PDS. Beneficiaries would be given either cash or coupons by the state
government, which they can exchange for food grains. Such programmes provide cash directly to a
target group – usually poor households.
Potential advantages of these programs include:

1. Reduced administrative costs,
2. Expanded choices for beneficiaries, and
3. Competitive pricing among grocery stores.
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Downsides:
• Cash transfers may expose recipients to price fluctuation if they are not frequently adjusted
for inflation.
• Such programs also do not address the issue of the inclusion of ineligible beneficiaries and
the exclusion of eligible ones.
• Additionally, since cash transfers include the transfer of money directly to the beneficiary,
poor access to banks and post offices in some areas may reduce their effectiveness.
Food coupons
Food coupons are another alternative to PDS. Beneficiaries are given coupons in lieu of money,
which can be used to buy food grains from any grocery store. Under this system, grains will not be
given at a subsidized rate to the PDS stores. Instead, beneficiaries will use the food coupons to
purchase food grains from retailers (which could be PDS stores). Retailers take these coupons to the
local bank and are reimbursed with money. According to the Economic Survey 2009-10 reports, such
a system will reduce administrative costs. Food coupons also decrease the scope for corruption since
the store owner gets the same price from all buyers and has no incentive to turn the poor buyers
away. Moreover, BPL customers have more choice; they can avoid stores that try to sell them poor-
quality grain.
Issues
Some problems could exist while designing such a system. Food coupons can be counterfeited.
Regular delivery of food coupons to the intended beneficiaries could also pose logistical challenges;
there is a need to ensure the timely reimbursement of subsidy to the participating retailers.
PDS vs Cash Transfer
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Strengthen Aadhaar Linkage
Give Up Option
It should revisit NFSA norms and coverage. An official committee in January 2015 called for
decreasing the quantum of coverage under the law, from the present 67% to around 40%. For all
ration cardholders drawing food grains, a “give-up” option, as done in the case of cooking gas
cylinders, can be made available.
Even though States have been allowed to frame criteria for the identification of PHH cardholders, the
Centre can nudge them into pruning the number of such beneficiaries.
Slab System
As for the prices, the existing arrangement of flat rates should be replaced with a slab system. Barring
the needy, other beneficiaries can be made to pay a little more for a higher quantum of food grains.
The rates at which these beneficiaries have to be charged can be arrived at by the Centre and the
States through consultations.
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Effective Monitoring
The Department of Food in each state should open a special cell on grievance redressal and appoint
a grievance redressal officer as the nodal person. Gram panchayat members should be made aware
of their role in the PDS in states like Karnataka. Such awareness may be increased through the
involvement of civil society and local NGOs.
The number of inspections and sample analysis should be increased and strict action should be taken
against the offenders
Address Leakage issue

Collecting biometric information on all members of a cardholder’s family (head of the family and other
members of the household) or of all cardholders where the entitlement is on an individual basis,
linking it with their Aadhar number and storing it in an electronic weighing machine may solve the
problem. The introduction of an SMS alert at the beneficiary level is an important measure to increase
awareness.
Doorstep Delivery
Poor people, most of whom are daily wagers, have to give up their day’s work for taking ration (from
fair price shops). Doorstep delivery of ration could be explored.
Improve Storage
FCI should make vigorous efforts in this regard to minimise the storage losses of foodgrains to
prevent the food subsidy from rising further.
Parliamentary Committee has recommended that work for phasing out of covered and plinth (CAP)
storage capacity be taken up expeditiously to minimise storage losses.
Prompt Grievance Redressal Mechanism

The Delhi High Court observed that the grievance helpline numbers for distribution of foodgrains
could not be reached and it “is a disaster that needs to be addressed immediately by the Delhi
Disaster Management Authority”.
Conclusion
Under Public Distribution System (PDS) reforms, digitization of ration cards/beneficiaries and
distribution of highly subsidised foodgrains, namely- Rice, Wheat and Coarse-grains, to targeted
beneficiaries under NFSA through electronic Point of Sale (ePoS) devices, after biometric/Aadhaar
authentication of beneficiaries are key objectives to improve the efficiency and transparency in the
distribution process.
At present, nearly 90% of the total 23.4 Crore ration cards under NFSA across the country have been
seeded with Aadhaar number of at least one member of the household.
The above-mentioned measures, if properly implemented, can have a salutary effect on retail prices in
the open market.
A revamped, need-based PDS is required not just for cutting down the subsidy bill but also for
reducing the scope for leakages. Political will should not be found wanting.
Q4. Elaborate the scope and significance of the food processing industry in India. 10
India's food processing sector is a sunrise sector that has gained prominence in recent years. The
food processing industry includes raw products of agriculture, dairy, fishing, poultry which are
transformed through a process that ultimately adds commercial value. This value addition can take
several forms such as packaging, preservation, sun drying, the addition of artificial additives. In India,
there are several success stories of profit-making food processing businesses such as Maggi’s
noodles, Kissan Jams, Lijjat Papads, Parle G biscuits, Mother’s Recipe Pickles, McCain’s frozen
snacks, etc.
Thus, major processed food products exported from India include processed fruits and juices, pulses,
guar gum, groundnuts, milled products, cereals preparations, oil meals and alcoholic
beverages. India created history in agriculture and processed food exports by exporting products
worth US$ 25.6 billion in FY22.
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There has been a great revolution in the food ordering business in India with online food delivery
players like Zomato, Swiggy, etc. Investors are more attracted to the Food processing industry,
foreseeing its high potential and wider customer base.
The FDI equity inflow in the Food Processing Sector for the period of April 2021- March 2022 was $
709.72 Mn.
Initiatives being taken

100% FDI
The Government of India aims to boost growth in the food processing sector by leveraging reforms
such as 100% Foreign direct investment (FDI) in the marketing of food products and various
incentives at the central and state government level along with a strong focus on supply chain
infrastructure.
MEGA PARKS
Recently the government of India has established 18 mega food parks and 134 cold chain projects to
develop the food processing supply chain.
ODOP
The government has launched the One District One Product program, to upgrade SMEs on selected
products through credit linked subsidy of 35% of the eligible project cost limited to a maximum value
of Rs.10 lakhs.
PM KISAN SAMPADA YOJANA

Aim
• Creation of modern infrastructure for food processing mega food parks/ clusters and individual
units
• To create effective backward and forward linkages - linking farmers, processors and markets
• To create robust supply chain infrastructure for perishables
Sub Schemes
▪ Mega Food Parks
▪ Integrated Cold Chain and Value Addition Infrastructure
▪ Creation/ Expansion of Food Processing/ Preservation Capacities (Unit Scheme)
▪ Infrastructure for Agro-processing Clusters
▪ Creation of Backward and Forward Linkages
▪ Food Safety and Quality Assurance Infrastructure
▪ Human Resources and Institutions
Operation Greens
• In the budget 2018-19, the government announced the Operations Greens scheme to promote
integrated value chain development for crops. They are tomato, potato, onion.
• Post-harvest processing facilities will be eligible for a grant in aid of up to 50% of the project cost. It
also subjects to the maximum limit of 50 crores.
PM Formalization of Micro Food processing Enterprises

• This scheme aims at helping small micro-units engaged in the food processing industry.
• Many businesses at the grass-root level such as chilli drying, spice packaging, pickle, and papad
making engage directly with farmers.
• Recognising the role of such micro-units, a 35% subsidy can be availed. It is by such units on their
project cost, up to a maximum of ₹10 lacs
Opportunities for Food Processing in India

• India has the distinct advantage of being one of the largest markets of consumer products in
the world.
• India is the second-largest grower of fruits and vegetables (only next to China) as well as the
largest grower of agriculture produced in the world.
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• Huge production scope – Despite being a leader in produce, India has a minimal yet growing
processed food base, thereby indicating that a huge opportunity exists in this sector.
• Large segments of the population – Unlike many other developed countries, India is a young
nation, with a large population of adolescents, young adults, and middle-aged groups. This
presents a business opportunity for designing several food products catering to different consumer
groups.
• Rising awareness for healthy and organic products – The pandemic has renewed our interest
in healthy living, controlled diet, reducing sugar, and fat intake. Thus, natural products made from
organic fruits and vegetables are such as nutritional supplements, snacks, etc are here to stay.
India’s food processing sector is one of the largest in the world and its output is expected to reach
US$ 535 billion by 2025-26. This sector is expected to generate 9 million jobs by 2024. India’s food
sector attracted US$ 4.18 billion in foreign direct investments between April 2014 and March 2020. By
2030, Indian annual household consumption is expected to triple, making India the fifth-largest
consumer in the world- IBEF.
Key Growth Drivers & Trends

▪ There is growth in the organised food retail sector and increase in urbanisation.
▪ MSME’s are playing a vital role in India’s food processing chain through various advancements in skills
and technology.
▪ The online food ordering business in India is witnessing an exponential growth.
▪ There is high demand for packaged, healthy and immunity booster snacks such as roasted nuts,
popcorns, and roasted pulses.
▪ There is a shift in focus from loose to branded packaging.
▪ The government’s ‘Atmanirbhar Bharat’ initiative places priority on this sector and offers support
through various policies.
Combining entrepreneurial talent with opportunities in India

Food Processing is all set to become the most robust sector in India to contribute majorly to India’s
growth. In the last two years, there have been several developments in enhancing access to FSSAI
regulation. This regulation has the food processing industry, improvements in cold storage, and
international partnerships. Players such as Amazon, Grofers, and Big Basket have added to the
marketability of processed food. Additionally, export benefits have opened vistas of opportunities
beyond the borders of India.
Road ahead
Various factors, such as rise in health issues, the ongoing COVID-19 pandemic, busy lifestyles and
increase in food adulteration, have witnessed a change in the consumer’s buying behaviour, which
includes demand for ready-to-cook, ready-to-eat meals and healthy, immunity boosting snacks. Safe
and processed food categories such as biscuits and snacks have seen growth amid the COVID-19
crisis.
Deloitte India, highlighted that opportunities in the Indian food processing sector are yet to be
leveraged. India ranks much lower in the sector as compared with the world and has only a 10%
share among the Asian countries. The size of the Indian food processing sector is 1.5x that of the
agricultural sector, while it is 4-5x for the developed countries. Compared with other developed
economies, the ratio of food retail sales to GDP from agriculture in India is relatively low, signifying an
opportunity to scale up the food processing industry. At present, India is processing <10% of its
agricultural output; thus, presenting immense opportunities to boost processing levels and attract
investments in this sector.
The growth of food processing sector will be led by the demand in retail and rise of health-conscious
consumers, who opt for safe, branded food. Currently, the Indian food processing industry has a good
mix of operational MSMEs. A strong crop value chain with adequate funding and technology
applications will boost the food processing sector via the MSME sector.
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Q5. The increase in life expectancy in the country has led to newer health challenges
in the community. What are those challenges and what steps need to be taken to meet
them? 10
The term “life expectancy” refers to the number of years a person can expect to live.
Life expectancy stats

WHO report states that the average age in India has increased.
In 1970, the average Indian lived 47 years, but it increased to 70 years in 2020.
Life expectancy at birth among Indian women increased by 24 years between 1970 and 2016, more
than that of men, who experienced an increase of 20 years over the same period. In 1970, out of
1000, 132 infants died at the time of birth. The latest data shows improvement as in 2020, 32 out of
1,000 newborns were killed.
The cases of death of women during delivery have also decreased. According to 1990 data, 556 out
of 10,000 women died during delivery. By 2018, this figure has come down to 113 per 10,000.
India has made great strides in reducing the needless suffering and premature deaths that arise from
preventable and treatable diseases. Yet, the country faces persistent and daunting public health
challenges, particularly for the poor. These include child undernutrition and low birth weights or
lifelong health problems; growth in noncommunicable diseases such as obesity, diabetes, and
tobacco use, leading to cancer and other diseases; and high rates of road traffic accidents etc.
World Health Organization (WHO) report shows that the nation requires more efforts to overhaul its
health facilities. According to the report,70 per cent of OPD services, 58 per cent of admitted patients
and 90 per cent of the medicines and tests are still in private hands.
Population Ageing- a new challenge

The Decline in the Working-Age Population
Between the Census of 2001 and 2011, the country added 18 per cent more people to its population
— translating to around 181 million. It is the second-most populous country in the world. According
to a report titled Youth in India 2022, by the Ministry of Statistics and Programme Implementation
(MoSPI), by the year 2036, those above the age of 30 will form the majority of the country's
population. Also, If India does not create enough jobs and its workers are not adequately prepared for
those jobs, its demographic dividend may turn into a liability. A rapidly aging population means there
are fewer working-age people in the economy. This leads to a supply shortage of qualified workers,
making it more difficult for businesses to fill in-demand roles.
An economy that cannot fill in-demand occupations faces adverse consequences, including declining
productivity, higher labor costs, delayed business expansion, and reduced international
competitiveness. In some instances, a supply shortage may push up wages, thereby causing wage
inflation and creating a vicious cycle of price/wage spiral.
Other Public Health Challenges

Health Infrastructure
• NITI Aayog report 2021 titled ‘Reimagining Healthcare in India through Blended Finance’ highlighted
that 50 per cent of India’s population has access to 35 per cent of hospital beds, thus indicating a
strong need to strengthen healthcare infrastructure to ensure access to healthcare facilities for all.
• According to rural Health Statistics 2018 only 8% subcentres, 12% PHCs and 13% CHCs met Indian
Public Health Standards.
• Overall there is a shortfall of 86.5% surgeons; 74.1% obstetricians &gynaecologists; 84.6%
general physicians and 81% paediatricians at CHCs in the country.
• Private health care market occupies a large share of hospitals (75%), hospital beds (50.7%)
and medical institutions (54.3%) largely located in urban areas.
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No proper regulatory mechanism and monitoring
• According to WHO report published in 2016 Only one in five doctors in rural India is qualified
to practice medicine.
• The report said that 31.4% of those calling themselves allopathic doctors were educated only up to
class 12 and 57.3% doctors did not have a medical qualification.
• Due to poor regulatory mechanism and monitoring, private health care services and
doctors are following unethical, greedy practices treating medical services as a business
and hospitalisation as a source of profit, writing unnecessary diagnostic tests, high rate
medicines instead of generic one, organ theft (kidney racket) etc. even denying treatment to
poor people though getting land from government on a subsidised rate.
Lack of Affordability:
• The contribution of private sector in healthcare expenditure in India is around 80 percent while the
rest 20 percent is contributed by Public Sector.
• The private sector also provides for 58 percent of the hospitals and 81 percent of the doctors in
India.
Social Inequality:
• The growth of health facilities has been highly imbalanced in India. Rural, hilly and remote areas of the
country are under served while in urban areas and cities, health facility is well developed.
Unmanageable patient-load
• Even prior to the outbreak of the Covid-19 pandemic, healthcare facilities had been feeling the strain
due to unmanageable patient-load. Moreover, serving a population of 1.4 billion remains a Herculean
task in itself when it comes to suitably managing healthcare facilities.
Shortage of efficient and trained manpower

• One of the most pressing problems in India remains a severe shortage of trained manpower in the
medical stream, this includes doctors, nurses, paramedics and primary healthcare workers. The
situation remains worrisome in rural areas, where almost 66 per cent of India’s population resides.
• The doctor-to-patient ratio remains abysmally low, which is merely 0.7 doctors per 1,000 people. This
is compared to the World Health Organisation (WHO) average of 2.5 doctors per 1,000 people.
Out-of-pocket Expenditure
• Out-of-pocket expenditure on healthcare by households — a key reason pushing Indians into
poverty — is 48.2 per cent. It was even higher in 2004-2005, at 69.4 per cent. Still the
figure remains significantly higher than the global average, which stands at 18.1 per cent in
2019, as per the World Bank.
Other
• Inadequate Quality, Accessibility and Affordability of Health Services.
• High out-of-pocket expenses.
• Shortage of Infrastructure, Equipment and Skilled Manpower.
• Rigid regulatory Framework Combined with Corrupt enforcement.
• Primary Health Care Centres are not Present in many villages and wherever Present they
lack basic facilities.
• Inefficiencies in Procurement Process result in both Shortages and Wastage.
• Nearly 70% of Healthcare delivery is through Private Players which are largely regulated.
• Lack of Sanitation, disease Surveillance, Political will and Public Health response.
• Government spends only 1.5% of GDP on Public Health Care.
• Rising incidence of non-Communicable diseases with income growth, lifestyle changes and
environmental degradation, resulting in a rising total burden of disease.
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Way Ahead
A holistic and sustainable approach needs to be at the heart of healthcare delivery improvement so
that the requirements of the growing population can be met. Some of the key steps to strengthen
healthcare infrastructure, particularly in rural India, are:
Long-term Public-Private Partnerships (PPPs) to ensure inclusive healthcare
PPP partnerships can transform India’s rural healthcare system with a long-term sustainable model in
more ways than one. Given the growing population of our country, state efforts alone will not be
enough to strengthen the health system. The PPP can help to overcome financial, technological,
educational and human limitations.
Ongoing support and skills development

According to a report released by the Union Ministry of Health and Family Welfare, there is a 76.1 per
cent shortage of medical specialists in 5,183 community health centres in rural areas. Qualification
courses and continuing education programs for physicians can help to remedy the shortage of trained
doctors in rural areas.
Continuous upgradation of testing equipment and training of medical staff

Rural areas lack essential facilities such as state-of-the-art medical equipment and trained medical
staff to operate the equipment. While medical devices can still be constantly updated, training
workshops for medical personnel to know how to effectively handle, operate and manage these
devices are also crucial. As new technologies emerge, the need for training becomes constant and
needs to be identified.
Establishment of a field oversight committee

A local oversight committee should be set up to develop a set of basic and complementary strategies
to promote access to better health care and to oversee the implementation of rural health care
initiatives. A field oversight committee is needed to revitalise rural health through effective oversight of
rural health improvement activities.
A strong healthcare system can only be built with continuous commitment and consistent effort. It has
become equally important to strengthen the AYUSH network to further improve the health outcomes.
The main objective should be to improve preparedness beyond COVID and not just focus on short-
term fixes that will restore the system to the same old state once outside help is withdrawn.
Other
• Raising Public Health expenditure to 2.5% of GDP.
• Provide accessible, affordable and quality health care.
• Inform and educate people about the traditional Systems of medicine.
• Ayurveda Doctors and Yoga Teachers for Rural Areas.
• Improve Hospital access, Health worker density, and Access to essential medicine.
• Mobile Medical Units to Provide outreach Services in rural and remote areas.
• Reduce the Pressure on Secondary and tertiary hospitals by investing in Preventive and Primary
Health Care facilities.
• A National Health Regulatory and Development Framework needs to be made for improving
the quality (for example registration of health practitioners), performance, equity, efficacy, and
accountability of healthcare delivery across the country.
• Increase the Public-Private Partnerships to increase the last-mile reach of healthcare.
• Generic drugs and Jan Aushadi Kendras should be increased to make medicines affordable
and reduce the major component of Out-of-Pocket Expenditure.
• The government’s National Innovation Council, should encourage a culture of innovation in
India and help develop policy on innovations that will focus on an Indian model for inclusive
growth.
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• India should take cue from other developing countries like Thailand to work towards
providing Universal Health Coverage. UHC includes three components: Population coverage,
disease coverage and cost coverage.
Q6. Each year a large amount of plant material, cellulose, is deposited on the surface
of Planet Earth. What are the natural processes this cellulose undergoes before
yielding carbon dioxide, water, and other end products? 10
Cellulose is an organic compound belonging to the category of polysaccharides. It is a polymer made

up of glucose subunits. It is found in bacterial and plant cells and is abundantly present in their cell
walls. Cellulose plays an important role in the structure and strength of plants.
Breakdown (cellulolysis)
Cellulolysis is the process of breaking down cellulose into smaller polysaccharides called cellodextrins
or completely into glucose units; this is a hydrolysis reaction. Because cellulose molecules bind
strongly to each other, cellulolysis is relatively difficult compared to the breakdown of other
polysaccharides.
Breakdown (thermolysis)
At temperatures above 350 °C, cellulose undergoes thermolysis (also called 'pyrolysis'),
decomposing into solid char, vapors, aerosols, and gases such as carbon dioxide. The maximum
yield of vapors that condense to a liquid called bio-oil is obtained at 500 °C.
Semi-crystalline cellulose polymers react at pyrolysis temperatures (350–600 °C) in a few seconds;
this transformation has been shown to occur via a solid-to-liquid-to-vapor transition, with the liquid
(called intermediate liquid cellulose or molten cellulose) existing for only a fraction of a second.
Glycosidic bond cleavage produces short cellulose chains of two-to-seven monomers comprising the
melt. Vapor bubbling of intermediate liquid cellulose produces aerosols, which consist of short chain
anhydro-oligomers derived from the melt.
Continuing decomposition of molten cellulose produces volatile compounds including levoglucosan,

furans, pyrans, light oxygenates, and gases via primary reactions. Within thick cellulose samples,
volatile compounds such as levoglucosan undergo 'secondary reactions' to volatile products including
pyrans and light oxygenates such as glycolaldehyde.
Industry Use
Cellulose is used in different industries for the welfare of mankind. Following are some of its uses:
• Cellulose is used to make paper, paperboards, cardboards, cardstock and other paper
products.
• It is used in the textile industry to make clothes. Different clothes are made using cotton and
other plant fibers.
• It is used to make electrical insulation paper in the electric industry.
• It is used to make bio-fuel.
• Cellulose is used in gunpowder.
• It is used as a stabilizer in different drugs.
• It is used in biological labs as a stationary phase for chromatography.
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Q7. Discuss in detail the photochemical smog emphasizing its formation, effects and
mitigation. Explain the 1999 Gothenburg Protocol. 10
Photochemical smog is a mixture of pollutants that are formed when nitrogen oxides and volatile
organic compounds (VOCs) react to sunlight, creating a brown haze above cities.
Photochemical Smog is derived from vehicular emissions from internal combustion engines and
industrial fumes. These pollutants react in the atmosphere with sunlight to form secondary pollutants
that also combine with the primary emissions to form photochemical smog.
Primary pollutants-The two major primary pollutants, nitrogen oxides and VOCs combine to change
in sunlight in a series of chemical reactions, to create what are known as secondary pollutants.
Secondary pollutants- The secondary pollutant that causes the most concern is the ozone that
forms at ground level. While ozone is produced naturally in the upper atmosphere, it is a dangerous
substance when found at ground level. Many other hazardous substances are also formed, such as
peroxyacetyl nitrate (PAN).
In short, Nitrogen oxides (the mixture of NO and NO2 together referred to as NOx) and volatile
organic compounds (VOCs) are primary air pollutants, released in the atmosphere by automobiles
and industrial processes. Nitrogen dioxide absorbs ultraviolet light and formation of nitric oxide and
atomic oxygen takes place. Ozone is generated by the reaction of oxygen gas with this atomic
oxygen. Ozone, aldehydes and peroxyacetyl nitrate so formed are thus secondary air pollutants.
Photochemical smog is a mixture of primary and secondary air pollutants.
Effects of Photochemical Smog

• All the major constituents of photochemical smog are detrimental to human health and the
environment. Being a cocktail of chemical oxidants such as ozone, nitrogen dioxide and peroxy
compounds, it is often termed as oxidising smog.
• The brown nitrogen dioxide in smog affects visibility.
• Nitrogen dioxide, ozone, VOCs and peroxyacetyl nitrates, all result in eye irritation and respiratory
problems.
• Prolonged exposure to NO2 lowers resistance towards respiratory infections.
• VOCs are also carcinogenic.
• Ozone has a harsh odour and causes coughing, wheezing and eye irritation. Ozone causes oxidative
damage to plant and animal tissue.
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GS-III EXPLANATIONS
Mitigation
Reduction of nitrogen oxide
The main method of lowering the levels of nitrogen oxides is by a process called ‘catalytic
reduction’, which is used in industry and in motor vehicles. For example, a catalytic converter fitted to
a car’s exhaust system will convert much of the nitric oxide from the engine exhaust gases to nitrogen
and oxygen. In Australia, all motor vehicles built after 1985 must be fitted with catalytic converters.
Nitrogen is not in the actual fuels used in motor vehicles or power stations; it is introduced from the air
when combustion occurs. Using less air in combustion can reduce emissions of nitrogen oxides.
Temperature also has an effect on emissions—the lower the temperature of combustion, the lower the
production of nitrogen oxides. Temperatures can be lowered by using processes such as two-stage
combustion and flue gas recirculation, water injection, or by modifying the design of the burner.
Reduction of VOCs
There are various ways to reduce VOC emissions from motor vehicles. These include the use of
liquefied petroleum gas (LPG) or compressed natural gas (CNG) rather than petrol, decreasing
distances vehicles travel by using other modes of transport, such as buses and bikes, and
implementing various engine and emission controls now being developed by manufacturers.
Altering human activity

• Less consumption, no burning of fossil fuel
• Use public/shared transit, walking and cycle paths
• Increase renewable energy
• Decrease consumption of non-essential goods
• Government regulations at points of emission
Controlling the release of the pollutant

• Government regulation on pollution at points of emission - such as petrol/gas/diesel taxation
• Use of catalytic converters to remove primary pollutants from exhaust (tail) pipe of vehicles
• Fuel quality may be regulated by government
• Regulating car-free zones
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Clean-up and restoration

• Scrubbers.
• Afforestation to increase carbon sinks and filter air.
• Create conservation areas.
• Spraying water at junctions to wash out pollution from atmosphere.
• Re-greening of cities.
1999 Gothenburg Protocol

The 1999 Gothenburg Protocol to Abate Acidification, Eutrophication and Ground-level
Ozone (known as the Multi-effect Protocol or the Gothenburg Protocol) is a multi-
pollutant protocol designed to reduce acidification, eutrophication and ground-level ozone by setting
emissions ceilings for sulphur dioxide, nitrogen oxides, volatile organic compounds and ammonia to
be met by 2010.
The Protocol is part of the Convention on Long-Range Transboundary Air Pollution. The Convention
is an international agreement to protect human health and the natural environment from air
pollution by control and reduction of air pollution, including long-range transboundary air pollution.
The geographic scope of the Protocol includes Europe, North America and countries of Eastern
Europe, Caucasus and Central Asia (EECCA).
Q8. Explain the mechanism and occurrence of cloudburst in the context of the Indian
subcontinent. Discuss two recent examples.
Cloudbursts are short-duration, intense rainfall events over a small area. According to the India
Meteorological Department (IMD), it is a weather phenomenon with unexpected precipitation
exceeding 100mm/h over a geographical region of approximately 20-30 square km.
Not all instances of very heavy rainfall, are cloudbursts. A cloudburst has a very specific definition:
Rainfall of 10 cm or more in an hour over a roughly 10 km x 10-km area is classified as a cloudburst
event. By this definition, 5 cm of rainfall in a half- hour period over the same area would also be
categorized as a
cloudburst.
In Uttarkashi and
Rudraprayag, it rained 479
mm in the intervening night
of June 16-17, 2013. They
are called cloudbursts.
Mechanism
Cloudbursts occur because
the warm air current from
the ground or below the
clouds rushes up and
carries the falling raindrops
up with it.
The rain fails to fall down in
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GS-III EXPLANATIONS
a steady shower. This results in excessive condensation in the clouds as new drops form and old
drops are pushed back into it by the updraft. Then one of them gives in. The air current slows down or
the clouds can't hold.
The resulting violent downpour can dump as much as 70,000 tonnes of water over an acre of land.
Meteorological Factors behind the

Cloudburst
Atmospheric pressure, atmospheric
temperature, rainfall, cloud water
content, cloud fraction, cloud particle
radius, cloud mixing ratio, total cloud
cover, wind speed, wind direction, and
relative humidity during the cloudburst,
before as well as after the cloudburst.
Relative humidity and cloud cover is at
the maximum level with low temperature
and slow winds.
Cloudbursts in India
In India, a cloudburst mostly occurs in
the mountains of India where the low
monsoon clouds are stopped by the high
mountains.
Cloudbursts are not uncommon events,
particularly during the monsoon months.
Most of these happen in the
Himalayan states where the local
topology, wind systems, and temperature gradients between the lower and upper atmosphere
facilitate the occurrence of such events.
Cloudbursts, occur mostly over the rugged terrains over the Himalayas, the Western Ghats, and
northeastern hill States of India.
Recent cloudbursts that caused significant devastation occurred over the Himalayan foothills in
Himachal Pradesh (in the year 2003), Ladakh (2010), and Uttarakhand (2013). Cloudbursts were
reported from the northeastern States and Western Ghats States during the current monsoon season
(2022).
Pithoragarh (July 2022)

A cloud burst incident was reported from the Darma valley in Pithoragarh district on July 30, 2022 in
Bheti nullah catchment[xxii] near Jhimir village in Sobla area of Dharchula tehsil in evening hours. The
subsequent flash flood washed away a baily bridge built by BRO on Tawaghat-Drama road,
disconnecting Darma valley with district headquarter.
Dehradun 2022
A devastating cloud burst incident took place near Sarkhet village along Bandal river in Raipur area of
the Dehradun district around 02:40 am on August 20, 2022 causing damages in several villages
including Sarkhet, Maldevta, Bhutsi, Tauliyakatal, Thatyud, Lavarkha, Ringalgadh, Ghuttu and Ragad
Gaon. 5 people went missing after flash flood washed away some homes in Sarkhet village and
bodies of 3 were later recovered. Over 72 families were affected and more than 40 homes were
damaged by mud and debris flows. Several cattle, vehicles were swept away. Nearly 500 people
mostly tourists, had to be rescued and shifted to safer areas. The Disaster Mitigation and
Management Centre confirmed the cloud burst incident.
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Q9. Discuss the types of organised crimes. Describe the linkages between terrorists
and organised crime that exist at the national and transnational levels.
Organized crime means the commission of a crime at regular intervals in order to make money or
profits. Some examples could include human trafficking, money laundering, smuggling, etc.
Types of organised crimes

Money laundering
Money laundering is one of the most serious crimes which can severely affect any economy in several
aspects. This crime is specifically governed by the Prevention of Money Laundering Act, 2002. It is a
way by which illegal money earned from sources such as drug trafficking, human trafficking, etc. are
diverted to create an impression that such money comes from a legitimate source.
Smuggling
Smuggling is another major economic offence in a form of organised crime. This is mostly governed
by the Customs Act, 1962. It is natural that the goods which are illegal in the territory of India or
heavily taxed are smuggled to continue their trade or maintain profits. With a change in fiscal policy,
the definition of smuggled goods vary but it is mostly items such as contraband substances, valuable
jewels, electronics, certain fabrics, etc. which are smuggled in India. Due to the vast coastline, it
becomes easy for people to smuggle goods.
Drug trafficking
Drug trafficking is another major crime that poses a threat to the younger population of India,
considering its drastic effects on physical and mental health. It is usually considered that the most
important reason for the high rate of drug trafficking is the geographical condition of India. It is located
between the Golden Triangle (Myanmar, Thailand, and Laos) on the northeast and Golden Crescent
(Pakistan, Afghanistan, and Iran) on the northwest- both of which are the two largest sources of illicit
drugs in Asia. Resultantly, this form of organised crime has become more prevalent and significant in
the country.
Human trafficking
Article 23 of the Indian Constitution explicitly prohibits human trafficking. Further, there are various
trafficking prohibition laws discussed in the latter part of the article. Human trafficking is one of the
most significant and heinous organised crimes. This involves women trafficking, child trafficking,
trading in sex workers, etc
Contract killings and kidnapping

These are governed by the Indian Penal Code. Contract killings means murdering someone for
money on a contractual basis. This is usually prevalent among the highly influential and public
personalities who are being murdered by their enemies/competitors through some other criminal for a
ransom. Similarly, kidnapping incidents are also prevalent wherein people pay a certain sum of money
to get someone kidnapped or these criminals ask someone for a ransom. Such crimes are performed
by organised criminals who do such tasks on a regular basis.
Linkages between terrorists and organised crime

Organized crime and terrorism result from ineffective governance and have developed a symbiotic
relationship. While organized crime involves many activities, its linkages with terrorism stem from
illegal trafficking of drugs, arms and human beings and money laundering. Terrorist groups, whether
indigenous or sponsored by outside states, need arms and money for their fight against the security
forces. Organized crime conglomerates need a clientele and couriers who can smuggle drugs, arms
and human beings across the countries and regions.
In India, the linkages between the two exist at national and transnational levels. At the national level,
both terrorists and those involved in organized crime are within India. At the international level,
collaboration exists between transnational syndicates and terrorists from inside and outside India.
In India’s northeast, almost all the militant groups run a parallel government or have their areas of
influence and are involved in collecting money directly from the people. Much of the government
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funds reach the militants indirectly due to misgovernance. Government officials in conflict zones are
either threatened or bribed to award contracts to individuals patronized by the militant groups.
Contracts apart, essential commodities like rice and kerosene reach the militant groups directly which
are then sold to the public at much higher prices. This cycle, though unnoticed in other parts of India,
is a clear example of the linkage between organized crime and terrorism inside India.
Extortion, kidnap, contracts and black marketing still fall short of financing the nefarious activities of
the militants. This is where transnational drugs and arms syndicates come into play. Terrorist
organizations in India, especially in the northeast, mobilize funds by becoming couriers of illegal drugs
and arms and at times even human beings from one point to another within the country. Some of the
infamous entry points from Southeast Asia include Moreh and the entire Chittagong Hill tracts,
especially Cox’s Bazaar. Initially, international criminal syndicates had their own network; however,
with these routes being taken over by various terrorist groups in the northeastern states, the
syndicates started using these groups instead of bribing them to let their consignments get through.
In Kashmir, the linkages between terrorists and organized crime exist at a different level. Unlike the
northeast, reliance on funds from extortion and other related means is minimal. There is no parallel
government in Kashmir and government resources do not reach militant hands. However, external
funds compensate for inadequate internal mobilization. External funds reach the militant organizations
fighting in Kashmir thorough various means. For instance, enormous funds that are mobilized in
Pakistan and other Muslim countries, especially in the Gulf, are channeled through various
organizations in Pakistan to Kashmir. Markaz dawa al Arshad, for example, mobilizes funds from
inside and outside Pakistan, to support its militant wing, Lashkar-e-Toiba. Besides, external funds are
also routed through select organizations and individuals in Kashmir, which finally reach the militants.
Money laundering plays a significant role. Hawala (money laundering) transactions take place swiftly
and effectively in Kashmir. Besides, it is also believed that the ISI uses drug money to fund militant
activities in Kashmir.
Another significant relationship between organized crime and terrorism, especially in Kashmir, is
through the spread of counterfeit currency. Terrorists are the main couriers of Indian counterfeit
currency inside Kashmir, which then spreads all over India. Even guides for the militants from across
the border are paid with counterfeit money. In fact, when some of the ‘indigenous’ militants were also
paid with counterfeits, it resulted in squabble between them and the so-called guest militants.
Besides Kashmir and the northeast, sporadic incidents in other parts of India like the Bombay blasts,
for instance, have exposed the connection between terrorism and organized crime. This is distinct
from the traditional linkages flourishing between organized crime syndicates and local criminals.
Wrapping it up
There are various central and state laws such as the Indian Penal Code, PMLA, NDPS Act,
preventive laws, etc. to govern and curb organised crimes. Despite the existence of various
legislation, the State has not been successful in curbing these crimes to a considerable extent. This is
because of various challenges faced by the State such as lack of proper enforcement, lack of
resources, slow trials, difficulty in obtaining proof, etc. In light of these circumstances, it is imperative
that the Parliament bring in some laws specifically governing organised crimes and form diplomatic
relations with other nations since many of these crimes are transnational in nature.
Q10. What are the maritime security challenges in India? Discuss the organizational,
technical, and procedural initiatives taken to improve maritime security.
Maritime security has been defined in the Indian Maritime Doctrine (IMD) as relating to the freedom
from threat at or from the sea. Maritime security is of utmost significance to the world community as
there are maritime concerns ranging from piracy at sea to illegal immigration and weapon smuggling.
It also deals with threats of terrorist attacks and environmental catastrophes.
India has a huge coastline of about 7517 km and more than 1200 islands. Thus, Maritime Security
is vital to India’s interests.
India’s Maritime Security Concerns

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Recent issues:
• COVID-19 has highlighted the fragility of the global logistic supply chain, and India too has been
affected. India’s exports have been hit by the pandemic-induced scarcity of shipping containers, so
much so that the country has now decided to make its own containers.
• The recent Suez thrombosis caused by the grounding of MV Ever Given in the Suez Canal has
lessons for our economy and energy security.
Control of Choke Points

• Access to the Indian Ocean is geographically controlled by a number of choke points leading to
and from the Arabian Sea and the Bay of Bengal, and from the Southern Indian Ocean, which are
critical for safeguarding the Indian maritime interests.
• Examples: Straits of Hormuz, Straits of Bab-el-Mandeb, Gulf of Aden, Malacca Strait.
Regional Instability
• The Indian Ocean littoral has been witnessing to large areas of political instability in the recent
past. Examples: Yemen, Indonesia, Somalia, Iran-Iraq, Sri Lanka and Myanmar
• Indian maritime security forces then had to conduct dedicated operations to combat this menace,
like the Indian intervention in the Maldives in 1988 to foil a coup d’état.
Piracy
• India has not only escorted numerous merchant ships of all countries but concerted efforts of its
maritime security forces has ensured that this piracy has been controlled.
• Statistics have shown an increase in piracy, off the coast of Bangladesh, Malaysia, and
Indonesia.
Trafficking
• The Indian Ocean Region is regrettably home to the world’s most notorious areas of drug
production, the Golden Crescent and the Golden Triangle.
• The trans-national networks established by the drug smugglers also serve as conduits for other
destabilising activities like gunrunning and human trafficking.
Maritime Terrorism
• India’s huge coastline, a thriving maritime commercial community along its coast with
nearly 200,000 fishing boats and a fishermen population of 4 million make the job of
monitoring maritime activity an unenviable task.
• The ability of adversarial interests to exploit this vast maritime activity for launching attacks on land
is therefore quite high, as was witnessed in the 26/11 terrorist acts.
Extra Regional Military Presence

• It is intended to further strategic interests of various nations.
• The ongoing international naval effort has also benefited nations in terms of operational
intelligence gained and an expanded military maritime footprint.
Illegal Unreported and Unregulated (IUU) Fishing

• A World Wildlife Fund report on illegal fishing has found that 87 percent of the fish stocks
surveyed in the Western and Eastern Indian Ocean were experiencing high levels of IUU
fishing.
• Maritime Territory: India’s coasts are characterised by a diverse range of topography such as
creeks, small bays, back waters, rivulets, lagoons, swamps, beaches, small islands
(inhabited as well as uninhabited) etc.
Challenge of Maritime security management:

• The challenge of maritime security management today is the multiplicity of maritime
stakeholders, who often work at cross-purposes.
• Narrow organisational loyalties, turf wars and reluctance to share information characterise most of
them.
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• Decision makers of the civilian generalist bureaucracy lack maritime domain
knowledge and may never have stepped on to a ship, let alone have spent a day in heavy seas.
• Most of their solutions therefore often tend to adapt a land-centric approach and are often too
little and too late.
• Further, the country has nine coastal states and four Union territories, most of whom believe that
maritime and coastal security is the Centre’s responsibility.
• In fact, some states are yet to set up ‘maritime boards’, despite the Centre’s advice to do so.
• Absence of physical barriers on the coast and presence of vital industrial and defence installations
on it enhances the vulnerability of the coasts to illegal cross border activities.
• Shortage of manpower, Inadequate training for marine police, Lack of a cooperative
mechanism between different agencies, below par state-level monitoring mechanisms.
‘Non-traditional’ Security Challenges:

• Such as climate change, haphazard urbanisation of coastal regions, natural disasters and
pandemics.
• Weak oceanic governance has meant high degree of pollution, depletion of fishing stocks and
damage to environment.
• Other challenges include technology capacity build up to leverage on the resource base of
Indian Ocean
• Oceans have become dumping grounds for waste and issues like oil spills
Geopolitical shifts:
• Geopolitical shifts have led to great power contestation at sea, generating various maritime
flashpoints in different waters, naval rivalries and build-up and more aggressive naval war fighting
doctrines.
• There are rising tensions between China and Japan, China and US, China and ASEAN in South
China Sea, tensions in the Mediterranean and the Black Sea and the northern Atlantic.
• The aggravating factor is the growing tension between Russia and US affecting different seas.
• The pattern of naval modernisation includes capabilities for asymmetric warfare, amphibious
warfare, pressure on chokepoints and second submarine-based nuclear strike capability.
Infiltration, Illegal Migration and the Refugee Influx:

• India's land boundaries have always been porous to infiltration by terrorists/militants and large
scale illegal migration. Example: creek areas of Gujarat have been highly vulnerable.
Maritime Terrorism
Maritime terrorism, according to one maritime analyst, maybe manifested in the following ways:
• Armed robbery to finance terror activities
• Direct attack on offshore oil/gas platforms and Single Buoy Moorings
• Direct attack on ships at anchorage or alongside or on a port facility/harbour
• Direct attack on near-coast nuclear/industrial installations
• Indirect attack from hijacked ships on shore installations/cities
• Infiltration for attacks in the hinterland
• Disrupting safe navigation by sinking ships/boats in straits/narrow channels
For India, perhaps the most visible act was the Mumbai terror attack of November 2008 by Pakistan-
supported terrorists.
REGIONAL SECURITY ARCHITECTURE:

India has always espoused a cooperative approach and participation of all states in promoting
maritime security as enunciated by it in its vision of SAGAR – Security and Growth for All in the
Region.
• Indian Ocean Rim Association (IORA): Launched in 1997 for promoting intra-regional economic
cooperation and development.
• Indian Ocean Naval Symposium (IONS): is a voluntary initiative formed in 2008 that seeks to
increase maritime co-operation among navies of the littoral states of the Indian Ocean Region.
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• Regional Cooperation Agreement on Combating Piracy and Armed Robbery against Ships
in Asia (ReCAAP): is a regional government-to-government agreement, brought into force in
September 2006 to promote and enhance cooperation against piracy and armed robbery in Asia.
• ASEAN Regional Forum (ARF): objectives are to foster dialogue and consultation on political and
security issues of common interest and make efforts towards confidence-building and preventive
diplomacy in the Asia-Pacific region.
• At the multilateral level, India has played a key role in shaping BIMSTEC and Mekong-Ganga
Cooperation.
• In south-east Asia, it has played an important and supportive role in ADMM Plus and Expanded
ASEAN Maritime Forum and East Asia Summit as regards maritime security issues there.
• In the western Pacific, it participates in US-led Western Pacific Naval Symposium. It is also an
Observer at the Arctic Council.
INDIAN MARITIME AGENCIES:

• Indian Navy: Aims to be the ‘net security provider’ in the maritime neighbourhood, including
deployments for anti-piracy, maritime security, Non-combatant Evacuation Operations and HADR
(Humanitarian Assistance and Disaster Relief) operations.
• Coast Guard: Protects India’s EEZ from criminals, pirates, smugglers, poachers, human-
traffickers and foreign subversion. It also carries out rescue missions in India’s search and rescue
zone. It is also engaged in developing bilateral and multilateral cooperation.
• Coastal police: Confining its activities to largely coastal waters up to 24 nautical miles, with the
help of other agencies, it has a surveillance network comprising coastal villagers, CISF personnel
and data from radar chain and sensors installed on sailing vessels.
• Maritime shipping and shipbuilding: A major task for the government is to enhance its capacity
for Indian commercial shipping as well as infrastructure.
• Ocean Affairs: Ministry of Earth sciences (2006) is responsible for development of technology for
exploitation and exploration of marine resources, weather services, climate change and geo-
hazards, including tsunamis and vulnerability mapping for the purpose.
• Customs Marine Organisation: created following the recommendations of the Nag Chaudhari
Committee.
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• Multi-layered Surveillance System: Under the system, the outer layer (beyond 200 nautical) was
patrolled by the Indian naval ships and aircraft; the intermediate layers (12-200 nautical miles) was
patrolled by Indian Coast Guard; and the inner layer i.e. the territorial waters (shoreline to 12
nautical miles), was patrolled by the marine police.
• National Committee for Strengthening Maritime and Coastal Security: Coordinates all matters
related to Maritime and Coastal Security and periodically reviews coastal security against threats
from the sea with all stakeholders.
• Coastal Surveillance Network: Comprising of static sensors along coasts, automatic
identification systems (AIS), long range tracking, day-night cameras and communication devices
has been put in place.
• Vessel Traffic Management System (VTMS) radars are installed on all major & minor ports to
facilitate surveillance.
• Commissioning of Information Management & Analysis Centre (IMAC) in Gurugram for easy
collection and dissemination of shipping data for increased awareness.
• The Navy established the Information Fusion Centre for the Indian Ocean Region (IFC-IOR) at
IMAC for 24/7 regional information sharing on commercial shipping.
• Central Industrial Security Force (CISF) now guards ports. Moreover, Sagar Prahari Bal was
constituted as a special force from navy for protection of naval bases.
Strategies to address non-traditional maritime challenges

After 26/11, the Government of India effected a major overhaul of its coastal security structures,
assets and operating procedures. The Indian Navy was designated as the lead agency, charged with
overall Coastal Security, in coordination with the Indian Coast Guard, state marine police forces, port
authorities, and other central/state government organisations. The main steps initiated in order to
preclude any recurrence of 26/11 include the following:
▪ Joint Operation Centres (JOC) were set up at Mumbai, Visakhapatnam, Kochi, Port Blair; jointly
manned and operated by Navy and Coast Guard.
▪ A National C3I Network was established for real-time maritime domain awareness, linking the
Navy and Coast Guard, both, at field and apex levels.
▪ The ‘Sagar Prahari Bal’, comprising 1,000 men and 80 Fast Interceptor Craft (FIC) was formed for
the protection of naval bases, Vulnerable Assets (VAs) and Vital Points (VPs) along the coast.
▪ Surface and air surveillance was enhanced by Indian Navy, Coast Guard Ships and aircraft along
the coast and offshore development areas.
▪ Coastal Radar Stations and Auto Identification System (AIS) Chains were set up.
▪ Marine Police of coastal states and Union Territories were strengthened.
Controlling Traditional Threats: Business-end of Warfare

• Anti-Submarine Warfare (ASW) Operations. Potential employment of modern submarines and
other potent undersea hardware — including unmanned submarines, manned submersibles and
UUVs — by Pakistan and China, for sea denial, calls for priority enhancement of the Indian Navy’s
ASW capabilities at strategic, operational, and tactical levels.
• Air Defence and Anti-Air Operations. The Indian Navy’s capacity for the conduct of anti-air
operations has certainly been enhanced with the induction of modern carrier-based aircraft, UAVs,
and airborne surveillance systems. In this context, the procurement of AWACS — including carrier-
based Airborne Early Warning (AEW) aircraft — needs no further emphasis.
• Joint Expeditionary Mission-Capabilities. Since the influencing of events on land is one of the
primary roles of a maritime force, the Indian Navy must create strategic sealift capabilities through
the acquisition of heavy-lift helicopters and air-cushion vehicles, to prepare for large scale
amphibious operations in the IOR littoral. Concurrently, the Indian Army must allocate more role-
specific land-force formations, which would require to be closely integrated with amphibious,
marine, and special forces of the three Services.
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Mine Counter-Measure (MCM) Warfare
The Indian Navy’s ability to keep designated channels across choke points and entrance/exit routes
from harbours open for the safe transit of warships during a conflict would have a direct bearing on
the conduct of further maritime operations. The ongoing critical deficiency in MCM hardware —mine-
sweeping and mine-hunting ships and equipment —may cost the nation dearly in either of the above
discussed scenarios, and the highest priority must be accorded to made good these deficiencies.
▪ Special Operations. The creation of a combined ‘Special Operations Division’ under the
Integrated Defence Services Headquarters, to counter State-sponsored or non-State acts of
terrorism, at very short notice, is a revolutionary step and one that must be further built upon.
▪ Joint Operations. Future wars will invariably be undertaken by forces acting jointly.
Coordination and cooperation amongst the three Defence Services and other associated
forces such as the Indian Coast Guard, including the promulgation of common doctrines, the
coordination of strategies, achieving commonality in equipment and standard operating
procedures, etc., are essential to the success of joint missions.
OTHER INITIATIVES UNDERTAKEN BY THE GOVERNMENT:

• To leverage the potential of being present on the oceanic trade route, Indian Government has
called for the blue economy development, modernization of its ports, Sagarmala programme,
Industrial parks and logistic parks. This will provide the port led development in the Indian
coastal states thus fuel the Indian economy.
• Operation Sagar Kavach was put in operation post 26/11 to improve coordination between
security agencies including Indian Navy, Coast Guard and the local police.
• Indian Maritime Security Strategy (IMSS) 2015 of Indian Navy: envisages greater coordination
between different maritime agencies; securing SLOCs; Maritime Security Operations for
contemporary assessments of maritime terrorism, piracy etc.; multilateral maritime engagement,
local capacity building, technical cooperation etc.
• Coastal Security Scheme to strengthen security infrastructure of Marine Police Force in coastal
states/UTs.
• Enhance Maritime Domain Awareness through National Command Control Communication
and Intelligence Network (NC3I), an over-arching coastal security network which collates and
disseminates data about all ships, dhows, fishing boats and all other vessels operating near our
coast.
Suggestions
• State police agencies may be integrated leveraging their unique access to fishermen and local
communities, facilitating the flow of vital human intelligence.
• Comprehensive legislations must be enacted to place systems and processes for the protection
of India’s maritime infrastructure.
• The government must promulgate a National Commercial Maritime Security Policy Document,
to articulate its strategic vision for maritime security.
• Given India’s geostrategic location, it could sherpa a cluster of Indo-Pacific nations into a “Sagar
Panchayat” and uphold the rule of law at sea.
• Given India’s stakes in the Indian ocean, it is very significant for India to develop blue-water
naval capabilities.
• India should develop sea-denial capability mainly at choke points in Indian ocean such as Strait
of Hormuz, Bab-el-Mandeb, Strait of Malacca.
• One Border One Force: Kargil Review Committee had recommended, that to enforce
accountability, the principle of ‘one border one force’ may be adopted while considering the
deployment of forces at the border. The manning of land borders by the respective border
guarding forces is independent of the boundaries of hinterland Indian Border States. However, in
the maritime domain, the system fragments India’s frontiers.
Conclusion
• The persisting weaknesses in India’s maritime security prevent the realisation of impregnable
maritime borders. Post-Mumbai attacks in 2008, an overhaul of the maritime security apparatus was
witnessed with “emphasis on surveillance, intelligence gathering and information sharing amongst the
various stakeholders”. And the GoI took some concrete steps such as the setting up of National
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Committee on Strengthening Maritime and Coastal Security (NCSMCS), State Coastal/Marine
Police (SCP/SMP) and the Coastal Security Scheme (CSS), and making the Indian Coastal Guard
responsible for Coastal Security.
• However, the measures remained largely conservative. Doable solutions exist, as has been
demonstrated by the GoI in several matters involving national security. The appointment of National
Maritime Security Coordinator is one such example. It is hoped that the NMSC would examine the core
issues affecting India’s maritime security and advise tangible measures to unlock the maritime
potential of India.
• The most vital facet of maintenance of ‘Core Competencies’ over the long term would entail specific
focus on niche areas related to warship and submarine building, aircraft production, and the
development of a future-ready defence industrial base. Towards these ends, the recent
reorganization and corporatisation of the ordnance factories by the Indian Government is a step
in the right direction.
• Finally, investment in future technology should be progressed as a national-level project. This
will not only catalyse the Indian naval preparedness to comprehensively deal with non-traditional
maritime security challenges, but also ensure that asymmetric advantages that China and Pakistan,
acting in collusion with each other, seek vis-à-vis India, are balanced in the maritime domain.
Q11. Economic growth in the recent past has been led by an increase in labour
activity.” Explain this statement. Suggest the growth pattern that will lead to the
creation of more jobs without compromising labor productivity.
Labour productivity is an indicator of the efficiency of a country’s workforce, providing a measure of

the average output generated per worker (or per hour worked). In the long run, labour productivity is a
key determinant of Economic Growth. Recently, the labour force in India increased to 437.2 million
one of the largest with working age people who were out of the labour force joining back the labour
market.
Labour and Economic Growth

During the initial years of India's development process, labour was a key factor in contributing to
building and enabling the growth of basic and heavy industries, which in turn was
instrumental in strengthening India's infrastructure.
In the last few decades, there has been a major spurt in the growth of India’s services sector, which
presently accounts for the largest share (nearly 55 per cent) of India’s GDP. Here again, the
contribution of labour has been particularly significant as some of the core services sector activities,
such as education and health, are relatively employment intensive. The last two decades have
witnessed rapid strides in technological advancements in India; what is remarkable how labour has
responded to this transformation by equipping itself to reap the maximum advantage of new and
emerging technologies and thus contributing to enhanced productivity and growth.
Promotion of remunerative jobs and provision of social protection to the workers have been accorded
top priority in India’s development policies. In fact, in recent years, a number of innovative and historic
initiatives have been initiated with the objective of positioning labour at the centre of India’s
development strategies. These include the Enactment of Labour Codes; Universalisation of the
Coverage of the Minimum Wages; Provision of Social Protection to Gig and Platform Workers;
Significant Increase in Budget Allocation to Public Employment Programmes; Extension of Pensions
to Unorganised Sector Workers; and Incentivisation of Quality Employment Generation. India is
currently passing through a historic demographic transition. The fact that more than two-thirds of the
country’s population will be in the working-age group (15-64 years) for the next three decades further
signals the tremendous potential of labour to contribute to India’s development.
Recent past: Unprecedented productivity growth in 2020

The impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on the global economy and labour market resulted in
unprecedented developments in labour productivity. The world’s output per hour worked surged by
4.9 percent in 2020, more than double the long-term average annual rate of 2.4 percent registered
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between 2005 and 2019. This is the fastest global growth in hourly productivity observed since data
have been available. A similar trend is found across all major country income groups.
Situating India
In its World Economic Outlook, the IMF projected 6.8 per cent growth for India in 2022 and 6.1 per
cent in 2023, the highest for any large economy. This makes India the fastest-growing economy in
the world, this assumes significance as some countries in Europe like Germany and Italy are staring
at recession next year. This year India overtook the U.K. to become the world's fifth-largest
economy. ‘Labour’ represents the bedrock of this economic development.
Creation of more jobs without compromising labor productivity

Expanding Volume of Work
• Enlarging the opportunities for work needs to be completed to clear the backlog of unemployment
and to provide jobs to the large additions being made to labour-force.
• The work to be expanded has to be both in the sphere of wage employment and self-employment.
• The ultimate avenue of more employment has to be found in the industrial sector, as also in the
service sector.
Appropriate Mix of Production Techniques

• It is also necessary to choose such a combination of capital-intensive and labor-intensive
technologies of production may generate maximum employment.
• Labour-intensive activities such as cottage/household activities and also many agricultural
operations, provide employment but capital-intensive technologies, are, by and large, more
employment-creating, labour when employed in capital intensive industries, give rise not only to
capital goods but also generate employment in industries which provide inputs to them.
• Hence, the right mixes of technologies which may provide maximum employment at a higher wage
rate and provide a surplus for further investment.
Implementation of Labour Codes

• The Indian state has to step in to boost the bargaining power of workers by ensuring decent minimum
wage and adequate social security. The new labour codes incorporate these safety cushions, but
everything will boil down to implementation.
• Setting a uniform minimum wage soon can provide significant economic security to Indian workers,
especially those working at low-paying jobs. Another notable move is that the Code on Social Security
allows the government to extend social security benefits to unorganised, platform, and gig workers.
Skilling
• In recent times, skill-development has become a priority for the government. The creation of the
Ministry of Skill Development and Entrepreneurship in 2014 was a step towards the creation of a
framework for skilling/re-skilling the population. Subsequently, the launch of the Skill India campaign
in 2015 was aimed at imparting some 40 crore individuals with requisite skills by 2022. Such
initiatives need to become more commonplace across the nation, with an emphasis on skilling young
people about to enter the labour force. Estimates indicate that over 120 million workers will require
to be retrained as a result of wider implementation of automation and artificial intelligence.
Conclusion
At present, the Indian economy is faced with a conundrum of simultaneously securing the future of an
ever-increasing labour-force and sustaining high levels of economic growth through the adoption of
capital-intensive technology in production. Inaction on these two fronts can have calamitous
ramifications; without upskilling the working population and imparting necessary proficiency to young
individuals, economic inequality will only rise and the working population with marginal financial
stature may submerge into indigence.
We need to start by accepting the labour challenge at hand, steer policy towards not just labor-
intensive manufacturing sectors but also the service sector, raise productivity and address skill
mismatch issues, and capitalize on the expanding digital services as an engine of employment
growth.
Government support for enhancing infrastructure is particularly essential for small and medium-sized
enterprises to yield increased profits. Skill development for workers needs to be given the highest
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priority for achieving faster and inclusive growth. This is also important for taking advantage of the
demographic dividend in India.
Q12. Do you think India will meet 50 percent of its energy needs from renewable
energy by 2030? Justify your answer. How will the shift of subsidies from fossil fuels
to renewables help achieve the above objective? Explain. 15
As of August 2022, Renewable energy sources, including large hydropower, have a combined
installed capacity of 163 GW.
The following is the installed capacity for Renewables:
• Wind power: 41.2 GW
• Solar Power: 59.34 GW
• Biomass/Co-generation: 10.2 GW
• Small Hydro Power: 4.88 GW
• Waste To Energy: 0.47 GW
• Large Hydro: 46.85 GW
India has set a target to reduce the carbon intensity of the nation’s economy by less than 45% by the
end of the decade, achieve 50% cumulative electric power installed by 2030, and achieve net-zero
carbon emissions by 2070. The question is if we can meet the targets or not.
Achievements of India
India has progressively decoupled economic growth from greenhouse gas emissions. The global
power sector is undergoing an accelerated transformation due to technological innovations and
response to climate change protocols. At COP-21 in Paris in 2015, India committed to a 40% share of
power generation from non-fossil fuel sources. We have achieved this target a decade ahead of
the 2030 timeline.
India has been ranked amongst top 5 countries in the world, and the best among the G20 countries,
based on its Climate Change performance. India jumps 2 spots higher, and is now ranked 8th as per
Climate Change Performance Index (CCPI, 2023).
India was ranked fourth in wind power, fifth in solar power and fourth in renewable power installed
capacity, as of 2020. According to the analytics firm British Business Energy, India ranked 3rd
globally in terms of its renewable energy investments and plans in 2020.
India ranked third on the EY Renewable Energy Country Attractive Index 2021.
Even though it supports the second largest population in the world, India’s sustained efforts have
ensured that its per capita CO2 emissions are much lower than the global average. The US emits
14.7 tonnes per capita, China emits 7.6 tonnes per capita, while India’s CO2 emissions amount to 1.8
tonnes per capita.
All these indicate that India can meet 50 percent of its energy needs from renewable energy by
2030.
Efforts taken in this direction

The Net Zero Emissions target by 2030 by Indian Railways alone will reduce emissions by 60 million
tonnes annually.
Similarly, India's massive UJALA LED bulb campaign is reducing emissions by 40 million tonnes
annually. To further complement these ongoing efforts, India launched the National Hydrogen
Mission in 2013 to make India the world's largest hydrogen hub.
Grid Connected Solar Rooftop Programme

Objective: For achieving cumulative capacity of 40,000 MW from Rooftop Solar (RTS) Projects by the
year 2022.
Solar Park Scheme

MNRE has come up with a scheme to set up a number of solar parks across several states, each with
a capacity of almost 500 MW. The scheme proposes to offer financial support by the Government of
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India to establish solar parks to facilitate the creation of infrastructure required for setting up new solar
power projects in terms of allocation of land, transmission, access to roads, availability of water, etc.
International Solar Alliance

The International Solar Alliance (ISA) is an alliance of 121 countries initiated by India, most of them
being sunshine countries, which lie either completely or partly between the Tropic of Cancer and the
Tropic of Capricorn. The primary objective of the alliance is to work for efficient consumption of solar
energy to reduce dependence on fossil fuels.
The initiative was launched by Prime Minister Narendra Modi at the India Africa Summit, and a
meeting of member countries ahead of the 2015 United Nations Climate Change Conference (COP
21) in Paris in November 2015. The framework agreement of the International Solar Alliance opened
for signatures in Marrakech, Morocco in November 2016, and 200 countries have joined. HQ-
Gurugram, Haryana
PM KUSUM
Pradhan Mantri Kisan Urja Suraksha even Utthan Mahabhiyan (PM KUSUM) Scheme for farmers
aims for installation of solar pumps and grid connected solar and other renewable power plants in the
country.
The scheme aims to add solar and another renewable capacity of 25,750 MW by 2022.
National Green Corridor Project

The green energy corridor is grid connected network for the transmission of renewable energy
produced from various renewable energy projects.
National Wind-Solar Hybrid Policy

This policy essentially aims at establishing a structure on the basis of which large-scale wind-solar
hybrid power projects can be promoted.
National Offshore Wind Energy Policy

The objective is to develop the offshore wind energy in the Indian Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ)
along the Indian coastline.
Sustainable Rooftop Implementation for Solar Transfiguration of India (SRISTI) scheme

The Central government will offer with financial incentive to the beneficiary for installing Solar power
plant rooftop projects within the country.
Biomass power & cogeneration programme

It is being implemented with the main objective of promoting technologies for optimum use of
country's biomass resources for grid power generation.
Draft National Wind-Solar Hybrid Policy

The main objective of the Policy is to provide a framework for promotion of large grid connected wind -
solar PV hybrid system for optimal and efficient utilization of transmission infrastructure and land,
reducing the variability in renewable power generation and achieving better grid stability.
FDI Policy
100% FDI is allowed in the renewable energy sector under the Automatic route and no prior
Government approval is needed.
Akshay Urja Portal and India Renewable Idea Exchange (IRIX) Portal
Promotes the exchange of ideas among energy conscious Indians and the Global community.
National Biogas and Manure Management Programme

Central Sector Schemes that provide for setting up of Family Type Biogas Plants mainly for rural and
semi-urban/households.
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Production Linked Incentive (PLI) Scheme
Incentives for High Efficiency Solar PV Modules for Enhancing India’s Manufacturing Capabilities and
Enhancing Exports.
Mission Innovation CleanTech Exchange

In June 2021, India launched the Mission Innovation CleanTech Exchange, a global initiative that will
create a whole network of incubators across member countries to accelerate clean energy innovation.
India Renewables Dashboard

In April 2021, the Central Electricity Authority (CEA) and CEEW’s Centre for Energy Finance (CEEW-
CEF) jointly launched the India Renewables Dashboard which provides detailed operational
information on renewable energy (RE) projects in India.
National Electricity Policy (NEP) 2021

In April 2021, the Ministry of Power (MoP) released the draft National Electricity Policy (NEP) 2021
and has invited suggestions from all stakeholders such as Central Public Sector Undertakings, Solar
Energy Corporation of India, power transmission companies, financial institutions like Reserve Bank
of India, Indian Renewable Energy Development Agency, HDFC Bank, ICICI Bank, industrial, solar,
and wind associations, and state governments.
National Mission on advanced ultra-supercritical technologies

The Government of India has announced plans to implement a US$ 238 million National Mission on
advanced ultra-supercritical technologies for cleaner coal utilisation.
Indian Railways Efforts

Indian Railways is taking increased efforts through sustained energy efficient measures and maximum
use of clean fuel to cut down emission level by 33% by 2030.
Renewable energy park at the Rann of Kutch in Khavada, Gujarat

In July 2021, the Ministry of New and Renewable Energy (MNRE) gave the go ahead to NTPC
Renewable Energy Ltd., a 100% subsidiary of NTPC, to build a 4,750 MW renewable energy park at
the Rann of Kutch in Khavada, Gujarat. This will be India's largest solar park to be developed by
the country's leading power producer.
Way Ahead: Shifting subsidies from Fossil Fuel to Clean Energy

India has to do a lot more to meet its net-zero emission target as Fossil fuel subsidies by the Union
government have fallen 72% since 2014 but the subsidies on coal, oil and gas increased by nine
times in 2021-22 - study by the think tanks International Institute for Sustainable Development (IISD)
and the Council on Energy, Environment and Water (CEEW).
The energy sector received over Rs 5,40,000 crore in support from the government in 2021 with Rs
2,17,737 crore in subsidies. Subsidies to renewable energy dropped 59 percent to settle at Rs 6,767
crore after a high of Rs 16,312 crore in 2017.
The government should move public support away from fossil fuels, and to clean energy, in a
socially responsible way. PSUs, PFIs, and the ministries should prepare roadmaps and scenarios
on net-zero, identifying short-term actions to contribute to energy transition, including strategies on
stranded asset risk, compliance with emerging environmental, social, and governance norms,
phasing out finance for fossil fuels, and increasing investment and lending for clean energy to
crowd in private investments.
There is a need for new support to meet clean energy targets to ensure a just transition and a formal
channel, like an electricity council, to shift subsidies. Ministries should mandate energy PSUs to
diversify into clean energy and adjust corporate social responsibility rules to push for
sustainability. The revenue from fossil fuel should be set aside for social protection and public
services to reduce living costs while backing clean energy.
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The centre and the states must ensure adequate support and financing models for clean energy
in the medium and long term, in line with India’s stated decarbonization goals. Our
policymakers should also find ways to offer affordable clean cooking energy to the poor and
vulnerable sections.
Electric vehicle (EV) subsidies have more than tripled since FY 2017 to INR 849 crore in FY 2021.
During the year, India announced a production-linked incentive program to attract investments in the
domestic manufacturing of EVs and components. With manufacturing receiving a boost, clean
energy financing will be the next step to further scale-up deployment.
India’s non-banking financial companies are now playing a major role in shifting public finance away
from fossil fuels, but as of today, no public finance institutions (PFIs) have established clear plans for
phasing out finance for fossil fuels. In fact, annual disbursements by the largest PFIs were three times
higher for fossil generation than renewable energy in FY 2021. While several public sector
undertakings (PSUs) announced new clean energy partnerships and targets, they need to set out
clear strategies for adjusting business models to clean energy transition and net-zero.
To accelerate the pace of India’s energy transition, public finance institutions need to increase the
clean energy sector lending targets, in line with stated policy targets, and develop a medium- to long-
term roadmap for phasing out public finance for fossil fuels and managing possible stranded assets.
They should seek to swiftly end new public finance for coal-based power plants or mining to minimize
the already high levels of exposure to fossil assets.
Q13. What are the main bottlenecks in upstream and downstream process of
marketing of agricultural products in India? 15
Agricultural marketing system is an efficient way by which the farmers can dispose their surplus
produce at a fair and reasonable price. It includes all those activities which are mostly related to the
procurement, grading, storing, transporting and selling of the agricultural produce. Improvement in
the condition of farmers and their agriculture depends to a large extent on the elaborate arrangements
of agricultural marketing.
Bottlenecks
Too Many Intermediates
One of the biggest shortcomings of Indian farming marketing is so many intermediaries and their
manipulation of farmers. These intermediaries manipulate producers, on one side, by buying the
produce at cheaper rates, and on the other, by seeking higher prices from them, exploit the
consumers. The only objective is to obtain higher income from middle-processes from a variety of
commission agents, brokers etc. These intermediaries use their financial capital in an unfair way for
the former deprived.
Lack of Organised Marketing System

In India, the marketing of agriculture is also very poor since structured marketing is not in fashion, for
example, cooperative companies, government marketing operations, daily markets, etc. As a
consequence, the farmer stays intruded. The absence of a coordinated marketing scheme is also
detrimental to farmers.
Lack of Store Houses

Significant amounts of grain are wasted for lack of adequate and unscientific facilities. Around 20 to
30% of the profits are wasted by mice, mosquitoes and so on. Because of the absence of such
services, farmers have to suffer crumbles.
Corrupt Policies of the ‘Mandis’

Middlemen and merchants make plain farmers foolish together.
→ The improper selling scheme is laden so far in India that approximately 5 per cent in the name of
gifts, 'dharmada' and 'chanda' is deducted from the agricultural products etc.
→ Since they lack the understanding of commodity prices, changes in their prices, government policy
etc. the farmers are paid lower prices.
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→ Significant quantities of grains from farmers are collected as samples prior to auction. The
minimum rates are charged for the commodity by claiming it to be of poor quality.
Malpractices in the market

There are huge number of unregulated markets which adopt various malpractices. Prevalence of false
weights and measures and lack of grading. Adulteration, Black Marketing and Hoarding, and
standardization of products in village markets in India are always going against the interest of
ignorant, small and poor farmers.
Producer does not determine the price

The farmer does not realise the price at which his products will be offered to the ultimate buyer. The
farmer doesn't choose anything. The ultimate price in the selling of agricultural products is determined
only by the intermediaries. In reality, the farmer does not know his income.
Distress Sale
Most of the Indian farmers are very poor and thus have no capacity to wait for better price of his
produce in the absence of proper credit facilities. Farmers often have to go for even distress sale of
their output to the village moneylenders-cum-traders at a very poor price.
Lack of Transportation
In the absence of proper road transportation facilities in the rural areas, Indian farmers cannot reach
nearby mandis to sell their produce at a fair price. Thus, they prefer to sell their produce at the village
markets itself.
Lack of Market Intelligence

There is absence of market intelligence or information system in India. Indian farmers are not aware
of the ruling prices of their produce prevailing in big markets. Thus, they have to accept any un-
remunerative price for their produce as offered by traders or middlemen.
Lack of Institutional Finance

In the absence of adequate institutional finance, Indian farmers have to come under the clutches of
traders and moneylenders for taking loan. After harvest they have to sell their produce to those
moneylenders at unfavourable terms.
Lack Of Effective Peasants' Organization

There are many peasants organizations affiliated to one or the other political organization. There is
lack of peasants' organization which would focus its attention on occupational interest of peasants.So,
real farmers are always exploited.
In the meanwhile, many agricultural marketing initiatives/ schemes has been taken/ formulated
to facilitate farmers:
▪ Agricultural Marketing Infrastructure (AMI),
▪ National Agriculture Market,
▪ E-NAM (National Agriculture Market),
▪ Farmer Producer Organizations, Food Corporation of India (FCI), and Agricultural Produce
Marketing Committee (APMC).
▪ Rashtriya Krishi Vikas Yojana - Remunerative Approaches for Agriculture and Allied Sector
Rejuvenation (RKVY-RAFTAAR) Scheme,
▪ Agricultural Marketing Infrastructure (AMI) sub-scheme of Integrated Scheme for Agricultural
Marketing (ISAM).
▪ Agriculture Infrastructure Fund (AIF)- to provide a medium-long term loan facility for post-
harvest market infrastructure including warehousing facility and community farming assets
through interest subvention and financial support.
▪ Online platforms such as Farmkart, Agricolos, Khetgaadi provide input services, precision
services, agri-rental services, respectively.
▪ Third party assaying and warehousing services are provided by platforms such as Intello Labs
and Godamvale.
▪ Kisanmandi.com provide access to market intelligence including price information.
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▪ Operation Greens is on the lines of Operation Flood and it is a scheme launched to revitalize
the Tomato, Onion, Potato (TOP) supply chain.
▪ Market Intelligence and Early Warning System (MIEWS) to monitor the prices of TOP
crops and generate alerts for farmers.
▪ 86% of Indian farmers are small and marginal and are still exploited by middlemen. To solve
this challenge, governments have been pushing for the organization of small and marginal
farmers in Farmer Producer Organisations (FPOs) and Self Help Groups (SHGs) to link
them to benefits that come with economies of scale and injecting professionalism in their
management.
Remedial Measures for Improvement of Agricultural Marketing

▪ Establishment of more regulated markets.
▪ Establishment of more cooperative marketing societies.
▪ Extension and construction of additional storage and warehousing facilities for agricultural
produce of the farmers.
▪ Expansion of market yards and other allied facilities for the new and existing markets.
▪ Provision is made for extending adequate amount of credit facilities to the farmers.
▪ Timely supply of marketing information’s to the farmers.
▪ Improvement and extension of road and transportation facilities for connecting the villages with
mandis.
▪ Provision for standardisation and grading of the produce for ensuring good quality to the
consumers and better prices for the farmers.
▪ Formulating suitable agricultural price policy by the Government for making a provision for
remunerative prices of agricultural produce of the country.
▪ There is a need to set up a marketing cell in every line department of State governments to
bring about the perspective of market driven production in agriculture and allied sector. The cell
should promote all the modern instruments of marketing on the extension platform such as
contract farming, retail chain linkages, farmers-exports / processor linkages, spot markets, direct
marketing, aggregation mechanisms such as FPCs, SHGs, cooperatives etc,. for their respective
commodities.
▪ The unemployed youth in rural areas have to be incentivized to set up enterprises to directly
supply different agriculture/horticultural produce to households, hotels, restaurants, hospitals,
etc. This will go a long way towards bringing about direct linkages and shortening of long
marketing chains.
▪ Enhancing processing / export / value addition, and participation of farmers in the modern
instruments like Futures Market, Spot market etc., will ensure better returns to the farmers.
▪ Reforming APMC Mandis: The monopoly of APMC Mandis needs to be reduced to ensure
competition and choices for farmers.
▪ Learning from Karnataka: The Rashtriya e-market Services Ltd. (ReMS), a joint by the
Karnataka government and NCDEX Spot Exchange, offers automated facilities like weighting,
invoicing, market fee collection, accounting assaying facilities in the markets, facilitates the
warehouse-based sale of produce and price dissemination. Mandis in Karnataka have also been
integrated into a single licensing system. The Karnataka model is enabling the ‘ease of doing
business and needs to be replicated by other states Mandis need to be built close to the farmers.
▪ The Swaminathan Committee Report envisages a mandi within a 5km radius of a farmer.
▪ The layers between producers and consumers needed to be cut to ensure benefits to both-
farmers and consumers. Examples of farmers’ markets include- Apni Mandi in Punjab and
Rajasthan, Hadapsar in Pune, Rythu Bazars in AP, and Uzhavar Santhai in Tamil Nadu. These
experiments need to be replicated In other states.
▪ The government needs to hold broad-based consultations with stakeholders and re-introduce
the Farm Laws with the requisite changes. Changes in laws like the Essential Commodities Act,
Agriculture Produce Marketing Acts of states are necessary to create an enabling framework and
encourage private sector investment.
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Conclusion
The shift from a supply-pushed to a demand-led production system is only possible with the creation
of a strong agri-marketing ecosystem. All the schemes and programs mentioned above need to be
implemented on mission mode to realize the goal of ‘One Nation, One Market.
Q14. What is an Integrated Farming System ? How is it helpful to small and marginal
farmers in India ? 15
Integrated farming means combining crop production with livestock management that
complement each other in a way that is a well-symbiotic relationship that is currently economically
viable and profitable, environmentally friendly, and benefiting from the diversity of production. In the
integrated farming system, agriculture can be integrated with livestock, poultry, and fish are kept in
one place to create year-round employment and additional income.
Aim – It is a combination of different agricultural activities in a unit area of land aimed at;
1. Maximum return from unit area
2. Maintaining soil status and fertility
3. Ensuring supplementary and complementary enterprise relationships to use the by-products
of one component of the farming system as inputs to the other
4. To reduce environmental pollution.
Elements of integrated farming system

• Farm Ponds.
• Biological Pesticides.
• Biogas.
• Bio-fertilizers.
• Solar Energy.
• Vermicompost making.
• Green manuring.
• Rainwater harvesting.
• Watershed management.
Advantages of an integrated farming system

• The integrated farming systems approach introduces changes in farming techniques for maximum
productivity in crop samples and maximizes resource utilization.
• Ensures field waste is recycled in an integrated system for production purposes. A reasonable
combination of agribusinesses such as dairy, poultry, pig, fisheries, silk farming, etc., can bring
prosperity in agricultural activities according to the given agro-climatic conditions and socio-
economic status of the farmers.
• Increasing crop production to supply the exploding population of our country. Increase farm
income due to proper use and recycling of residues and by-products.
• Environmental pollution can be reduced by effective recycling of animal waste such as dairy, pig,
poultry, etc. Reduction in input costs through recycling of related activities by-products.
• Integrated farming can generate a steady income through products such as eggs, meat, milk,
vegetables, silkworms, and cocoons. Cultivation of fodder crops such as intercropping and border
cropping will result in the availability of nutritious fodder for animals.
• Energy-saving – The IFS system effectively reduces the additional dependence on fossil fuels as
a source of energy by providing alternative fuel sources as by-products of various enterprises.
Example of biogas.
• Meeting the fodder crisis – Perennial legume fodder trees can be grown within the boundaries of
the farm. These bean trees not only fix nitrogen for the field but also provide quality fodder for the
animals.
• Solving the Fuel and Timber Crisis – Fuel and industrial wood production is achieved through
IFS. It also reduces deforestation and helps protect the natural ecosystem.
• Employment Generation – The combination of agricultural and livestock enterprises will increase
the demand for labor and increase employment opportunities.
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• Agro-industries – The high production of agro-products in IFS also greatly contributes to the
growth of agro-industries and agribusiness in the country.
• Increased input efficiency – Input efficiency in this farming system has increased significantly as
dependence on external inputs such as fertilizers, food, agrochemicals, and energy has
decreased.
• Yearly income – Due to the variety of businesses in IFS, the farmer earns year-round income. It
has a positive effect on farmers’ lifestyle components such as food, shelter, health, and education.
• The improved production system is one of the most important benefits of integrated farming. An
increase in productivity means that economic yield per unit area per unit increases over time
due to the intensity of crops and allied farming enterprises.
• As productivity increases, so does the profit margin. This is because we are using the waste
material or by-product of one enterprise as input to another farming enterprise.
• Adopting new technology is one of the major benefits of an integrated farming system. This is
because money is needed to adopt the technology. Large farmers have finances so they can
easily adopt it. However, small farmers generally face financial constraints. But because of the
integrated farming system, they have the opportunity to increase their profits from farming and
adapt to new technologies.
• It improves soil fertility and soil physical structure from appropriate crop rotation and using cover
crops and organic compost. It also minimizes the nutrient losses.
• It reduce weeds, insect pests and diseases through appropriate crop rotation.
• There is higher net returns to land and labour resources of the farming family.
Closing Thought
In a nutshell, an integrated farming system fulfils the multiple objectives of making farmers self-
sufficient by ensuring the family members a balance diet, improving the standard of living through
maximizing the total net returns and provide more employment, minimizing the risk and uncertainties
and keeping harmony with environment. India has the rich diversity of livestock, poultry, crops and
horticulture. Utilization of our national resources efficiently is very much important for sustainable
development. Thus, this system of farming is very promising for improving overall farm productivity,
profitability, generating employment opportunities, conserving natural resources and maintain the
sustainability of agroecosystem by effective recycling the farm by-products and efficient utilization of
available resources. Integrating Farming System is the unique approach for overall upliftment of rural
community and conserving the natural resources and crop diversity. Integrated farming system (IFS)
is considered as one of the best option towards intensification of small holder farm income to ensure
sustainable livelihood.
Q15. Launched on 25th December, 2021, James Webb Space Telescope has been
much in the news since then. What are its unique features which make it superior to
its predecessor Space Telescopes? What are the key goals of this mission? What
potential benefits does it hold for the human race?
NASA’s James Webb Space Telescope was launched on 25 December 2021 on an Ariane 5 rocket
from Kourou, French Guiana, and it arrived at the Sun–Earth L2 Lagrange point in January 2022. It
succeeded the Hubble Space Telescope as NASA's flagship astrophysics mission.
Webb is the largest, most powerful telescope ever launched into space. The Ariane 5 deployed
the telescope directly into the second Lagrange point (L2), a location nearly four times farther
away than the Moon and 1.5 million kilometres from Earth in the direction away from the Sun.
With its 6.5 m primary mirror it is detecting the faint light of distant stars and galaxies.
The James Webb Space Telescope (JWST) is be more powerful than its predecessors and will be
able to see further into space to discover distant planets in far-off galaxies. It will even give us the
tools to search for indications of an atmosphere that could sustain life.
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GS-III EXPLANATIONS
Features
Mass
The James Webb Space Telescope has a mass that is about half of Hubble Space Telescope's
mass. The JWST has a 6.5-meter (21 ft)-diameter gold-coated beryllium primary mirror made up
of 18 separate hexagonal mirrors. The mirror has a gold coating to provide infrared reflectivity and
this is covered by a thin layer of glass for durability.
Technology
It boasts many new technological advances, including a deployable sunshield and a folding
segmented mirror. The mirror has to be kept cold — minus 400 degrees Fahrenheit — so it has a
sun shield the size of a tennis court that acts as a giant beach umbrella.
Wavelength
The James Webb Space Telescope will observe primarily in the infrared range and provide coverage
from 0.6 to 28 microns. The instruments on Hubble see mainly in the ultraviolet and visible part of the
spectrum. It could observe only a small range in the infrared from 0.8 to 2.5 microns.
Orbit
Hubble orbits around the Earth at an altitude of ~570 km. Webb will not orbit the Earth. It will orbit the
sun at about 1.5 million kilometres away from Earth.
Mirror Size Comparison

Compared to mirrors available on the current generation of space Telescopes, Webb's primary
mirror has a diameter of about 6.5 meters, giving it a substantially bigger collecting area.
Webb has an almost 6.25 times larger collecting area than Hubble because of Hubble's
mirror’s significantly smaller 2.3 meter diameter and 4.5 metre square comparable collecting area.
Compared to Hubble's NISMOS Camera, Webb's field of view is around 15 times greater and its
spatial resolution is about 100 times higher than Spitzer's infrared counterpart.
Object Observation
JWST is designed primarily for near-infrared astronomy, but can also see orange and red visible light,
as well as the mid-infrared region, depending on the instrument. It can detect objects up to 100
times fainter than Hubble can, and objects much earlier in the history of the universe, back
to redshift z≈20 (about 180 million years cosmic time after the Big Bang).
JWST can also observe objects in the Solar System at an angle of more than 85° from the Sun and
having an apparent angular rate of motion less than 0.03 arc seconds per second. This includes
Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, Neptune, Pluto, their satellites, and comets, asteroids and minor
planets at or beyond the orbit of Mars.
Webb, is able to see back in time to the earliest objects in the universe for the first time. Also, for the
first time, we will be able to characterize other planets going around other stars, distant exoplanets,
and see if there are oceans, an atmosphere, what chemical elements are there.
Key Goals
The key goals of the telescope include-
▪ Looking back over 13.5 billion years to see the first stars and galaxies forming out of the darkness of
the early universe,
▪ Help astronomers compare the faintest, earliest galaxies to today's grand spirals and ellipticals and
▪ See right through and into massive clouds of dust where stars and planetary systems are being born.
▪ Measure Planetary Systems and investigate for potential life.
▪ Observe the formation of stars and evolution of galaxies.
▪ Search for the first galaxies found in the early Universe.
▪ Explore the early phases of cosmic history, looking back in time to only a few hundred million years
after the Big Bang.
▪ Discovery of exoplanets, meaning planets outside the solar system.
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▪ The telescope will observe the universe in the near-infrared and mid-infrared at wavelengths longer
than visible light. To do so, it carries a suite of state-of-the-art cameras, spectrographs and
coronagraphs.
▪ Webb will see farther into our origins: from the formation of stars and planets to the birth of the first
galaxies in the early Universe.
Significance
James Webb telescope will allow researchers to observe far-flung asteroids, some with moons, to
learn more about the makeup and history of our solar system. The Webb telescope won't be able to
decisively say there's definitely life on a planet or not, but it begins to map out that space and say,
'That may be an ocean there,' which gives us a road map to probe further and really investigate.
Using the Telescope scientists are planning to investigate the nature of dark energy in the
universe, and understand the nature of these very old objects. And characterizing planets around
other suns puts humanity on the path to finding out if there’s another Earth out there. The Webb
will also assist in the hunt for exoplanets.
Webb can detect infrared wavelengths for fingerprinting chemicals such as water and methane
present in the atmosphere of exoplanets, which are planets beyond our solar system. If life exists
outside of Earth, it will release distinct chemical signatures, such as by breathing carbon dioxide and
photosynthesizing out oxygen, that can transform a planet. Analyzing the chemicals in a planet’s
atmosphere will not only allow scientists to look for life, but also enable them to assess a
planet’s habitability.
Q16. What is the basic principle behind vaccine development? How do vaccines
work? What approaches were adopted by the Indian vaccine manufacturers to
produce COVID-19 vaccines? 15
A vaccine is a biological preparation that provides active acquired immunity to a

particular infectious or malignant disease. A vaccine typically contains an agent that resembles a
disease-causing microorganism and is often made from weakened or killed forms of the microbe, its
toxins, or one of its surface proteins. The agent stimulates the body's immune system to recognize the
agent as a threat, destroy it, and to further recognize and destroy any of the microorganisms
associated with that agent that it may encounter in the future.
Basic principle behind vaccine development

Vaccination constitutes a major advance in the prevention of infectious diseases. The principle of
vaccination is to induce protection against a pathogen by mimicking its natural interaction with
the human immune system. The vaccine reduces the risk of complications and mortality following
subsequent exposure to an infectious agent. Vaccines induce the immune system to produce an
immunological memory based on T and B lymphocytes in order to produce a rapid and effective
response to exposure to the targeted pathogen.
The improvement of existing vaccines and the discovery of new vaccines requires an understanding
of the immunological principles of vaccination. Great challenges remain, particularly in terms of target
pathogens for future vaccine candidates and also the acceptance of vaccination. Understanding the
principles of vaccination allows development of vaccines and the control of infectious diseases.
Working of Vaccines
Vaccines work by stimulating a response
from the immune system to a virus or
bacterium. This creates a ‘memory’ in the
immune system. This immune memory
allows the body to ‘remember’ a specific
virus or bacterium, so that it can protect
itself against this virus or bacterium and
prevent disease that it causes.
Most vaccines contain a weakened or an
inactivated (killed) form of a virus or bacterium,
or a small part of the virus or bacterium that
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cannot cause disease. This is called an antigen.
When a person gets a vaccine, their immune system recognises the antigen as foreign. This
activates the immune cells so that they kill the disease-causing virus or bacterium and make
antibodies against it.
It also activates immune cells - called T-cells and B-cells - in the blood, in the bone marrow and
throughout the body.
Later, if the person comes into contact with the actual virus or bacterium, their immune system will
remember it.
It can then produce the right antibodies and activate the right immune cells quickly, to kill the virus or
bacterium. This protects the person from the disease.
Different vaccines bring about different levels of protection. How long protection lasts also depends
on the disease it protects against. Some vaccines can only protect against a disease for a short
period and may need booster doses; for others, immunity can last a lifetime.
Vaccination does not only protect people who have received a vaccine. By decreasing the risk of
being exposed to infection, it also indirectly protects unvaccinated people in the community, such as
children who are too young to be vaccinated or people with weakened immune systems.
This community immunity (also called herd immunity) needs enough people in an area to be
vaccinated.
India’s Vaccine Manufacturing approach during Covid 19

India’s capabilities in the manufacturing of vaccines came to the fore during the COVID-19 pandemic.
The world became witness to India’s vaccine manufacturing prowess as India provided equitable
access to resilient supply chains and logistics - further strengthening its position in the vaccine
segment.
India began administration of COVID-19 vaccines on 16 January 2021. Till now India has
administered over 2.19 billion doses overall.
India initially approved the Oxford–AstraZeneca vaccine (manufactured under license by Serum
Institute of India under the trade name Covishield) and Covaxin (a vaccine developed locally by
Bharat Biotech). They have since been joined by the Sputnik V (manufactured under license by Dr.
Reddy's Laboratories, with additional production from Serum Institute of India being started in
September, Moderna vaccines, Johnson & Johnson vaccine and ZyCoV-D (a vaccine locally
developed by Zydus Cadila).
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India's National Covid-19 Vaccination Strategy was based on scientific and epidemiological
evidence and focuses on systematic end-to-end planning.
Phase-I of the National Covid-19 Vaccination Strategy was launched on 16th January 2021 and
focussed on protecting Health Care Workers (HCWs) and Front Line Workers (FLWs).
Phase-II was initiated from 1st March 2021 and 1st April 2021 and focussed on protecting the most
vulnerable i.e. population more than 45 years of age.
Phase- III Liberalised Pricing and Accelerated National Covid-19 Vaccination Strategy came in effect
from 1st May 2021 under which COVID-19 Vaccination was opened for persons 18-44 years of age
groups.
Closing Thoughts
Although COVID-19 initiated the necessary boost to streamline and optimise manufacturing
processes, India’s growth in the vaccine segment has been steady. India has emerged as a dominant
force in vaccines for diseases such as measles, Bacillus Calmette–Guérin (BCG), and Diphtheria,
Tetanus and Pertussis (DPT). For instance, India accounts for nearly 90% of the global demand for
the measles vaccine. India now supplies ~60% of the global demand for vaccines, with ~33% of
vaccines supplied by Telangana’s life sciences ecosystem only. Biologicals and formulations
(including vaccines) account for 77.5% of India’s pharmaceuticals’ export portfolio. During the
pandemic, by utilising the vibrant vaccine manufacturing ecosystem and adhering to the core Indian
philosophy of Vasudhaiva Kutumbakam – the world is one family, India not only provided vaccines
to 1.4 billion population but also catered to the world community with India supplying 242 million low-
cost and high-quality vaccines to 101 countries.
Q17. Discuss Global Warming and mention its effects on the global climate. Explain
the control measures to bring down the level of greenhouse gasses which cause
global warming, in the light of the Kyoto Protocol, 1997. 15
Global warming is the long-term heating of Earth's surface observed since the pre-industrial period
(between 1850 and 1900) due to human activities, primarily fossil fuel burning, which increases heat-
trapping greenhouse gas levels in Earth's atmosphere.
Effects of Global Warming on the Global Climate

• Global warming is closely associated with a broad spectrum of climate changes, such as:
▪ Increases in the frequency of intense rainfall,
▪ Decreases in snow cover and sea ice,
▪ More frequent and intense heat waves,
▪ Rising sea levels, and
▪ Widespread ocean acidification.
Rise in Global Temperature

One of the most immediate and obvious consequences of global warming is the increase in
temperatures around the world. The average global temperature has increased by about 1.4
degrees Fahrenheit (0.8 degrees Celsius) over the past 100 years, according to the National
Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA). As global average temperatures warm, weather
patterns are changing. An immediate consequence of global warming is extreme weather.
Rising temperatures are affecting wildlife and their habitats. Vanishing ice has challenged species
such as the Adélie penguin in Antarctica, where some populations on the western peninsula have
collapsed by 90 percent or more. As temperatures change, many species are on the move. Some
butterflies, foxes, and alpine plants have migrated farther north or to higher, cooler areas.
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Rainfall
Precipitation (rain and snowfall) has increased across the globe, on average. Yet some regions
are experiencing more severe drought, increasing the risk of wildfires, lost crops, and drinking
water shortages.
Snow Cover
Ice is melting worldwide, especially at the Earth’s poles. This includes mountain glaciers, ice
sheets covering West Antarctica and Greenland, and Arctic Sea ice. In Montana's Glacier National
Park the number of glaciers has declined to fewer than 30 from more than 150 in 1910. Much of this
melting ice contributes to sea-level rise. Global sea levels are rising 0.13 inches (3.2 millimeters) a
year. The rise is occurring at a faster rate in recent years and is predicted to accelerate in the coming
decades.
Heat Waves
March 2022 was the hottest in India since records began 122 years ago. The Sixth Assessment
Report of the Inter-governmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) warned that the Indian
subcontinent would suffer more frequent and intense heat waves over the coming decade. An
increase in heat-absorbing greenhouse gases intensifies an unusual atmospheric circulation pattern
already observed during heat waves in Europe and North America.
According to IPCC Report, for 1.5°C of global warming, there will be increasing heat waves, longer
warm seasons and shorter cold seasons. At 2°C of global warming, heat extremes would more often
reach critical tolerance thresholds for agriculture and health, the report shows.
Sea Level Rise
Sea level rise is caused primarily by two factors related to global warming: the added water
from melting ice sheets and glaciers, and the expansion of seawater as it warms.
According to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) “about 93% of the excess
heat energy stored by the Earth over the last 50 years is found in the ocean” As the oceans warm,
they increase in volume, raising global sea levels.
Global average sea level has risen 8–9 inches (21–24 centimeters) since 1880. In 2021, global sea
level set a new record high—97 mm (3.8 inches) above 1993 levels.
Widespread ocean acidification

Seas are acidifying ten times faster today than 55 million years ago when a mass extinction of marine
species occurred. Current changes in ocean chemistry due to the burning of fossil fuels may portend
a new wave of die-offs.
Climate change triggered by Global Warming is likely to cause more storms, floods, droughts,
heatwaves and other extreme weather events.
In a nutshell,
• Emissions from human activities followed by Global Warming are increasing the frequency of
extreme weather events. In particular, there are likely to be many more heatwaves, droughts and
changes in rainfall patterns.
• The temperature is estimated to increase by 2 to 6 o Celsius within year 2100, which is a
tremendous increase from our current average temperature of 1.7o Celsius (IPCC).
• By the mid-2020s, sea level rise around Manhattan and Long Island could be up to 10 inches,
assuming the rapid melting of polar sea ice continues. By 2050, sea-rise could reach 2.5ft and
more than 4.5ft by 2080 under the same conditions.
• Global warming threatens the planet in a new and unexpected way – by triggering earthquakes,
tsunamis, avalanches and volcanic eruptions.
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Measures to control GHG emissions
• Reduce the use of fossil fuels. The main contributor to greenhouse gas emissions is the burning
of fossil fuels. We need to reduce our dependency on oil, gas, and coal. Renewable energy needs
to be the future.
• Use of Renewable Energy: Renewable energy sources include solar energy, geothermal energy,
wind turbines, ocean wave and tidal energy, waste and biomass energy, and hydropower.
Because they do not burn fossil fuels, these renewable energy sources do not release greenhouse
gases.
• Nuclear Energy: Nuclear energy also creates no greenhouse gas emissions, so it can be thought
of as a solution to climate change. However, it does generate radioactive waste that needs long-
term, secure storage.
• Change our diets. Livestock production and farming methods are one of the main drivers of
environmental damage, causing deforestation, biodiversity loss and greenhouse gas emissions.
Today, about a fifth of global carbon emissions come from raising farm animals for meat. By
eating less meat and more locally produced food, we can make a collective impact on emissions.
• Conserve forests. The destruction of rainforests releases carbon dioxide into at atmosphere. By
preserving the remaining forests and restore that which we’ve lost, we can mitigate some of the
damage done by greenhouse gases.
• Fuel Blending: Blending biofuels with gasoline creates fewer emissions and has the potential to
offset greenhouse gas emissions.
• Reduce Industrial Emission: Manufacturing, mining for raw materials, and dealing with the waste
all take energy. Most of the products that we buy — everything from phones and TVs to clothing
and shoes — are created in factories, which produce up to about 20% of the greenhouse gases
emitted worldwide. There are ways to decrease emissions from manufacturing. Using materials
that aren’t made from fossil fuels and don’t release greenhouse gases is a good start. For
example, cement releases carbon dioxide as it hardens, but there are alternative products that
don’t create greenhouse gases. Similarly, bioplastics made from plants are an alternative to
plastics that come from fossil fuels. Companies can also use renewable energy sources to power
factories and ship the products that they create in fuel-saving cargo ships.
• Travelling without releasing GHGs: Burning fossil fuels for transportation adds up to 14% of
global greenhouse gas emissions worldwide. We can reduce emissions by shifting to alternative
technologies that either don’t need gasoline (like bicycles and electric cars) or don’t need as much
(like hybrid cars). Using public transportation, carpooling, biking, and walking leads to fewer
vehicles on the road and less greenhouse gases in the atmosphere. Cities and towns can make it
easier for people to lower greenhouse gas emissions by adding bus routes, bike paths, and
sidewalks.
• Take carbon dioxide out of the air: Planting trees, bamboo, and other plants increases the
number of carbon sinks. Conserving forests, grasslands, peatlands, and wetlands, where carbon is
held in plants and soils, protects existing carbon sinks. Farming methods such as planting cover
crops and crop rotation keep soils healthy so that they are effective carbon sinks. There are also
carbon dioxide removal technologies, which may be able to pull large amounts of greenhouse
gases out of the atmosphere.
Kyoto Protocol: An attempt to reduce GHGs

The Kyoto Protocol included clear regulations on how greenhouse gases were to be reduced. It came
into force in 2005 and was replaced by the Paris Agreement in 2021.
The Protocol
The Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) was adopted at the United Nations
Conference on Environment and Development in Rio de Janeiro in 1992, with the aim of stabilising
greenhouse gas concentrations in the atmosphere at an acceptable level in order to combat the
serious consequences of climate change. After ratification by the 50th nation, it came into force in
1994.
The signatories have since met at regular intervals at what are known as COPs (Conference of the
Parties), in order to agree on how to proceed with international climate protection efforts. In 1997, this
meeting was held in Kyoto, Japan, where the “Kyoto Protocol” was adopted as the first document with
legally binding obligations to limit and reduce greenhouse gas emissions for the ratified industrial
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countries. Two periods of validity were established: 2008 to 2012 (1st commitment period) and 2013
to 2020 (2nd commitment period).
Aim and Objectives

During the first period, industrial countries were to reduce their greenhouse gas emissions by an
average of 5.2 per cent compared to 1990. The countries of the European Union along with
Switzerland made it their goal to reduce their greenhouse gas emissions by an average of eight per
cent compared to 1990. No fixed reduction targets were defined for emerging and developing
countries at that time.
The Kyoto Protocol presented mechanisms that were to help industrial countries achieve their
emissions reduction targets. These so-called flexible mechanisms or Kyoto mechanisms allowed the
industrial countries to deliver some of their reduction commitments abroad. The Clean Development
Mechanism (CDM) represented an important framework for the voluntary offsetting market.
Kyoto Protocol applies to 6 greenhouse gasses; carbon dioxide, methane, nitrous oxide,
hydrofluorocarbons, perfluorocarbons, sulfur hexafluoride.
Countries Involved
The Kyoto Protocol was Ratified by over 191 countries. It came into force in 2005, after which it was
signed by over 55 countries, which were responsible for at least 55 per cent of the CO₂ emissions of
industrial countries in 1990. The USA never joined the Kyoto Protocol, while Canada left it before the
end of the first period.
Achievements
The emissions reductions for the first commitment period were achieved. However, the trend shows
that countries such as the USA, as well as emerging countries such as China, Mexico, Brazil and
India, steadily increased their CO₂ emissions over the same period.
Looking Forward
Paris Agreement replaced Kyoto Protocol and at COP21 in Paris in 2015, the “Paris Agreement” was
adopted, which for the first time included a specific goal for limiting global warming to significantly
below 2°C, with a target of preferably 1.5°C compared to the pre-industrial level of 1750. The Paris
Agreement rightly states that all signatories – not just industrial countries as in the case of the Kyoto
Protocol – must commit to binding targets for CO₂ reduction, a steadily increasing ambition and the
net-zero target.
Final thoughts
The issue of greenhouse gas emissions is evidently a serious one. The damage we humans have
caused is already at a critical point, and without some serious interventions, the future is looking
bleak.
However, by learning about the impacts of the greenhouse effect and climate change, we can start to
take steps to correct it. The greenhouse gasses we release into our atmosphere today will stay there
for thousands of years The actions— and inactions—we take right now will have a significant impact
future generations. We need to take collective responsibility for our planet and ensure that we
preserve the precious environment we live in.
Q18. Explain the causes and effects of coastal erosion in India. What are the available
coastal management techniques for combating the hazard? 15
Coastal erosion is the process by which local sea level rise, strong wave action, and coastal
flooding wear down or carry away rocks, soils, and/or sands along the coast.
Natural Causes behind Coastal Erosion

Hydraulic Action
Hydraulic Action is the sheer force of water crashing against the coastline causing material to be
dislodged and carried away by the sea.
Compression
Compression occurs in rocky areas when air enters into crack in rock. This air is trapped in cracks by
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the rising tide, as waves crash against the rock the air inside the crack is rapidly compressed and
decompressed causing cracks to spread and pieces of rock to break off. Compression is one of the
main processes that result in the creation of caves.
Abrasion
Abrasion is when rocks and other materials carried by the sea are picked up by strong waves and
thrown against the coastline causing more material to be broken off and carried away by the sea.
Attrition
Attrition is when material such as rocks and stones carried by waves hit and knock against each other
wearing them down. As these materials are worn down sand and rounded beach pebbles are formed.
Anthropogenic Causes of Coastal Erosion

Sand and Coral Mining, and Dredging
The mining of sand and gravel along beaches and in the surf-zone will cause erosion by depleting the
shore of its sediment resources. In connection with maintenance dredging of tidal inlets, harbours,
and navigation channels, sand is very often lost from the littoral budget because the sand, unless
otherwise regulated by legislation, is normally dumped at deep water. Coral mining and other means
of spoiling the protective coral reefs, for example, fishing by the use of explosives or pollution, will also
cause coastal erosion and beach degradation. The protective function of the reef disappears and the
production of carbonate sand stops.
Sediment Starvation
Dams built for flood control and water catchment along the rivers leading to these coasts inhibit the
transport of large-grained sediments. Lacking new material, the sediment-starved coasts erode and
migrate inland.
Sea Walls
Seawalls constructed to protect property along retreating beaches often exacerbate beach erosion.
They confine the wave energy and intensify the erosion by concentrating the sediment transport
processes in an increasingly narrow zone. Eventually, the beach disappears, leaving the seawall
directly exposed to the full force of the waves.
Coastal Degradation
Human actions that lead to the destruction of dune grasses and the disturbance of coastal landforms
promote increased erosion and movement of beach materials. Off-road vehicles and foot traffic on
sand dunes compact sand, destroying plant roots and animal burrows.
Bulldozing Sand dunes to improve views of the sea destroys this natural protection. Dredging
navigation channels and tidal inlets and discharging the material in deep water also remove sediment
from the coastal system and interfere with longshore transport. Canals cut in wetlands for navigation,
pipelines, and drainage provide channels for salt-water invasion during storms and high tides; the
increased salinity often kills marsh plants, leading to accelerated land loss and deterioration of
wetlands.
Impact of Coastal Erosion

Environmental impacts from erosion include the destruction of animal habitats and asthetic losses.
Fishing industries that are dependent on coastal habitats can suffer great economic impacts from
changes caused by coastal erosion, and the loss of tourism can result in similar repercussions.
Coastal features like dunes and mangroves provide a natural defense against several hazards,
including tsunamis and storm surges, so their loss due to erosion may signal an increase in
vulnerability from these hazards. Major disasters can damage or destroy natural buffers, or simply
speed up the rate of ongoing erosion equating to years of non-disaster-related losses in a single
event.
Coastal areas are home to major cities around the globe, as well as roughly 40% of the world's
population. From lost land and destroyed assets to reduced revenue potential as tourism and other
industries are threatened, coastal erosion is a growing concern for nations all around the world.
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As wetlands are lost or changed due to erosion, upland regions also become more vulnerable to
waves and storm surges. In this way, areas not on the coast can be negatively impacted by coastal
erosion as well. Coastal erosion cause direct loss of or damage to property such as buildings and
infrastructure.
Coastal erosion and related processes can also disrupt shipping ports by making it more difficult for
ships to reach ports and harbors, slowing down or otherwise altering the flow of goods. This has the
potential to sharply impact trade in areas most heavily affected by erosion.
Evidence has shown that tourists are less likely to return to areas suffering from continued erosion of
beaches. Fishing, agriculture, and many other industries are also liable to be negatively impacted by
erosion.
Coastal Erosion in India

According to the National Centre for Coastal Research (NCCR) which analysed the data of 6632 km
of the mainland coastline for 26 years (1990-2016), about 2247 km (34%) of mainland coast is under
varying degree of erosion ranging from low, moderate and high.
Of the coastline that is eroding, 40% is in four states/UTs alone. West Bengal has lost 99 sq km of
land in the past 26 years, making up 63% of the state’s coastline and equivalent to the area occupied
by 18,500 football fields. Puducherry has lost 57% of its coastline, Kerala 45%, and Tamil Nadu 41%,
to heavy erosion..
Human activities particularly

urbanisation, hard construction
and economic activities in
coastal areas turned coastal
erosion into a problem of growing
intensity. Anthropological effects
like construction of coastal
structures, mining of beach
sand, offshore dredging and
dams on rivers are prime reasons
for triggering erosion.
India’s coasts are under attack both

from man-made activities--such as
growing construction, damming
of rivers, sand mining and
destruction of mangroves--as
well as natural causes linked to
climate change such as rising
sea levels.
Meanwhile, several severe and minor cyclonic storms entering into eastern Indian coasts
added to sea erosion as they damaged the mangrove and other green belt with large
sedimentations as well as caused other damage to beaches.
Then, there are 13 major ports, 46 fishing harbour and 187 minor ports on the coast for the
building and maintenance of which sediments are regularly removed. This sediment is rarely ever
returned to the coast.
All this has left India’s coasts vulnerable to the full impact of climate change. Climate change is
making weather systems in the Bay of Bengal erratic. The Lakshadweep lagoons, which are enclosed
water bodies, are also getting eroded because of sea level rise.
Coastal erosion hotspots are spread all along India’s coastline. There are several hotspots along the
Kerala coastline, recently left devastated by floods. Tamil Nadu coast is also impacted by erosion, but
the eastern coast, around the Bay of Bengal, is the worst affected.
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The Ministry of Environment Forest & Climate Change has issued the Coastal Regulation Zone (CRZ)
2019 notification with a view to conserve and protect the unique environment of the coastal stretches
and marine areas, besides livelihood security to the fisher communities and other local communities in
the coastal areas. The new constructions in coastal areas are being governed by this notification.
Initiatives like mangrove plantation of about 16000 ha, shelter belt plantation of 1900 ha and
installation of Geo-Tubes in 500 m have been taken up. However, the government is at the same time
planning to boost the major and minor ports along Indian coasts for the ambitious Sagarmala project
and also planning to construct coastal highways.
Techniques to combat Coastal Erosion

Set up a green belt/buffer zone
The purposes of setting up coastal green belts must not be solely for preventing coastal erosion and
mitigating other natural hazards, but also for addressing the socio-economic status of the local
communities as well as ecological sustainability.
The purposes of coastal green belts/buffer zones must serve to:
• Control and stabilize the shoreline by holding and trapping sediments and consolidate land for
areas such as intertidal mudflats with mangrove green belts and sandy coasts
with Casuarina, pine trees or coconuts and palm trees;
• Attenuate the force of devastating storm surges and waves that accompany cyclones and
tsunamis;
• Provide an amenity and a source of food, materials and income for local communities; and
• Benefit biodiversity and create habitat corridors for wildlife that can be used for conservation
activities and ecotourism development.
Revegetation and temporary offshore breakwaters/artificial reefs

In some cases, revegetation in a low energy environment is required because deforestation of the
coastal forest has led to direct exposure to wave action. There is also a need to establish offshore
breakwaters/artificial reefs as temporary wave protection structures for mangroves and saltmarshes;
otherwise, seawalls/revetments for vegetation that grows above the highest water mark such
as waru, Casuarina, pine and palm trees can be built. Once the plants have established themselves,
the structures may be removed.
Beach nourishment and artificial headlands/groynes

To reduce the frequency of renourishment and downdrift erosion in beach nourishment options,
artificial headlands or groynes can be used as they can trap the downdrift movement of sediment.
Jetties
This solution involves constructing a line of long structures perpendicular to the coast that reach into
the ocean. These are usually made from stone, concrete, steel, or timber, and are designed to keep
sand from entering a ship channel. As sand builds up on against the upcurrent side of the jetties, it
can be redistributed along the beach to further reduce erosion. However, much like groins, erosion
still occurs on the downcurrent side of the jetties.
Breakwaters
These are barriers that are constructed offshore parallel to or at an angle to the shoreline.
Breakwaters act as a wave barrier, allowing the beach to grow while preventing harmful erosion. As
waves hit the breakwater, they deposit their load of sediment along it. However, any part of the coast
not protected by the breakwater continues to experience erosion.
Vegetation
Strategic planting of vegetation can be used to help control erosion. the roots of coastal plants help to
anchor the sand and ensure that it is not carried off in erosion. This is why many areas plant seagrass
and build marshes along coasts to prevent erosion. However, this solution means that the beach may
not be as functional as it once was, particularly if it is a tourist area.
Coir
Coir is a particularly effective material for helping prevent coastal erosion, especially for beaches that
are in danger of washing away or have been nourished with new deposits of sand recently.
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Geotextile Installation
Geotextile wall is a popular and highly effective method of controlling erosion and improving soils over
which roads, earth-retaining structures, embankments, and pipelines are built.
Geotextiles come in various types, including warp-knitted structure, open mesh woven geotextile, or
nonwoven geotextile. The application will determine the type of geotextile wall that will be used.
Mangroves
Mangroves go a long way to reduce wind speeds and the swell of waves during storm surges. They
bind the sand together and arrest erosion.
Thermodynamic Shelterbelt Model

There is the thermodynamic shelterbelt model in which four levels of vegetation are planted. Grass is
planted closer towards the sea, followed by shrubs, herbs and finally the trees. But these plants take
5-10 years to establish and become effective.
Stopping Construction along coastlines

Avoiding construction close to the coast is one of the easiest steps to take, according to scientists.
The technical knowledge to identify areas that are at risk of erosion is available.
Closing Thoughts
Coastal erosion is a natural process but the rate at which the erosion is happening here has
accelerated over the past few decades. Artificial techniques to prevent erosion is there but a heavily
managed coastline, for example a beach with a seawall, cannot adapt very well to climate change
impacts and requires constant attention, whereas a natural coastline, or one that is managed using
more sustainable methods on management such as nourishment, can naturally adapt to climate
change impacts.
In a new coastal regulatory zone draft the No Development Zone (NDZ) around coastal areas was
reduced from 100 mt to 50 mt allowing for more construction along the coast in rural areas--the
opposite of what scientists advise. Coasts in urban areas don’t have NDZ at all. The move is being
hailed as one meant to benefit builders.
Coastal erosion is a severe problem for maritime developing countries like India and immediate
attention needs to be given to combat coastal erosion in effective manner on a scientific basis for
evolving suitable design of coastal protective structure.
Q19. What are the different elements of cyber security? Keeping in view the
challenges in cyber security, examine the extent to which India has
successfully developed a comprehensive National Cyber Security Strategy. 15
Cyber security is the practice of defending computers, servers, mobile devices, electronic systems,
networks, and data from malicious attacks. It's also known as information technology security or
electronic information security.
Elements of Cybersecurity
▪ Network security is the practice of securing a computer network from intruders, whether targeted
attackers or opportunistic malware.
▪ Application security focuses on keeping software and devices free of threats. A compromised
application could provide access to the data its designed to protect. Successful security begins in the
design stage, well before a program or device is deployed.
▪ Information security protects the integrity and privacy of data, both in storage and in transit.
▪ Operational security includes the processes and decisions for handling and protecting data assets.
The permissions users have when accessing a network and the procedures that determine how and
where data may be stored or shared all fall under this umbrella.
▪ Disaster recovery and business continuity define how an organization responds to a cyber-security
incident or any other event that causes the loss of operations or data. Disaster recovery policies
dictate how the organization restores its operations and information to return to the same operating
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capacity as before the event. Business continuity is the plan the organization falls back on while trying
to operate without certain resources.
▪ End-user education addresses the most unpredictable cyber-security factor: people. Anyone can
accidentally introduce a virus to an otherwise secure system by failing to follow good security
practices. Teaching users to delete suspicious email attachments, not plug in unidentified USB drives,
and various other important lessons is vital for the security of any.
Challenges in Ensuring Cyber Security

• Widespread digital illiteracy.
• Use of Substandard devices.
• Rampant use of unlicensed software and underpaid licenses also make them vulnerable.
• Lack of adoption of new technology.
• Lack of uniform standards.
• Import dependence.
• Lack of adequate infrastructure and trained staff.
• Anonymity.
• Lack of coordination among various agencies working for cyber security.
Sources
1. a) Nation States
2. b) Cyber Criminal Organisations
3. c) Terrorists, DTOs, etc.,
4. d) Hackers / Hacktivists
Threats
• Malware – Malicious software to disrupt computers
• Viruses, worms
• Theft of Intellectual Property or Data
• Hactivism – Cyber protests that are socially or politically motivated
• Mobile Devices and applications and their associated Cyber Attacks
• Social Engineering – Entice Users to click on malicious links
• Spear Phishing – Deceptive Communications (e-mails, texts, tweets)
• Domain Name System (DNS) Attacks
• Router Security – Border Gateway Protocol (BGP) Hijacking
• Denial of Service (DoS) – blocking access to websites
National Cyber Security Strategy

It was conceptualised by the Data Security Council of India (DSCI), headed by Lt General Rajesh
Pant report that focuses on 21 areas to ensure a safe, secure, trusted, resilient, and vibrant
cyberspace for India. The main sectors of focus of the report are:
• Large scale digitisation of public services that focus on security in the early stages of design in
all digitisation initiatives, developing institutional capability for assessment, evaluation, certification,
and rating of the core devices and timely reporting of vulnerabilities and incidents.
• Supply chain security: Monitoring and mapping of the supply chain of the Integrated circuits
(ICT) and electronics products, scaling up product testing and certification.
• Critical information infrastructure protection: Integrating Supervisory control and data
acquisition (SCADA) security with enterprise security, monitoring digitisation of devices, evaluating
security devices, maintaining a repository of vulnerabilities
• Digital payments: Mapping and modeling of devices and platform deployed, supply chain,
transacting entities, payment flows, interfaces and data exchange, timely disclosure of
vulnerabilities
• State-level cyber security: Developing state-level cybersecurity policies, allocation of dedicated
funds, critical scrutiny of digitization plans, guidelines for security architecture, operations, and
governance
• Security of small and medium businesses: Policy intervention in cybersecurity granting
incentives for higher level of cybersecurity preparedness, developing security standards,
frameworks, and architectures for the adoption of Internet of Things (IoT) and industrialisation.
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Concern
• Amid a surge in cyberattacks on India’s networks, the Centre is yet to implement the National Cyber
Security Strategy which has been in the works since 2020.
Why does India need a failproof cybersecurity strategy?

• Government’s digital push: Various programs of government such as Aadhaar, MyGov,
Government e-Market, DigiLocker, Bharat Net etc. are prompting a larger number of citizens,
companies and government agencies to transact online.
• Start-ups digital push
• India the fifth most vulnerable country in the world in terms of cybersecurity breaches.
• India saw at least one cybercrime every 10 minutes during the first half of 2017 including more
sophisticated cyber threats such as the WannaCry and Petya ransomware.
• India accounted for 5.09 per cent of all cyberattacks such as malware, spam and phishing attacks
detected globally in 2017.
• The estimated cost of cyber-attacks in India stands at four billion dollars which is expected to
reach $20 billion in the next 10 years.
• India ranks 3rd in terms of number of internet users after USA and China. By 2020, India is
expected to have 730 million internet users with 75% of new users from rural areas. The number
has grown 6-fold between 2012-2017 with a compound annual growth rate of 44%.
• India secures a spot amongst the top 10 spam-sending countries in the world alongside USA
• India was ranked among the top five countries to be affected by cybercrime, according to a 22
October report by online security firm ”Symantec Corp”.
• As per American cybersecurity firm Palo Alto Networks’ 2021 report, Maharashtra was the most
targeted state in India — facing 42% of all ransomware attacks.
• The report stated that India is among the more economically profitable regions for hacker
groups and hence these hackers ask Indian firms to pay a ransom, usually using
cryptocurrencies, in order to regain access to the data.
• One in four Indian organisations suffered a ransomware attack in 2021 — higher than the
global average of 21%.
• Software and services (26%), capital goods (14%) and the public sector (9%) were among the
most targeted sectors. An increase in such attacks has brought to light the urgent need for
strengthening India’s cybersecurity.
Suggestions
• Dedicated authority: Currently National Cyber Security Coordinator (NCSC) and Indian Computer
Emergency Response Team (CERT-In) are handling cybersecurity issues in India. There is an
urgent need of having a comprehensive and unified government institution for creating a cyber
defence network
• Unified inter-regulator: Currently, RBI, SEBI, IRDAI, TRAI, PFRDA, etc, have different
cybersecurity framework for their regulated entities. However, none of the frameworks talk about
inter-regulator coordination or integrated approach to handle cybercrime.
• A holistic cybersecurity strategy with a possible amendment in the IT Act, as some of its
provisions have become redundant and can’t address issues arising from the evolving threats.
• Cyber Defence Agency: Government needs to consider creating a Cyber Defence Agency, which
is to be entrusted with the responsibility to implement the cyber defence strategy solely for national
security.
• Constitution of cyber commando force as a part of the defence program to neutralise any
cross-border cyber terrorism or cyber-attack.
• Create specialised cyber police cadres in all State police departments.
• Sectorial CERT and state-level CERT would be more effective for rapid response on any cyber-
attack. The state-level CERT team will need to ensure speedier incident response and
coordination with national agencies.
• Building a business ecosystem to leverage artificial intelligence and robotics to improve cyber
defence.
• Pass the proposed Data Protection Bill to protect critical information like personal data,
business information, and financial information.
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GS-III EXPLANATIONS
• Budgetary provisions: A minimum allocation of 0.25% of the annual budget, which can be raised
upto 1% has been recommended to be set aside for cyber security. Setting up a Fund of Funds
for cybersecurity and provide Central funding to States to build capabilities in the same field.
• Research, innovation, skill-building and technology development: The report suggests
investing in modernisation and digitisation of Integrated Circuits (ICT), set up a short and long term
agenda for cyber security via outcome-based programs and provide investments deep-tech cyber
security innovation.
• A national framework should be set in collaboration with institutions like National Skill
Development Corporation (NSDC) and ISEA (Information Security Education and Awareness) to
provide global professional certifications in security.
• Crisis management: For adequate preparation to handle crisis, holding cybersecurity drills which
include real-life scenarios with their ramifications. To identify possible weakness and exploitations
in systems, DSCI recommend sharing of threat information between government departments.
• Cyber insurance: To address cybersecurity risks in business and technology scenarios as well as
calculate threat exposures DSCI recommends developing cyber insurance products for critical
information infrastructure and quantify the risks involving them.
• Cyber diplomacy: Cyber diplomacy plays a huge role in shaping India’s global relations. Hence
cyber security preparedness of key regional blocks like BIMSTEC and SCO must be ensured via
programs, exchanges and industrial support.
• Cybercrime investigation: With the increase in cybercrime across the world, the report
recommends unburdening the judicial system by creating laws to resolve spamming and fake
news.
• Advanced forensic training for agencies to keep up in the age of AI/ML, Blockchain, IoT, Cloud,
Automation. Creating a special cadre of Cybercrime investigators.
Closing Thoughts
Cyber security is important because it encompasses everything that relates to protecting our data
from cyber attackers who want to steal this information and use it to cause harm. This can be
sensitive data, governmental and industry information, personal information, personally identifiable
information (PII), intellectual property, and protected health information (PHI). Having advanced cyber
defence programs and mechanisms in place to protect this data is crucial and in everyone’s interest.
Cybercrime is an increasingly serious problem, and to address it, strong cybersecurity is critical.
Q20. Naxalism is a social, economic and developmental issue manifesting as a violent

internal security threat. In this context, discuss the emerging issues and suggest a
multilayered strategy to tackle the menace of Naxalism. 15
Introduction
The Naxalite–Maoist insurgency, officially referred to as the Left Wing Extremism (LWE), is an
ongoing conflict between Maoist groups known as Naxalites or Naxals (a group of communists
supportive of Maoist political sentiment and ideology) and the Indian government.
Maoist motto, "power flows from the barrel of gun", is their motivating force. Naxalites seek to
overthrow the State through violent means.
They openly proclaim lack of faith in the democratic means of ballot and adhere to the violence as a
means of achieving their ends. Naxal affected areas in India are known as the 'Red Corridor'. The
Naxal movement started with the tribal-peasant uprising against landlords in Naxalbari village
of Darjiling district, West Bengal in 1967.
Later, this militant movement spread all over West Bengal and was carried on by a large number of
other groups in different States.
Naxals are also known for their liaison with external terrorist outfits like LTTE for pooling of resources,
particularly in the acquisition of weaponry, communication technology and the like. Violence being the
driving force of Naxal ideology, they often resort to killing and kidnap.
The Maoist insurgency doctrine glorifies violence as the primary means to overthrow the
existing socio-economic and political structures.
Causes of left-wing extremism in India:

• The failure of land reforms especially land redistribution after independence.
54
GS-III EXPLANATIONS
• Socio-economic inequities, unemployment, despair about the future.
• Dishonest and self-serving dominant groups
• Political deprivation leading to hopelessness or a sense of powerlessness.
• Lack of title to public land cultivated by the landless poor.
• Governance deficit in the remote parts of Red Corridor regions.
• Lack of food security – corruption in the Public Distribution System (which are often non-
functional).
• Disruption of traditional occupations and lack of alternative work opportunities.
• Displacement of people: Eviction from lands traditionally used by tribals.
Strategic challenges to resolve the problem of Naxalism in India

▪ There are liberated areas like ‘Abhujmadh’, an area of 7000 sq km mainly in Chhattisgarh, which has
no administrative machinery or police stations to govern this huge mass of land having nearly 237
villages and a population of about 20,000 tribals. This area serves as the Nerve Centre of Naxalites
housing logistic and training bases. This area has not even been surveyed by the revenue department.
▪ Inadequate Police Force, in all the Naxal affected districts. The density of police force per sq km is
just about 30 per cent of the average need. Not only this, the training and equipment profile, which
goes to create the desired capability and capacity of the security force, is far from satisfactory.
▪ Naxalites themselves do not want any developmental activity to succeed, they do not allow
construction of roads and want the area to remain as such for their designs to succeed and the tribals
to remain dependent on them.
▪ Naxalites resort to killings, kidnappings, abductions, extortions and IED blasts with impunity.
They are reported to have developed linkages with terrorist organisations, like Maoists (Nepal),
ULFA (Assam) and with other northeast extremist organisations for training and procurement of
modern weapons.
▪ Naxalites are able to raise adequate funds for their cadres and other needs. It is estimated that their
annual income runs into nearly 14 billion rupees.
▪ 80 per cent of coal reserves and nearly 19 per cent of other rich mineral resources are located in naxal
affected tribal areas. With pressures building on greater exploitation of national resources, to
maintain India’s growth trajectory, this has given them an additional weapon and impetus to extract
maximum benefits and greater scope for extortion.
▪ Exploitation and oppression of dalits, adivasis and landless people, living in interior areas due to
feudal agrarian system and strong interface of caste and class. For the adivasis forest is their natural
habitat and their means of livelihood. They have been deprived of their land and even the picking
rights of the minor forest produce through the unfair Forest Conservation Act of 1980, which needs
immediate relook.
▪ Alienation of the population, due to virtual absence of health care, drinking water, roads, electricity
and educational facilities in the interior areas, from the Government machinery.
▪ There are schemes after schemes for the development of the area – Central Government has allocated
thousands of crores, but on ground not even 20 per cent of it has been deployed. The current system
has failed to deliver or implement any of these schemes.
Steps undertaken
• Though primarily a State subject, Ministry of Home Affairs (MHA) has promulgated a ‘National
Policy and Action Plan’ since 2015 to address the Left-Wing Extremism (LWE) menace
holistically and the progress & the situation is being monitored rigorously and this Policy consists a
multi-pronged approach.
• Review and monitoring mechanisms: These include intelligence sharing through Multi-Agency
Centre (MAC) at the Central and State levels, and Multi Agency Centre (SMAC) at the subsidiary
level on a 24x7 basis.
• Better inter-state coordination: Government of India has taken a number of steps to improve
inter-state coordination which includes frequent meetings and interactions between the official
machinery of the bordering districts of Left Wing Extremism affected States across the country.
• Tackling the challenge of Improvised Explosive Devices (IEDs): The Union Home Ministry has
formulated a Standard Operating Procedure (SOP) on ‘Issues related to
Explosives/IEDs/Landmines in naxal affected areas’ and the same has been circulated to the
stakeholders for compliance.
55
GS-III EXPLANATIONS
• Strengthening of air support: State Governments and the Central Armed Police Forces (CAPFs)
have been provided with enhanced air support in terms of UAVs and helicopters for anti-naxal
operations, including evacuation of causalities/injured persons.
• Security Related Measures
• Deployment of the CAPFs: Battalions of the CAPFs/Naga Battalions (BNs) are deployed for
assisting the State Police in the LWE affected States.
• India Reserve (IR)/Specialised India Reserve Battalion (SIRB): Naxal affected States have been
sanctioned 45 IR battalions mainly to strengthen their security apparatus and also to enable the
States to provide gainful employment to youth, particularly in the severely affected belts.
• Security Related Expenditure (SRE) Scheme: funds are provided for meeting the recurring
expenditure relating to insurance, training and operational needs of the security forces,
rehabilitation of Left Wing Extremist cadres who surrender, community policing, security related
infrastructure for village defence committees and publicity material to create awareness against
violence.
• Construction/Strengthening of Fortified Police Stations
• Scheme for Special Infrastructure (SSI): This Scheme was started during the 11th Plan period with
100% funding by the Centre for filling up critical infrastructure gaps, not be covered under any
other scheme.
Ministry of Home Affairs is supporting the State Governments for Capacity Building and
strengthening of Security Apparatus by:
• Deployment of CAPF Battalions,
• Provision of helicopters and uavs and
• Sanction of India Reserve Battalions (irbs)/ Special India Reserve Battalions (sirbs).
• Funds are also provided under Modernization of Police Force (MPF), Security Related Expenditure
(SRE) Scheme and Special Infrastructure Scheme (SIS) for modernization and training of State
Police.
For development of LWE Affected States, Government of India (GoI) has taken several
developmental initiatives which include:
• sanction of 17,600 Kilometers of road under Road Requirement Plan-I.
• to improve telecom connectivity in LWE affected districts, Mobile Towers have been installed
• for financial inclusion of the people in LWE affected districts, Post Offices, Bank Branches,
ATMs and Banking Correspondents have been opened
• for imparting quality education to the youth in areas affected by LWE, special focus is given to
opening of Eklavya Model Residential Schools (EMRS).
• under Special Central Assistance (SCA) Scheme for further impetus to development in the most
affected districts, more than 10000 projects have been taken of which more than 80% are already
completed.
• Integrated Action Plan (IAP)/ Additional Central Assistance (ACA): commenced in 2010-11
covering 60 Tribal and Backward districts for accelerated development by providing public
infrastructure and services
• Implementation of Scheduled Tribes and other Traditional Forest Dwellers (Recognition of
Rights) Act, 2006
• Civic Action Programme (CAP): This Scheme is under implementation from 2010-11.
• Surrender and Rehabilitation Policy
MHA had categorized certain districts as LWE affected and covered under Security Related
Expenditure (SRE) Scheme for specific resource mobilization to the affected States for counter LWE
measure.
• Of these SRE districts, the districts accounting for more than 85% of country-wide LWE violence
and are categorized as ‘Most Affected Districts’ for focused deployment of resources - both
security and development related.
• To arrest the expansion plan CPI (Maoist) and also to restrict them to bounce back in the areas
recently taken away from LWE influence, 08 districts have been categorized as ‘District of
Concern’. The revised categorization is a more realistic representation of current LWE scenario.
• Greyhounds: It was raised in 1989 as an elite anti-Naxal force.
56
GS-III EXPLANATIONS
• Operation Green Hunt: It was started in 2009-10 and massive deployment of security forces was
done in the Naxal-affected areas
• Aspirational Districts Programme: Launched in 2018, it aims to rapidly transform the districts
that have shown relatively lesser progress in key social areas.
• SAMADHANdoctrine is the one-stop solution for the LWE problem. It encompasses the entire
strategy of government from short-term policy to long-term policy formulated at different levels.
SAMADHAN stands for-
o S- Smart Leadership,
o A- Aggressive Strategy,
o M- Motivation and Training,
o A- Actionable Intelligence,
o D- Dashboard Based KPIs (Key Performance Indicators) and KRAs (Key Result Areas),
o H- Harnessing Technology,
o A- Action plan for each Theatre,
o N- No access to Financing.
• ROSHNI is a special initiative under, Pandit Deen Dayal Upadhyaya Grameen Kaushalya
Yojana (Formerly Ajeevika Skills), launched in June 2013 for training and placement of rural
poor youth from 27 LWE affected districts in 09 States
• Intelligence sharing and raising of a separate 66 Indian Reserved Battalion(IRBs), CRPF
battalions like COBRA battalion, Bastariya battalion etc were done by the government to curb the
menace of LWE organizations.
Where are we lacking?

The Naxalites have a centralised command and control; whereas, our response is most diffused.
We have got to evolve a national strategy and response in a holistic manner which is ruthlessly
implemented with specific time frame and strict monitoring. Political considerations must give
way to national interest. The strategy must focus on tackling security environment and infrastructure
development simultaneously, which would require immediate revamping and capability enhancement
of the security forces deployed in these areas apart from improving numbers of security personnel per
sq km of the affected area. The Governance per se and an innovative delivery system has to be put
in place without any further delay. For all this to happen, better coordination between Central
Government and respective State Governments has to be there. The present approach of State
Governments towards National Counter Terrorism Centre (NCTC) has to give way to what is the need
of the hour.
If this strategy can be put in place our focus should be on economic development which is the
most promising solution to the current state of affairs. Economic development increases accessibility
and decreases individual dependence on others for survival. This also would encourage
demographic mobility to reduce the feeling of alienation. For this, the Government has to be the
prime mover and we cannot indefinitely wait for ‘peace to return first’ concept. What, possibly is
needed is ‘aggressive infusion of developmental effort’ which should be all encompassing as far
as essential human needs are concerned. One last thing I want to mention is that we have got to
restore the ‘dignity’ of the Adivasis and evolve a system to get them speedy ‘Justice’ close to their
place of residence.
The Naxalite Maoist insurgency has been festering in India since 1946. Naxalism is a natural outcome
of abject poverty, deprivation, exploitation, injustice and poor socio-economic conditions of an area. In
India, it is a case of ‘rich land but poor people’.
Non implementation of land reform laws, archaic forest laws, corrupt and repressive administration
made the situation worse for the lower classes, especially the tribals in these regions. This coupled
with illegal and uncontrolled mining activities, clearance of forests for timber, dams and industries led
to large scale displacements of the indigenous tribes without any proper rehabilitation programmes.
According to a study by D Bandhopadhyay, Chairman of the Expert Group of Planning Commission

on “Development Issues to deal with Causes of Discontent, Unrest and Extremism”, the
villagers in the Maoist dominated areas lost trust and confidence in successive governments because
5.5 crore of the rural population was displaced between 1951 and 2005. These sentiments were fully
57
GS-III EXPLANATIONS
exploited by the Naxal leaders to propagate the plight of the people at the hands of the government.
Rehabilitation programmes, if any, were also not fully and effectively implemented leading to further
discontent. All this has had a profound negative impact on the socio-economic conditions of these
areas.
Way Forward
• Innovative measures are required to be employed in preventing IED (Improvised Explosive
Device) related incidents which have caused significant casualties in recent years.
• Emphasis should be laid on the capacity-building and modernization of the local police
forces.
• States should rationalize their surrender policy in order to bring innocent individuals caught in
the trap of LWE in the mainstream.
• States also need to adopt a focused time-bound approach to completely eliminate LWE
groups and ensure all-round development of the affected regions.
• What makes the LWE particularly disturbing is its correlation with the demographic youth
bulge in the general Indian population. If the Indian state fails, the widespread unemployment
could lead to a serious internal security situation. LWE is its first manifestation.
• The adverse casualty ratio in police-Naxal operations highlights the fact that insurgencies
are best tackled by military forces that are trained and structured for this role.
• The Centre and the States should make efforts in sync that are crucial in eliminating such
radicalization amongst groups (like confidence-building measures, education, welfare
schemes etc).
Closing Thought
Rightly, there should be no hesitation in using all the instruments of power to gain an upper hand
against anti-national segments of the society because they are a threat to National Security. However,
from the long-term perspective, partisan political interests coupled with monetary considerations by
the non-tribals (mining mafia) were hampering the Government’s efforts to evolve and implement an
effective plan of action. The Government needs to ensure that issues related to efficient governance
are addressed with utmost honesty and transparency to meet the interests of local inhabitants
and tribals fearlessly – without favouring any vested interests. If the Government servants and
functionaries fulfill their duties and responsibilities related to improving the tribals living conditions,
bringing them into the ‘national mainstream’ should not take a very long time.
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yojana#:~:text=The%20following%20schemes%20will%20be,supply%20chain%20for%20each%20cl
uster.
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%20Bn.
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58
GS-III EXPLANATIONS
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GS-III EXPLANATIONS

1. Why is Public Private Partnership (PPP) required in infrastructural projects? Examine

Role of PPP in Railways

Financial Inclusion for Economic Growth

Financial Inclusion Schemes in India

Challenges Facing Financial Inclusion

What can be done?

Offer diverse products to suit different sections

Innovations backed by financial literacy

Local bodies' role

Description: The Public

Issues in implementation of PDS

Allocation and offtake of food grain

Rising food subsidy

Imbalances in the availability of storage capacity across states

Maximum buffer norms not specified:

Supreme Court order on rotting of food grains in storage

Leakage of food grains

Issue prices and politics

Reforms undertaken by certain states

Linkage with Aadhaar and Digitalization

Case study: Universal PDS in Tamil Nadu

Potential advantages of these programs include:

PDS vs Cash Transfer

Address Leakage issue

Prompt Grievance Redressal Mechanism

Initiatives being taken

PM KISAN SAMPADA YOJANA

PM Formalization of Micro Food processing Enterprises

Opportunities for Food Processing in India

Key Growth Drivers & Trends

Combining entrepreneurial talent with opportunities in India

Life expectancy stats

Population Ageing- a new challenge

Other Public Health Challenges

Shortage of efficient and trained manpower

Ongoing support and skills development

Continuous upgradation of testing equipment and training of medical staff

Establishment of a field oversight committee

Cellulose is an organic compound belonging to the category of polysaccharides. It is a polymer made

Continuing decomposition of molten cellulose produces volatile compounds including levoglucosan,

Effects of Photochemical Smog

Altering human activity

Controlling the release of the pollutant

Clean-up and restoration

1999 Gothenburg Protocol

Meteorological Factors behind the

Pithoragarh (July 2022)

Types of organised crimes

Contract killings and kidnapping

Linkages between terrorists and organised crime

India’s Maritime Security Concerns

Control of Choke Points

Extra Regional Military Presence

Illegal Unreported and Unregulated (IUU) Fishing

Challenge of Maritime security management:

‘Non-traditional’ Security Challenges:

Infiltration, Illegal Migration and the Refugee Influx:

REGIONAL SECURITY ARCHITECTURE:

INDIAN MARITIME AGENCIES: