Short Answer Type

1. Compare Intrinsic semiconductor and Extrinsic semiconductor.

Characteristic Intrinsic Semiconductor Extrinsic Semiconductor
Pure semiconductor material Semiconductor intentionally doped
Definition
without intentional impurities with specific impurities
Doping Undoped Doped with specific impurities
Conductivity Lower conductivity Higher conductivity
Conductivity increases with Less temperature-dependent
Temperature
temperature due to increased conductivity compared to intrinsic
Dependence
carrier generation semiconductors
Doped Silicon or Germanium (e.g.,
Examples Silicon (Si), Germanium (Ge)
n-type or p-type)
Additional carriers introduced by
Electron-hole pairs generated
Charge Carriers intentional doping (electrons or
thermally
holes)
Found in pure form, less
Widely used in electronic devices
Purpose commonly used in electronic
for controlled electrical properties
devices

2. What is a pn junction and describe the formation of potential barrier in a pn junction.

When a P-type semiconductor and an N-type semiconductor are brought into contact, a PN
junction is formed and it is a fundamental building block in semiconductor devices, such as
diodes and transistors.
At the instant of pn-junction formation, the free electrons near the junction in the n region begin
to diffuse across the junction into the p region where they combine with holes near the junction.
The result is that n region loses free electrons as they diffuse into the junction. This creates a
layer of positive charges (pentavalent ions) near the junction. As the electrons move across the
junction, the p region loses holes as the electrons and holes combine. The result is that there is
a layer of negative charges (trivalent ions) near the junction. These two layers of positive and
negative charges form the depletion region (or depletion layer) and there exists a potential
difference across the depletion layer is called barrier potential.
3. Write short notes on the following: (i) Knee voltage or cut-in voltage (ii) Breakdown
voltage.
(i) Knee voltage:
It is the forward voltage at which the current through the junction starts to increase rapidly. For
silicon diode is 0.7 V and 0.3 V for germanium diode.
(ii) Breakdown voltage:
It is the minimum reverse voltage at which pn junction breaks down with sudden rise in reverse
current. Therefore, care should be taken that reverse voltage across a pn junction is always less
than the breakdown voltage.
4. Compare Zener break down and Avalanche break down.
Zener Breakdown Avalanche Breakdown
It occurs in diodes that are highly doped. It occurs in diodes that are lightly doped.
This is observed when breakdown voltage Vz of This is observed when breakdown voltage above
below 5V. 5V.
The valence electrons are pushed to conduction
The valence electrons are pulled into conduction
due to the energy imparted by accelerated
due to the high electric field in the narrow
electrons, which gain their velocity due to their
depletion region.
collision with other atoms.
The increase in temperature decreases the The increase in temperature increases the
breakdown voltage. breakdown voltage.
The V-I characteristics of a Zener breakdown has The V-I characteristic curve of the avalanche
a sharp curve. breakdown is not as sharp as the Zener breakdown.
Avalanche breakdown is commonly observed in
Zener diodes and Zener voltage regulators utilize
high-voltage diodes and is undesirable in most
Zener breakdown.
low-voltage applications.

5. Explain the Zener diode equivalent circuit.

(i) “On” state:

When reverse voltage across a zener diode is equal to or more than break down voltage VZ, the
current increases very sharply, is almost vertical. It means that voltage across zener diode is
constant at VZ even though the current through it changes. Therefore, in the breakdown region,
an ideal zener diode can be represented by a battery of voltage VZ as shown in Fig. (ii).
(ii) “OFF” state:
When the reverse voltage across the zener diode is less than VZ but greater than 0 V, the zener
diode is in the “OFF” state. Under such conditions, the zener diode can be represented by an
open-circuit as shown in Fig.(ii).
6. List the applications of normal diode and Zener diode.
Normal Diode (Rectifier Diode):
1. Rectification:
2. Signal Demodulation
3. Clipping and Clamping
4. Logic Gates
5. Light Emitting Diodes (LEDs)
Zener Diode:
1. Voltage Regulation
2. Voltage Reference
3. Overvoltage Protection
4. Voltage Clipping
5. Temperature Compensation
6. Waveform Clipping
7. Voltage Detection

7. What is a transistor? Why is it so called?

The word "transistor" is a combination of two terms: "transfer" and "resistor." The name
reflects the device's primary function, which involves transferring an electrical signal from
one circuit to another while controlling the flow of current. The transistor acts as a switch
or an amplifier, allowing it to control the flow of electric current in a circuit.
8. Draw the symbol of npn and pnp transistor and specify the leads.

NPN PNP
9. Describe the connecting process of external batteries to transistor terminals/leads.

(i) Emitter (E): The section on one side that emits or supplies charge carriers
(electrons or holes) is called the emitter. The emitter is always forward biased w.r.t. base so
that it can supply a large number of majority carriers.
 (ii) Collector (C): The section on the other side that collects the charges carriers is called
the collector. The Collector is always reverse biased. Its function is to remove charges from
its junction with the base.

(iii) Base (B): The middle section which forms two pn-junctions between the emitter and
collector is called the base. The base-emitter junction is forward biased, allowing low
resistance for the emitter circuit. The base-collector junction is reverse biased and provides
high resistance in the collector circuit.

10. What is amplification? What are the conditions to be fulfilled to achieve faithful
amplification in a transistor amplifier.

The process of raising the strength of a weak signal without any change in its general shape
is known as amplification.

To ensure this, its input circuit (i.e. base-emitter junction) remains forward biased and
output circuit (i.e. collector-base junction) remains reverse biased at all times.
 Subjective Type

1. Explain Intrinsic semiconductor and extrinsic semiconductor in detail.

2. Explain the effect of temperature on semiconductors.
The effect of temperature on semiconductors is significant and plays a crucial role in
determining their electrical properties.
1. Carrier Generation:
• As temperature increases, more electrons gain sufficient energy to break free
from their atomic bonds, creating electron-hole pairs (generation of carriers).
• This phenomenon is more pronounced in intrinsic semiconductors, where
carriers are primarily generated through thermal excitation.
2. Carrier Concentration:
• In intrinsic semiconductors, the number of carriers (both electrons and holes)
increases with temperature due to increased thermal excitation.
• Extrinsic semiconductors (doped with impurities) also experience changes in
carrier concentration with temperature, but the effect is less prominent than in
intrinsic semiconductors.
3. Band Gap Energy:
• The energy gap between the valence band and the conduction band (band gap)
tends to decrease slightly with increasing temperature.
• The decrease in the band gap affects the semiconductor's electrical conductivity.
4. Intrinsic Carrier Concentration:
• The intrinsic carrier concentration (ni) in an intrinsic semiconductor increases
exponentially with temperature, following the relationship described by the
intrinsic carrier concentration equation.
5. Conductivity:
• As carrier concentration increases with temperature, so does the electrical
conductivity of the semiconductor.
• Higher temperatures generally lead to better conductivity in both intrinsic and
extrinsic semiconductors.
6. Mobility of Carriers:
• The mobility of carriers, which describes how quickly they can move in
response to an electric field, is influenced by temperature.
• Carrier mobility tends to decrease with increasing temperature due to increased
lattice vibrations and scattering events.
7. Temperature Coefficient of Resistance:
• Semiconductors exhibit a positive temperature coefficient of resistance,
meaning that their resistance tends to increase with rising temperature.
• This effect is more pronounced in semiconductors than in metals.
8. Breakdown Voltage:
• The breakdown voltage of a semiconductor, which represents the voltage at
which the semiconductor breaks down and conducts significantly, may be
influenced by temperature.
3. Illustrate the behaviour of a pn junction under forward and reverse biasing.
4. Draw and explain the V-I characteristics of a pn junction.
5. Explain the operation and characteristics of Zener diode.
6. Describe the operation of Bipolar Junction Transistor (NPN or PNP) with a neat diagram.
7. Explain the transistor operation with its characteristics in
a) CB Configuration
b) CE Configuration
c) CC Configuration
8. Explain the operation of transistor as an amplifier.
 Short answers type

1. What are the different components of a DC power supply?

A. Transformer, Rectifier, Filter and Regulator.

2. Why is it necessary to include voltage stabilizer/voltage regulator in a power supply?

A. The magnitude of output dc voltage may vary with the variation of either the input ac voltage
or the magnitude of load current. So, at the output of a rectifier-filter combination a voltage
stabilizer is required.

3. What is difference between half and full-wave rectifier?

A. A half-wave rectifier uses only one diode and allows current flow during the positive half-
cycle of an alternating current (AC) input, resulting in a pulsating direct current (DC) output.
In contrast, a full-wave rectifier employs at least two diodes to enable current flow during
both the positive and negative half-cycles, producing a smoother DC output with higher
efficiency. Full-wave rectifiers are more commonly used in practical applications due to
their superior performance compared to the less efficient half-wave rectifiers.

4. Define ripple as referred to in a rectifier circuit.

A. The ac component contained in the pulsating output of a rectifier is known as ripple.

5. Explain the role of filter in rectifiers.

A. A filter circuit is a device which removes the a.c. component of rectifier output but allows
the d.c. component to reach the load. A filter circuit should be installed between the rectifier
and the load and it is a combination of inductors (L) and capacitors (C).

6. What is the condition for Zener diode to acts as a voltage stabilizer/regulator?

A. A zener diode can be used as a voltage regulator to provide a constant voltage from a source
whose the input voltage Ei and load resistance RL may vary over a wide range as long as the
input voltage does not fall below the zener breakdown voltage VZ.

7. What are the three functional components of electronic instrumentation?

A. The three elements of instrumentation are the sensor, the signal conditioning, and the data
acquisition system.

8. What is the purpose of a digital voltmeter? Or Advantages of DVM compared to

analog meters.
A. A digital voltmeter (DVM) displays the value of a.c. or d.c voltage being measured directly
as discrete numerals in the decimal number system. Numerical readout of DVMs is
advantageous since it eliminates observational errors committed by operators.

9. What is a CRO used to measure?

A. CRO is a very versatile instrument in the laboratory for measurement of voltage, current,
frequency and phase angle of any electrical quantity.

10. What is the electron gun in a CRO?

A. The electron gun assembly of a CRO consists of an indirectly heated cathode, a control
grid, a focusing anode and an accelerating anode and it is used to produce a focused beam
of electrons.
 Subjective Type

1. Explain the components of Regulated Power Supply (RPS) with neat diagram.
2. Describe the working of a half-wave rectifier using a crystal diode with waveforms and
derive its efficiency.
3. With a neat sketch, explain the working of Full-wave bridge rectifier and derive an
expression for the efficiency.
4. Describe the action of the capacitor (C) filter with relevant circuit diagram and waveforms.
5. Explain how zener diode maintains constant voltage across the load.
6. Illustrate the electronic instrumentation system with neat diagram.
7. Explain the working of Digital Voltmeter (DVM).
8. Explain the operation of Cathode Ray Oscilloscope (CRO) with a neat diagram.
1. Why is the binary number system used in digital systems?
A. The Binary number system is used in digital systems because the devices used in digital
systems operate in two states (ON and OFF) and the signals have two levels which are
conveniently represented using binary number system.
2. Why are BCD codes required?
A. The binary number system is widely used in digital computers, but in many cases, it is very
convenient to work with decimal numbers especially when communication between man and
machine is extensive. Since most of the numerical data generated by man are in decimal
numbers, to simplify the communication process between man and machine BCD codes are
used.
3. Why AND, OR & NOT gates are called basic gates and NAND & NOR gates called
universal gates?
A. AND, OR, and NOT gates are called basic gates or basic building blocks because any digital
circuit of any complexity can be built by using only these three gates.
NAND and NOR gates are called universal gates or universal building blocks because
any digital circuit of any complexity can be built by using only NAND gates or only NOR
gates.
4. Which gate(s) is called an all/nothing gate and any/all gate?
A. An AND gate is called an all or nothing gate; because it produces a 1 only in one case when
all its inputs are a 1. In all other cases its output is a zero.
An OR gate is called any or all gate; because it produces a 1 even if one of its inputs is
a 1. It produces a 0 only when all the inputs are a 0.
5. What are the basic operations in Boolean algebra?
A. The basic operations in Boolean algebra are as follows.
(i) AND operation. It is the same as logical multiplication. It is denoted by ‘.’ or no
symbol at all.
(ii) OR operation. It is the same as logical addition. It is denoted by +.
(iii) NOT operation. It is the same as inversion or complementation. It is denoted by a bar
or prime.
6. State & Prove De Morgan’s theorem.
A. De Morgan’s theorem states that
(i) the complement of a sum of variables is equal to the product of their individual
complements
𝐋𝐚𝐰 𝟏 ∶ ̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅
𝐀+𝐁= 𝐀 ̅𝐁̅
 (ii) the complement of a product of variables is equal to the sum of their individual
complements.
𝐋𝐚𝐰 𝟐 ∶ ̅̅̅̅
𝐀𝐁 = 𝐀 ̅ +𝐁 ̅

7. What is a half-adder and a full adder?

A. A half-adder is an arithmetic circuit that adds two binary digits. It has two inputs and
two outputs (sum and carry).
A full-adder is an arithmetic circuit that adds two binary digits and a carry, i.e. three
bits. It has three inputs and two outputs (sum and carry).
8. Distinguish between combinational and sequential switching circuits.
A. Basically, switching circuits may be combinational switching circuits or sequential
switching circuits.
Combinational switching circuits are those whose output levels at any instant of time
are dependent only on the levels present at the inputs at that time. Any prior input level
conditions have no effect on the present outputs, because combinational logic circuits have no
memory.
Sequential switching circuits are those whose output levels at any instant of time are
dependent not only on the levels present at the inputs at that time, but also on the prior input
level conditions. It means that sequential circuits have memory. Sequential circuits are thus
made of combinational circuits and memory elements.
9. What is a flip-flop and write its applications?
A. A flip-flop is the basic memory element used to store one bit of information. It can store a
0 or a 1. The name flip-flop is because this circuit shifts back and forth between its two stable
states upon application of proper inputs.
Flip-flops have innumerable applications. They are used for data storage, transfer of
data, counting, frequency division, parallel-to-serial and serial-to-parallel data conversion, etc.

10. How does a J-K flip-flop differ from an S-R flip-flop in its operation? What is its
advantage over an S-R flip-flop?
A. In an S-R flip-flop, the condition both inputs are equal to 1 is invalid, whereas in a J-K flip-
flop both inputs are equal to 1 result in toggle mode. The advantage is in ripple counters, the
flip-flops are to be in toggle mode.

11. What are shift registers?

A. A number of flip-flops connected together such that the data may be shifted into and shifted
out of them is called a shift register. In other words, registers in which shifting of data takes
place are called shift registers. They are used basically for the storage and transfer of digital
data. Data may be shifted into and out of the register either in serial form or in parallel form.
12. What is a counter?
A. A digital counter is a set of flip-flops interconnected such that their combined state at any
time is the binary equivalent of the total number of pulses applied up to that time, i.e. it is a
logic circuit used to count the number of pulses.
Counters are used to count pulses. They can also be used as frequency dividers. They
are also used to perform the timing function as in digital watches, to create time delays, to
produce non-sequential binary counts, to generate pulse trains, and to act as frequency counters,
etc.
 Subjective Type

1. Convert the following hexadecimal numbers to binary.

(a) C20 (b) F297 (c) AF9.B0D (d) E79A.6A4
2. Convert the following binary numbers to hexadecimal.
(a) 10110 (b) 1011011011 (c) 110110111.01111 (d) 1101101101101.101101
3. Convert the following binary numbers to decimal.
(a) 1011 (b) 1101101 (c) 1101.11 (d) 1101110.011
4. Convert the following decimal numbers to binary.
(a) 37 (b) 28 (c) 197.56 (d) 205.05
5. Convert the following hexadecimal numbers to decimal.
(a) AB6 (b) 2EB7 (c) A08F.EA (d) 8E47.AB
6. Convert the following decimal numbers to hexadecimal.
(a) 452 (b) 4796 (c) 1248.56 (d) 8957.75
7. Draw the logic symbols, construct the truth tables, and explain the working of the
following gates:
(i) AND (ii) OR (iii) NOT (iv) NAND (v) NOR (vi) Ex-OR (vii) Ex-NOR
8. State and prove (with the help of Truth tables)
(a) commutative, (b) associative, (c) distributive, and (d) idempotence laws of Boolean
algebra.
9. Show that both NAND gate and NOR gate are universal gates.
10. Prove that following Boolean expressions
11. Explain the half adder circuit operation with the truth table and draw the logic diagram
using basic logic gates.
12. Explain the full adder circuit operation with the truth table and draw the logic diagram
using basic logic gates.
13. Draw the circuit diagram of a SR flip-flop and explain its operation with the help of a truth
table.
14. Draw the circuit diagram of a JK flip-flop and explain its operation with the help of a truth
table.
15. With neat diagrams explain the working of the 2-bit register.
16. With neat diagrams explain the working of the 2-bit counters.

Note: Refer problems solved in class & given in assignments, internal examination and
also practice unsolved problems in the Textbooks. In addition, follow Model question
paper.