CHEMISTRY INV PROJECT

CERTIFICATE
This is to certify that “Nalin Manickam”, student of

class XII ‘A’ has successfully completed the research
project on the topic “STUDY OF CONSTITUENTS OF
ALLOYS” Under the guidance of Mr.LOGESHWARAN.N.
This project is absolutely genuine and does not
indulge in plagiarism of any kind. The references
taken in making this project have been declared at
the end of this project.
____________________
Subject Teacher Signature
________________
Examiner Signature
_______________
Principal Signature
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
I am honored to present my investigatory project in chemistry on
the “Study of Constituents of Alloy.” This project would not have
been possible without the dedicated and insightful guidance of my
chemistry teacher, Mr. Logeshwaran. N, who supported me at
every stage of this endeavour.
An investigatory project involves performing complex laboratory

experiments, analyzing observations, and drawing meaningful
conclusions. These experiments are often critical, and any errors
could lead to undesirable outcomes. Therefore, I sincerely express
my gratitude to Mr. Logeshwaran.N for providing systematic
guidance and ensuring that I successfully completed all my
experiments with confidence and precision.
This project is the result of immense hard work and dedication to

deliver the best possible outcome. I sincerely hope it serves as a
valuable resource for future students, inspiring and assisting them
in their academic pursuits.
INTRODUCTION
An alloy (derived from the French word aloyer and the Latin alligare,
meaning "to combine") is a partial or complete solid solution of one or more
elements within a metallic matrix. Alloys can form either a single solid-phase
microstructure in the case of complete solid solutions or multiple phases in
partial solutions, depending on their thermal history, such as heat treatment.
The properties of alloys often differ significantly from those of their individual
components. Combining a metal with other metals or non-metals typically
enhances its characteristics. For instance, steel, which primarily consists of
iron, is much stronger than pure iron.
While the physical properties of an alloy—such as density, reactivity,

Young's modulus, and thermal and electrical conductivity—may remain
similar to those of its base elements, its engineering properties—including
tensile strength and shear strength—can be notably improved. These
enhancements often arise from atomic size variations, where larger atoms
exert compressive forces and smaller atoms exert tensile forces on their
neighbors, increasing resistance to deformation.
Even small amounts of certain elements can significantly alter the behavior of
alloys. For example, impurities in semi-conducting ferromagnetic alloys can
lead to distinct properties, as first predicted by White, Hogan, Suhl, Tian
Abrie, and Nakamura.
Many alloys are created by melting and mixing metals. Examples include
brass, an alloy of copper and zinc, and bronze, made from copper and tin,
which is widely used in bearings, statues, ornaments, and church bells.
Unlike pure metals, most alloys do not have a single melting point. Instead,
they possess a melting range, where the material transitions between solid
and liquid phases. The temperature at which melting begins is termed the
solidus, and the point where melting is complete is called the liquidus.
However, in rare cases, specific compositions of alloys can have a single

melting point. Such mixtures are referred to as eutectic alloys.
Common Alloys and Their
Uses :
Amalgams:
An alloy containing mercury is referred to as an amalgam. While most
metals dissolve in mercury, some, like iron, do not. Amalgams have
traditionally been used in dental fillings due to their affordability, ease of
application, and durability. However, concerns about the potential toxicity of
mercury have recently sparked debates about their safety.
In addition to dental applications, mercury amalgams have been employed in

gold and silver mining because of mercury’s ability to easily amalgamate
with these metals. Thallium amalgams are also used as liquids in
thermometers due to their low freezing point (-58°C), compared to pure
mercury, which freezes at -38°C.
Brass:
Brass is an alloy made of copper and zinc in a solid solution. It typically has
a yellowish hue, resembling gold. Brass has been produced since prehistoric
times by melting copper with calamine (a zinc ore) even before zinc was
discovered.
The zinc content in brass varies from 5% to 45%, resulting in different types
with unique properties. Unlike bronze, which primarily contains copper and
tin, certain brasses are sometimes referred to as bronzes.
Brass is resistant to tarnishing, making it suitable for decorative purposes.

It is also prized for its malleability and acoustic properties, making it ideal
for musical instruments like trombones, tubas, trumpets, and euphoniums.
Additionally, brass strips are used in organ pipes as reeds.
Adding aluminum enhances brass’s strength and corrosion resistance by

forming a protective layer of aluminum oxide (Al₂O₃). Similarly, tin
improves its resistance, especially in marine applications. The inclusion of
iron, silicon, manganese, and aluminum further enhances its durability.
Bronze:
Bronze is a broad category of copper alloys, typically containing tin as the
primary additive, though it may also include phosphorus, manganese,
aluminum, or silicon. Most bronze alloys contain approximately 60% copper
and 40% tin.
Its historical significance is reflected in the Bronze Age, during which tools,
weapons, armor, and building materials were widely crafted from bronze due
to its superior hardness and durability compared to stone or copper.
Some early bronze alloys naturally contained arsenic, forming arsenical

bronze, which was stronger than standard bronze. While steel surpasses
bronze in strength, bronze resists oxidation (developing a green patina) and
corrosion, especially from seawater. It is also less brittle than iron and has a
lower melting point, making it easier to cast.
Modern uses of bronze include springs, bearings, bushings, and electric

motor parts. It is also widely employed in artistic sculptures, bells, and
cymbals due to its acoustic properties. Commercial bronze, often termed
brass, is typically 90% copper and 10% zinc, with no tin content.
Pewter:
Pewter traditionally consists of 85-99% tin, with small amounts of copper to
provide hardness. Lower-grade pewter contains lead, which gives it a bluish
tint. Historically, there were three grades of pewter:
1. Fine pewter (96-99% tin, 1-4% copper) – used for eating utensils.
2. Trifle pewter (92% tin, with copper and up to 4% lead) – also used for tableware but
had a duller finish.
3. Ley metal – contained up to 15% lead and was unsuitable for food contact.
Modern pewter no longer includes lead and instead incorporates antimony,

bismuth, or additional copper for safety. It has a bright, silver-like
appearance, though it may oxidize to a dull gray if untreated. Its softness
and malleability make it unsuitable for tools but ideal for decorative items
like statuettes, replica coins, and pendants.
With a low melting point (225-240°C), pewter is easily cast and was
commonly used for tableware before glass and china became widespread in
the 18th and 19th centuries.
Nickel Silver (German Silver):

Nickel silver is composed of copper, nickel, and often zinc but contains no
elemental silver despite its name. It is also referred to as German silver,
paktong, new silver, and alpacca.
A common formulation (Alloy No.752) consists of 65% copper, 18% nickel,

and 17% zinc. Some variants may also include antimony, tin, lead, or
cadmium. Certain nickel silver alloys with higher zinc content exhibit
stainless properties.
Originally developed in China, it gained popularity in the West for silver-

plated cutlery (E.P.N.S.). Its corrosion resistance and machinability made
it ideal for zippers, costume jewelry, and musical instruments. Industrially,
it is used for marine fittings, heating coils, and even coins in some countries.
Steel:
Steel is primarily composed of iron with carbon content ranging between
0.02% and 1.7% by weight. Carbon serves as a hardening agent, restricting
atomic movement within the crystal structure.
By adjusting the type and proportion of alloying elements, the hardness,

ductility, tensile strength, and elasticity of steel can be controlled. Higher
carbon content makes steel harder and stronger but also more brittle.
At 1130°C, the maximum carbon solubility in iron is 1.7%. Higher carbon

concentrations produce cementite, which reduces strength. Alloys with higher
carbon content than steel are classified as cast iron due to their lower
melting points.
Wrought iron, by contrast, contains little to no carbon (less than 0.035%).

Modern steel alloys often replace carbon with other elements, offering
improved properties. Steel is distinguished by its ability to be plastically
formed—it can be pounded, rolled, and shaped into desired forms.
Experiment - 1
Aim : To analyze a sample of brass qualitatively.
Requirements : China dish, test-tube funnel, filter paper and

common
laboratory reagents.
Theory : Brass is an alloy of copper and zinc. with the

following.
Composition :
Cu = 60-90% and Zn. = 10-40%.
Thus Cu and Zn. form the main constituents of brass. Both
these metals
dissolved in 50% of nitric acid due to formation of nitrates
which are
soluble.
3Cu + 8HNO3 (Dil) 3Cu (NO3)2 + 2NO + 4H2O

or
Cu + 8H+ + 2NO3 3 Cu+2 + 2NO + 4H2O
4Zn + 10HNO3 (Dil) 4 Zn (NO2)2 + N2O + 5H2O
4Zn + 2NO+ 10H 4 Zn+2 + N2O + 5H2O
The solution is boiled to expel the oxides of nitrogen and the

resulting
solution is tested for Cu2+ and Zn+2 ions.
Procedure :
1. Place a small piece of brass in a china dish and heat this

with minimum
quantity of 50% HNO3 so as to dissolve the piece completely.
2. Continue heating the solution till a dry solid residue is

obtained.
3. Dissolve the solid residue in dil. HCl and filter. Add distilled
water to
the filtrate.
4. Pass H2S gas through the filtrate. A black precipitate of

copper
sulphide is obtained. Separate the black ppt. and keep the
filtrate for
the test of Zn+2 ions Dissolve black ppt. by heating them with
50%
HNO3. To this solution add ammonium hydroxide solution.
Appearance
of deep blue colouration in the solution shows the presence of
copper
ions in the solution.
5. To test Zn+2 ions, boil the filtrate to remove H2S gas, then
add solid
NH4Cl to this and heat to dissolve NH4Cl. Add excess of
NH4OH so
that a solution is ammoniacal. Now pass H2S gas through this
ammoniacal
solution. Separate the precipitates and dissolve it in minimum
amount of
dil. HCl. Boil to expel H2S gas and add potassium Ferro
cyanide solution,
white or bluish white ppt. confirm Zn+2 ions in the solution.
Result :
The given sample of brass contains copper and zinc.
metals as the
main constituents.
Experiment - 2
Aim : To analyze a sample of bronze qualitatively.
Requirements : China dish, test-tube funnel, filter paper and

common
laboratory reagents.
Theory : Bronze is an alloy of copper and tin with the

following.
Composition :
Cu = 88-96% and Sn. = 4-12%.
Thus copper and zinc. form the main constituents of bronze.
Both
these metals dissolved in nitric acid.
3 Cu + 8H+ + 2NO3 3Cu2 + 2NO + 4H2O

4Sn + NO3– + 10H 4 Sn+2 + NH4+ + 3H2O
(Cold and Dil. Acid)
Sn + 4NO3– + 4H H2 SnO3 + 2NO2 + H2O

(Conc. acid) (Metastannic Acid)
Excess of nitric acid is removed by heating the solution. The

resulting
solution now would contain Cu+2 ions and metastannic acid.
This
solution is acidified with dil. HCl and H2S gas is passed when
the
sulphides of copper and tin are formed.
Cu+2 + S2- CuS (Black ppt.)
H2 SnO3 + 2H2S SnS2 (Black ppt.) + 3H2O
The sulphides are separated by boiling the ppt. with yellow

ammonium
sulphide when SnS2 goes into solution as thiostannate where
as CuS is
not affected.
SnS2 + (NH4)2S (NH4)2 SnS2 (Soluble)

Ammonium thiostannate.
CuS + (NH4)2S CuS (Unaffected)

Black ppt.
The soluble black ppt. is tested for Cu+2 ions and the solution
is
tested for Sn2+ ions as in elementary qualitative analysis.
Procedure :
1. Take about 1g. of small pieces of bronze in a china dish and

add
to it 5-10 ml. of dil. HNO3.
2. Heat the contents slowly to dissolve copper and tin

completely
and then boil the contents to a paste to remove excess of
HNO3.
All this is carried out in cup board.
3. Dissolve this dry mass in distilled water containing HCl

(1:1) to get a
clear solution.
4. Transfer the solution in a test tube and pass H2S in excess
i.e. till the
precipitation is complete. Filter and reject the filtrate.
5. Take the black ppt. in a test tube and add to it 2-3 ml. of
yellow
ammonium sulphide and heat. Filter the contents. Black
residue is tested
for Cu+2 ions and filtrate is tested for Sn+2 ions.
6. Analysis of black residue :

Transfer a little of the black ppt. into a test tube. Add to it 2-3
ml. of
50%. HNO3 and boil the contents of the tube. A light blue or
green sol.
indicates the presence of Cu+2. Divide this sol. Into two parts:
(a) To one part add excess of NH4OH a deep blue colouration

confirms
the presence of Cu+2 ions.
(b) Acidify the second part with acetic acid and add K4 [Fe
(CN)6] i.e.
potassium ferrocyanide solution. A reddish brown ppt.
confirms the
presence of Cu+2 ions.
7. Analysis of filtrate :
Boil the filtrate with 1 ml. of dil. HCl. A yellow ppt. is obtained.
Dissolve
in 1 ml. conc. HCl. To this solution add 0.5 g. of zinc. Dust and
boil it for
2-3 minutes. Filter and to filtrate add 1-2 ml. of mercuric
chloride
solution. A white ppt. turning grey on standing confirms the
presence of
Sn+4 ions.
Result :
The given sample of bronze contains - Cu and Sn as the main
constituents.
Bibliography
 http://www.icbse.com
 www.google.com
 www.wikipedia.org
 www.chemistryprojects.

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CERTIFICATE

This is to certify that “Nalin Manickam”, student of

An investigatory project involves performing complex laboratory

This project is the result of immense hard work and dedication to

While the physical properties of an alloy—such as density, reactivity,

However, in rare cases, specific compositions of alloys can have a single

In addition to dental applications, mercury amalgams have been employed in

Brass is resistant to tarnishing, making it suitable for decorative purposes.

Adding aluminum enhances brass’s strength and corrosion resistance by

Some early bronze alloys naturally contained arsenic, forming arsenical

Modern uses of bronze include springs, bearings, bushings, and electric

Modern pewter no longer includes lead and instead incorporates antimony,

Nickel Silver (German Silver):

A common formulation (Alloy No.752) consists of 65% copper, 18% nickel,

Originally developed in China, it gained popularity in the West for silver-

By adjusting the type and proportion of alloying elements, the hardness,

At 1130°C, the maximum carbon solubility in iron is 1.7%. Higher carbon

Wrought iron, by contrast, contains little to no carbon (less than 0.035%).

Aim : To analyze a sample of brass qualitatively.

Requirements : China dish, test-tube funnel, filter paper and

Theory : Brass is an alloy of copper and zinc. with the

3Cu + 8HNO3 (Dil) 3Cu (NO3)2 + 2NO + 4H2O

4Zn + 10HNO3 (Dil) 4 Zn (NO2)2 + N2O + 5H2O

4Zn + 2NO+ 10H 4 Zn+2 + N2O + 5H2O

The solution is boiled to expel the oxides of nitrogen and the

1. Place a small piece of brass in a china dish and heat this

2. Continue heating the solution till a dry solid residue is

4. Pass H2S gas through the filtrate. A black precipitate of

Requirements : China dish, test-tube funnel, filter paper and

Theory : Bronze is an alloy of copper and tin with the

3 Cu + 8H+ + 2NO3 3Cu2 + 2NO + 4H2O

Sn + 4NO3– + 4H H2 SnO3 + 2NO2 + H2O

Excess of nitric acid is removed by heating the solution. The

Cu+2 + S2- CuS (Black ppt.)

H2 SnO3 + 2H2S SnS2 (Black ppt.) + 3H2O

The sulphides are separated by boiling the ppt. with yellow

SnS2 + (NH4)2S (NH4)2 SnS2 (Soluble)

CuS + (NH4)2S CuS (Unaffected)

1. Take about 1g. of small pieces of bronze in a china dish and

2. Heat the contents slowly to dissolve copper and tin

3. Dissolve this dry mass in distilled water containing HCl

6. Analysis of black residue :

(a) To one part add excess of NH4OH a deep blue colouration

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