MAGNETISM When a bar magnet is placed on iron filings, it attracts the largest

quantities of the fillings around its poles. This confirms that

The Simple phenomenon of magnetism
magnetism is concentrated at the poles of the magnets.
Magnetism is a property of attraction exhibited by an iron ore called
magnetite and a current carrying solenoid or wire towards some
metals brought closer to it. Thus, a magnet is an object that has the
ability to attract some metals such as iron, cobalt, and nickel.
Magnetism can also be defined as the tendency of a material to
always come to rest in an approximately north – south direction 2. The magnetic field
when freely suspended.
The magnetic field is the region around the magnet in which it
A naturally occurring magnet is a stone called Lodestone. It is an exerts its magnetic influence. The magnetic field is represented by
iron ore called magnetite. the vector called magnetic field lines that are always directed from
FERROUS AND NON – FERROUS MATERIALS the North pole towards the South pole.
Metals that are attracted to the magnet are called ferromagnetic or The strength of a magnetic field is referred to as
ferrous materials. Magnetic materials include iron, mild steel, the magnetic flux.
cobalt, nickel and most alloys containing these metals. Ceramic The strength of the magnetic field in any region is directly
iron oxides called ferrites are ferromagnetic materials though they proportional to the magnetic flux density i.e. how close together
do not conduct electricity. the magnetic field lines are. In the region where the magnetic field
Non – ferrous or non – magnetic materials are those that are not is very strong, the magnetic field lines are numerous and close to
attracted by the magnet. Examples include copper, silver, each other and while in the region where the field is weak the
aluminum, stainless steel, brass, gold, compounds and non – metals magnetic lines are few and spaced out. Magnetic field lines never
in general. cut across each other when they are passing through the same
region. When curved, they exhibit elasticity or springiness with a
Magnetic properties tendency to become straight again.
Every magnet has; In a uniform magnetic field, the magnetic lines are equally spaced
1. Magnetic poles out. Thus, the field around a bar magnetic is never uniform since
2. Magnetic fields the field lines are very close to each other at the poles but spaced
3. A tendency to attract magnetic substances out as they move away from the poles.

1. Magnetic poles
Magnetic poles are points at which the magnetic force in the
magnet is concentrated. There are two types of magnetic poles
namely north and south pole. For a bar magnet the poles are located
at its end where it is magnetic strong or saturated. The two
magnetic poles of a particular magnet are of equal strength. A freely
suspended bar magnet, always comes to rest pointing the north –
south direction. The end pointing to the north is called the north
pole (north – seeking pole) while the end pointing to the south is
called south pole (south – seeking pole). The north pole of a bar
magnet, suspended horizontally always tilts down slightly in
alignment with the magnetic field of the earth.

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Shapes of magnets Induced magnetism
The different shapes of magnets include-bar magnets, horse shoe Magnetic induction is the acquisition of magnetism or magnetic
magnets, ring magnets or circular magnets and cylindrical magnets. poles by a magnetic material when it has been brought closer to a
Some magnets are flexible. magnet. This is because the magnetic field comes into contact with
the unmagnetized material.
Types of magnets
The induced poles are always opposite to the poles of the magnet
The types of magnets are
inducing them. As a result of the induced poles being opposite to
• Permanent magnets the inducing pole, attraction occurs between the magnet and the
Retain magnetism for a very long time. magnetic material. Therefore, the magnet first induces opposite
poles in the magnetic material before attracting.
• Electromagnets (Temporal magnets)
Exist only when there is an electric current flowing in a Iron Bar
conductor. N S
N S
The domain theory of magnetism Magnet

This theory says that the atoms in a magnetic material each have Induced Pole

magnetic fields around them. These atoms have a north and south The induced magnet is able to attract other of magnetic materials
pole and thus because of the two poles which they possess, they are brought closer to it. For instance, a soft iron nail attracted to the
referred to as dipoles. Groups of atoms (dipoles) and their magnet is able to attract other nails or iron filings.
associated magnetic field are called domains.
A domain can also be defined as a group of dipoles pointing in one
direction.
If a magnetized piece of a magnetic material is cut into pieces, each
piece would still retain the magnetic properties with a new north
and south pole as shown in the figure below;

From the diagrams, the North pole of the permanent magnet

induced a South pole on the two iron nails and this caused the two
Consider the diagrams below: iron nails to be attracted to the bar magnet. The two heads of the
iron nails moved apart because they have a similar South pole
which caused a repulsion between them. When a North pole of
another bar magnet is brought close to the heads of the two iron
nails, the heads moves further apart.
Explanation of magnetism
If the material is magnetically hard it will retain its magnetism once
(a) C Is a magnet because it has dipoles (electrons) in all removed from the field.
domains pointing in one direction.
The strength of induced magnetism decreases with an increase in
(b) A Is a magnetic substance because dipoles (electrons) in the distance away from the magnet.
each domain are pointing in one direction.
The magnet does not attract nonmagnetic materials because
(c) B Is a non-magnetic substance because it has no domains induction fails to occur.
and dipoles are pointing in different directions
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TRACING THE MAGNETIC FIELD PATTERN AROUND A
MAGNET
The magnetic field around a magnet can be traced by using

• Iron fillings or
• The plotting campus
USING IRON FILLINGS

• A magnet is placed on top of a table.

• A piece of paper is then placed on top the
magnet. • The magnet whose field pattern is to be traced is
• Iron filling are then sprinkled gently over the placed on a white plain paper and then its outline is
paper. The iron fillings will arrange themselves drawn using a pencil.
to reveal the magnetic field pattern of the magnet • Then place the plotting compass near one end of the
in horizontal plane. magnet and observe the direction in which its pointer
points
The pattern shown below will be obtained
• With a pencil, mark a dot on the paper just ahead of
the pointer tip
• Shift the compass to the new position just ahead of
the position of the dot and again observe and mark
the new direction in which the pointer points.
• Repeat this procedure until the trace of the points
reaches the other end of the magnet as shown.
• Finally join the dots with a smooth pencil line to
reveal the path of the magnetic fields line, other field
lines can be traced in the same way.
This method easily shows the pattern of the magnetic field but it
has a disadvantage of not indicating the direction of the magnetic
field lines. The iron fillings arrange themselves along the magnetic
field lines due to induction.
USING THE PLOTTING COMPASS
The needle or pointer of the plotting compass is a tiny permanent
magnet pivoted at its centre of mass with its pointed end being the This method of tracing the pattern of magnetic fields has an
north pole. advantage of giving the direction of the magnetic field lines and it
is very sensitive even for tracing very weak fields.
When a plotting compass is placed in the magnet field, its pointer
aligns itself with the magnetic field lines such that it points in the For magnets placed with similar poles facing each other, the
direction of the magnetic field at that point. magnetic field lines behave as shown on the diagrams.

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 SUSPENSION:
A bar of metal being tested is suspended horizontally such that it is
free to swing or rotate in the horizontal plane. If the bar is a magnet
it will come to rest pointing in the north-south direction with the
end pointing to the North slightly tilted downwards under the
influence of the Earth’s magnetic field.

The region which is not affected by the magnetic fields of the two
similar poles from the two magnets is known as the Neutral point.
THE LAW OF MAGNETISM
This law states that: like poles repel each other while unlike poles
attract each other, North pole repels North pole while South pole
repels south pole, however, North and South poles attract each
other.
CLASSIFICATION OF MATERIALS
Magnetic materials (ferromagnetic materials) are classified into two
groups i.e

• Soft magnetic materials and

THE TEST FOR MAGNETISM • Hard magnetic materials
The magnet can be identified by A soft magnetic material is one that is easily induced with
magnetism but it does not form a permanent magnet. Once the
• Repulsion inducing magnet is removed, the soft magnetic material loses its
• Suspending it such that it is free to swing in the horizontal magnetism completely. Examples of soft magnetic materials include
plane soft iron and special alloys such Mu metal (alloy of nickel and iron).
REPULSION: Soft magnetic materials are used as cores of electromagnets and
A piece of metal can be tested for magnetism by using a strong bar transformers since in such devices the magnetic field need to be
magnet. Bring the North pole of the bar magnet closer to one end controlled or reversed easily. The field can be switched on and off
of the bar under test and then observe if there is any attraction or in an electromagnet.
repulsion between the two. If attraction occurs turn the bar magnet A hard-magnetic material is one that becomes a permanent magnet
and then bring its South pole to the same end of the bar under test once it is induced. The hard-magnetic material retains its
and observe what happens, if attraction occurs again, then it means magnetism even when the inducing magnet is removed from it.
that the bar under test is not a magnet but simply unmagnetized Examples of hard magnetic materials include mild steel and alloys
magnetic material. However, if one of the ends of the bar repels the such as Alnico. Hard magnetic materials are used for making
magnet, then it confirms that the bar under test is a magnet since permanent magnets.
repulsion is only possible between like poles.

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COMPARING MAGNETIC PROPERTIES OF SOFT IRON MAGNETIC PROPERTIES OF IRON AND STEEL AND THEIR
AND MILD STEEL USES
This can be done by attaching a bar of iron and a bar of steel of IRON STEEL
equal dimensions to the pole of a very strong permanent magnet. Soft magnetic material Hard magnetic material
Then bring a watch glass containing iron filings closer to the Easy to magnetize and Harder to magnetize and
induced poles on the bars of iron and steel respectively as shown. demagnetize (loose its demagnetize (can retain its
magnetism easily) magnetism)
Used to make Used to make permanent
electromagnets magnets
Uses: cores of Uses: cores of D.C motors,
transformers, magnetic A.C generators, moving coil
relays, reed switches and galvanometers, moving coil
reed relays loud speakers and magnetic
door catches.

MAGNETIZATION AND DEMAGNETIZATION

Magnetization
Magnetization can be defined as a process in which a magnetic
material is made into a permanent or temporary magnet by
exposing it to an external magnetic field.
Methods of magnetization
A hard-magnetic material can be magnetized into a permanent
magnet by either placing it inside a solenoid in which direct current
is flowing or by stroking it repeatedly with a strong bar magnet.

This shows that once induced, iron forms a stronger induced 1. Electrical method
magnet and attracts more iron filings than steel. However, when i. A steel bar is placed inside an insulated copper
the inducing magnet is removed, iron loses its magnetism wire coil or solenoid through which a D.c (direct)
completely while steel retains some of the magnetism. current is passed for a while until magnetic
saturation of the bar is attained.
Since Iron gets magnetized faster but loses its magnetism as soon
as the inducing magnet is removed, soft iron is said to have high Magnetic saturation is the state reached when the
susceptibility but low retentivity. This property of soft iron is very magnetism of a magnetic bar cannot be increased further.
useful in making temporary electromagnets where we need strong This state is reached when the dipoles in all the domains
but temporary magnets. If the magnets used in these devices were of the magnetic bar face in the same direction. The
to retain their magnetism for a longer period, the devices would not diagram below shows a magnetized material which has
function properly. reached magnetic saturation.

Steel is slow to be magnetized but retains the acquired magnetism

for a long time. Steel is said to have low susceptibility but high
retentivity. Steel is used for making permanent magnets. ii. A strong magnetic field is produced due to the
current flowing through the coil or solenoid and
the steel bar is magnetized.
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 iii. When viewed at an end of the bar, the current In double stroke, the steel bar is stroke from the middle going
flows in clockwise direction, that end becomes a outwards using opposite poles of two permanent magnets. This
South-pole of the magnetized bar. The end of the method produces a much stronger magnet as compared to a single
solenoid in which the flow of current is stroke method.
anticlockwise becomes the North-pole of the
magnetized bar.

If the steel bar is stroke using similar poles of two permanent

magnets, the magnet formed will have similar poles on both of its
Alternatively, the poles of the magnet can be determined by using ends. These poles are referred to as consequent poles
the right-hand grip rule. Grab the coil with your right hand as
shown, the thumb is pointing to N-pole and your curled fingers
shows the direction of current.

Demagnetization
Demagnetization is the process of reducing or removing the
This method of magnetization results into the formation of a very magnetism of a ferromagnetic materials.
strong permanent magnet. The main idea of demagnetization is to cause the magnetic domain
2. Stroking method to point in random directions.
The steel bar to be magnetized is stroked several times with a strong Methods of demagnetization include heating, hammering or
bar magnet until it gets magnetized. The end of the steel bar where dropping, electrical method using a.c
the stroking is ending acquires a pole that is opposite to the pole 1. Heating
on the magnet stroking it. Single stroke produces a weak magnet.
When heated with Bunsen burner, the atoms of the magnet will
vibrate vigorously and cause the magnetic domains to lose their
alignment. Letting the magnet cool in the East−West direction will
ensure that the domains will not realign.

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 2. Hammering or Dropping If a soft iron bar is placed in a magnetic field, the flux pass through
it rather than through air if the soft iron bar is replaced by a soft
When a magnet is hammered or dropped, the vibrations caused by
iron ring, all the lines of force pass through it and non pass through
the impact on the magnet randomize the magnetic molecules
the Centre. The space inside the ring has been screened or shielded
within the magnet, forcing them out of order and destroying the
from the magnetic flux.
long-range order of the unit magnet
Uses of Magnetic Screening
Hammering a magnet in the East−West direction alters the
alignment of the magnetic domains and causes the magnet to lose 1. Some watches and delicate electric measuring instruments
its magnetism. are sometimes enclosed in soft iron cases to shield them
from magnetic fields which could reduce their accuracy.
3. Electrical Method using an Alternating Current (a.c)
2. In hospitals devices that use magnetism are shielded so
Procedure: that they do not interfere with other (non- magnetic)
devices.
1. Connect the coil or solenoid to an alternating current (a.c) 3. In old model TV sets the cathode ray tubes are covered
supply. with a ferromagnetic material to prevent external
2. Place the magnet inside the solenoid magnetic fields from interfering with its operations.
3. Switch on a.c supply
4. Slowly withdraw the magnet in East-West direction until
it is some distance away from the solenoid while a.c.
current still on.

Magnetic Keepers
As a permanent magnet kept alone for a long time undergoes self-
Electrical method is the most effective method of demagnetization. demagnetization due to the repulsion between the free poles of its
Magnetic Screening or Shielding domains or dipoles at the ends.

Magnetic screening or shielding is the prevention of magnetic field To reduce this tendency magnets are stored in pairs, with soft iron
lines from passing through a particular region within the magnetic keepers placed across their ends. As magnetism is induced in these
field. keepers the field around the magnets diminishes, and so does its
demagnetizing effect.
It should be noted that magnetic screening is strongly marked only
when soft iron is used.
Substances such as wood, brick, glass, and copper have very little,
if any, effect on the distribution of magnetic lines.
If a sheet of iron is placed above the magnet, no magnetic field exist
above the iron sheet, the lines of force always prefer to pass through
the iron than through air, when they have a choice, because they
find it easier to do so. Iron is more permeable to magnetic fields
than air.
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Soft iron keepers help magnets retain their magnetism for a longer
period of time by:
i. Iron keepers become strong induced magnets
ii. Iron keepers form closed chains of molecular magnets
which are more stable than open chains hence
avoiding demagnetization.
Uses of Magnets and Ferromagnetic Materials
1. Small magnetized needle is used as a magnetic compass
when suspended freely.
2. Strong permanent magnets are used as field magnets in
loudspeakers, microphones and small generators and
motors.
3. Magnets are used inside rubbers of the doors of
refrigerators to form the magnetic catch.
4. A bar magnet attached to a door and a soft iron plate fixed
in the frame of the door opposite the magnet form a
perfect catch for the door.
5. Ceramic iron oxides called ferrites are ferromagnetic
materials used to make a coating on magnetic discs of
computers, audio tapes and video tapes.
6. Magnets are used in circuit breakers
7. Iron is used to make electromagnets

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