The SEVEN STEP Method of

TROUBLESHOOTING
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Troubleshooting is a method of finding the cause of a problem and correcting it. The
ultimate goal of troubleshooting is to get the equipment back into operation. This is a
very important job because the entire production operation may depend on the
troubleshooter's ability to solve the problem quickly and economically, thus returning
the equipment to service. Although the actual steps the troubleshooter uses to achieve
the ultimate goal may vary, there are a few general guidelines that should be followed.
There are often cases where a familiar piece of equipment or system breaks down.

In those cases, an abbreviated five-step troubleshooting process can be used to find

the fault, get the system up and running. It is important to note that, although it is a
five-step approach, the same basic guidelines of the seven-step troubleshooting
method are followed. The steps are simply combined to be specific to the problem at
hand. This article will briefly cover the five-step troubleshooting process, followed by
a more in-depth look at the seven-step troubleshooting process.

General Troubleshooting Guidelines

The general guidelines for a good troubleshooter to follow are:

Use a clear and logical approach

• Work quickly
• Work efficiently
• Work economically
• Work safely and exercise safety precautions

Menu
1 General Troubleshooting Guidelines
1.1 Troubleshooting Steps
1.2 Action Items
1.3 Troubleshooting Documentation
1.4 Seven-Step Troubleshooting Philosophy
1.4.1 Step 1: Symptom Recognition
1.4.2 Step 2: Symptom Elaboration
1.4.3 Step 3: Listing of Probable Faulty Functions
1.4.4 Step 4: Localizing the Faulty Function
1.4.5 Step 5: Localizing the Fault to a Component

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1.4.6 Step 6: Failure Analysis

1.4.7 Step 7: Retest Requirements
2 Troubleshooting With Flowcharts
2.1 Typical Troubleshooting Process
2.1.1 Step 1: Talk with the Operator
2.1.2 Step 2: Verify Symptoms
2.1.3 Step 3: Attempt Quick Fixes
2.1.4 Step 4: Review Troubleshooting Aid
2.1.5 Step 5: Step-by-Step Search
2.1.6 Step 6: Clear the Trouble
2.1.7 Step 7: Perform Preventive Maintenance
2.1.8 Step 8: Make Final Checks
2.1.9 Step 9: Complete Paperwork
2.1.10 Step 10: Inform Area Supervision/Instruct Operators
2.2 The Flowchart Model
3 Five Action Steps for Systematic Troubleshooting
3.1 Five-Step Troubleshooting Process
3.2 Step 1: Verify That a Problem Actually Exists
3.2.1 Panel Graphic
3.2.2 Loop Diagram
3.2.3 Piping and Instrumentation Diagram
3.2.4 Block Diagram
3.2.5 Schematic Diagram
3.2.6 Wiring Diagram
3.3 Step 2: Isolate the Cause of the Problem
3.4 Step 3: Correct the Cause of the Problem
3.5 Step 4: Verify That the Problem Has Been Corrected
3.6 Step 5: Follow Up to Prevent Future Problems
4 Deriving Logical Troubleshooting Flowcharts and Strategies
4.1 Deriving Your Own Troubleshooting Strategy
4.1.1 Here is What To Do
5 Types of Failures
5.1 Steps for Troubleshooting Intermittent Failures
5.1.1 Attempt to Recreate the Problem
5.1.1.1 Thermally Induced Failure
5.1.1.2 Mechanically Induced Failure
5.1.1.3 Erratic Failure
5.2 Alternatives to Recreating Failures
5.3 Identifying All Possible Causes of Trouble
6 Cause and Effect Diagrams
6.1 Constructing a Cause and Effect Diagram

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6.1.1 Step 1: Identify the Trouble or Problem

6.1.2 Step 2: Draw a Main Line Pointing to the Problem
6.1.3 Step 3: Identify the Possible Major Causes of the Problem
6.1.4 Step 4: Identify Each Possible Minor Cause Associated With the Major Causes
6.1.5 Step 5: Identify Each Contributing Factor to the Minor Causes
6.1.6 Step 6: Review the Cause and Effect Diagram
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Troubleshooting Steps

The five-step troubleshooting process consists of the following:

1. Verify that a problem actually exists.

2. Isolate the cause of the problem.
3. Correct the cause of the problem.
4. Verify that the problem has been corrected.
5. Follow up to prevent future problems.

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Action Items

Within the four general guidelines previously mentioned, there are several action items that are
important to the successful achievement of the goal of troubleshooting:

1. Verify that something is actually wrong.

A problem usually is indicated by a change in equipment performance or product quality.
Verification of the problem will either provide you with indications of the cause if a problem
actually exists or prevent the troubleshooter from wasting time and effort on "ghost" problems
caused by the operator's lack of equipment understanding. Do not simply accept a report that
something is wrong without personally verifying the failure. A few minutes invested up front can
save a lot of time down the road.
2. Identify and locate the cause of the trouble.
Trouble is often caused by a change in the system. A thorough understanding of the system, its
modes of operation, and how the modes of operation are supposed to work, the easier it will be to
find the cause of the trouble. This knowledge allows the troubleshooter to compare normal
conditions to actual conditions.

3. Correct the problem.

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It is very important to correct the cause of the problem, not just the effect or the symptom. This
often involves replacing or repairing a part or making adjustments. Never adjust a process or piece
of equipment to compensate for a problem and consider the job finished; correct the problem!

4. Verify that the problem has been corrected.

Repeating the same check that originally indicated the problem can often do this. If the fault has
been corrected, the system should operate properly.

5. Follow up to prevent further trouble.

Determine the underlying cause of the trouble. Suggest a plan to a supervisor that will prevent a
future recurrence of this problem.
This basic troubleshooting philosophy is the basis for the seven-step troubleshooting method
discussed later. It reflects the basic strategy for troubleshooting, though each individual facility
may require a different application of the strategy specific for the equipment and policies at that
facility. An important point to remember as we discuss the seven-step methodology is that we are
discussing a philosophy - not a procedure. Using the seven-step philosophy, a procedure could be
developed that would provide the most cost-effective and efficient means for troubleshooting a
particular piece of equipment in a given facility. However, this procedure would not necessarily
be effective when used with different equipment or even the same equipment installed in a different
facility.

Troubleshooting Documentation

There is no substitute for experience is a catchy and, more often than not, true phrase. If only
there were a way to capture even a small part of that experience to be used in the future either by
those who have not been fortunate (or unfortunate, as the case may be) enough to see something
for themselves or for those with who have seen too many years between experiences. This is the
point of an equipment history, or troubleshooting log. This can tell quite a tale over the life of a
piece of equipment. The troubleshooting log provides a valuable source of information from which
the troubleshooter can draw on the experience of past troubleshooting efforts to quickly restore the
equipment to service. Problems, symptoms, corrective actions, modifications, and preventive
maintenance actions all should have entries that can be referenced at a later date. Many companies
require their maintenance personnel or engineering staff to maintain historical data on equipment
used within their facilities. These requirements are not intended to be a burden on the maintenance
or engineering departments, nor are they meant to destroy every tree on the planet with unnecessary
paperwork. The equipment history can help prevent the troubleshooter from "recreating the
wheel." It can lead the troubleshooter to the solution to a problem that has not occurred in years
and has troubleshooting efforts to move slowly as the troubleshooter checks every possibility.
Additionally, documentation of recurring problems can provide the horsepower needed to get the
right part or the engineering solution necessary to not only fix the problem, but also correct it.
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Without this historical data and documentation of a recurring problem and its associated costs, the
arguments will often be met with the statement "if it is not written down, it did not happen." The
equipment history/troubleshooting log is an ideal place to keep the records necessary to establish
and maintain a common problems list. The purpose of the common problems list is to provide the
troubleshooter with a ready reference of past problems and their corrective actions. It is from this
list that quick fixes can be taken. If a problem occurs on a regular or routine basis, it should be put
on the common problems list. This can be referred to at the beginning of a troubleshooting problem
so the quick fixes can be tried. This can save the troubleshooter valuable time when
troubleshooting. Troubleshooters or technicians need to be careful of what is placed on the
common problems list. If something occurs once, it is not necessarily a common problem. The
problem should be listed in the history section and should not be put on the common problems list
until it occurs again. This is because the tools used for troubleshooting are only as good as their
application. If the common problems list is too long and cumbersome, it cannot be used
effectively. Figure 1 shows an example of a troubleshooting log that could be used as a common
problems list. Completing the required information on a troubleshooting log may seem tedious,
but the information on the log can be very beneficial to a technician looking for the solution to a
problem several months or even years later.

Figure 1: Troubleshooting Log/Common Problems List

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Seven-Step Troubleshooting Philosophy

At this point in our discussion, we are ready to examine a method for effective, logical
troubleshooting: the seven-step troubleshooting method. The seven-step troubleshooting method
consists of the following seven steps:

1. Symptom recognition
2. Symptom elaboration
3. Listing of probable faulty functions
4. Localizing the faulty function
5. Localizing the trouble to a faulty component
6. Failure analysis
7. Retest requirements

When necessary, each of these steps should be used in the proper order. Deciding when each is
necessary is a very important part of troubleshooting. This is where a strategy is developed into
a procedure. Many of the more modern designs of equipment in use today offer extensive
diagnostics programs and tools as an integral part of the equipment. Some have internal
troubleshooting programs that allow the equipment to "troubleshoot" itself to a large degree. These
programs and tools usually check inputs and outputs against pre-programmed normal parameters.
If a discrepancy is noted, that function is flagged as a potential problem. Some programs are more
sophisticated and will actually check functions to a component level, but they usually are only
found on very expensive and high-tech equipment. The strategy that the program uses is a simple
logical input-output comparison. Systems or equipment that are designed for some form of self-
troubleshooting obviously do not require implementation of every one of the seven steps. The
equipment itself may perform any one or all of the steps, with the exception of failure analysis and
retest requirements. All that is required of the troubleshooter is an understanding of what the
equipment diagnostics is indicating and what the quickest and most effective way of clearing the
fault is. When any troubleshooting effort is necessary, writing down or referring to the seven steps
will ensure that a conscious decision is made as to what steps apply and what steps do not apply.
Approaching the problem in this fashion will ensure that valuable time is not wasted back-tracking
to an action or thought process that was skipped initially. Next, we will take a look at each of the
seven steps individually to see what should be accomplished for each step.
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Step 1: Symptom Recognition

This is the most fundamental step in troubleshooting. Each and every person that has ever fixed
anything has accomplished it. This step asks the question "Does a failure exist" The first step in
identifying a failure is recognizing that a failure exists. This sounds ridiculously simple, and

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usually it is, but it is also very important. For example, a common failure can be as simple as the
power is not connected to a power supply. Electric motors and electrical circuits will not operate
without electricity! This is very simple troubleshooting, but it can save a lot of time and potential
embarrassment. The symptom recognition step is very straightforward. It requires an entry in the
troubleshooting log that states what the indications of a problem are. For example, the indication
might be that pump #3 does not start. Always check for additional symptoms of common problems.
Unusual symptoms of common troubles occur more often than common symptoms of unusual
troubles. The following list provides some guidelines for entries made during the symptom
recognition step:

• Try to be as specific and defining as possible in stating the problem that is occurring.
• Always check to ensure equipment is lined up for normal operation, i.e., On/Off switch,
test switch, mode selection switch, etc.
• Analyze the performance of the equipment to make sure it actually has a failure and is not
simply reacting to an external condition.
• Try to determine if the failure is total or if the equipment is operating with degraded
performance.
• Know the equipment; realize when it is showing the symptoms of impending failure.

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Step 2: Symptom Elaboration

The symptom elaboration step is the beginning of "actual" troubleshooting. The objective of this
step is to obtain as much information about the problem as possible. Symptom elaboration is where
the question "What is the problem" is asked. As its name implies, this step elaborates on the
symptom written in step one. For example, perhaps the cylinder extension stroke is too slow but
the retraction stroke timing is satisfactory. This step provides all of the information necessary to
narrow the problem down in a logical fashion. The following points would be considered in the
symptom elaboration step. * Be aware that a large number of equipment faults can produce similar
symptoms. During this step, try to differentiate as much as possible between the characteristics of
the symptoms.

• Start the troubleshooting log with as much background information as possible and
document each adjustment and its results.
• Note how readings are affected by all modes of operation and switch lineups.
• Be sure to observe all gages, meters, and other indicators as to how they are responding
due to the problem.
• Always note if an adjustment has no effect on the symptom; this will help eliminate
possible causes later on.
• Determine if the trouble has slowly developed (i.e., drift) or if it is a sudden failure.

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• Perform control manipulation with care since detrimental effects can occur to associated
equipment or components within the failed equipment.

-There may be a possibility of improper pressures, flows, or voltages exceeding maximum design
specifications.

• Do not go for the answer in one step. Troubleshooting should be a series of small logical
steps, each one chosen to show a result leading to discovery of the problem or problems.
Remember, troubleshooting can last two hours or two weeks. Be sure to record all
troubleshooting actions taken in the log accordingly. Do not leave anything to memory.

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Step 3: Listing of Probable Faulty Functions

This step is intended to narrow down the possible faulty functions based on the information
obtained in steps one and two. A functional block diagram of the equipment and the
troubleshooting log (steps one and two) are needed for this step. The question asked by this step
is "Would failure of this function cause the symptoms I am seeing" Again, the purpose of this step
is to narrow the possibilities down to a list of probable faulty functions. Key points for this step
include:

• Always use the functional block diagram to ensure all the possible functions are checked.
• Write down all probable faulty functions, even if it is apparently obvious that some of them
are working correctly. Then, write down why it is thought to be functioning correctly.
• Be sure to include functions such as detectors, switches, cables, meters, wiring, connectors,
piping, filters, and regulators. Wiring is always a probable cause!
• Do not get locked in on what a technician "knows" the trouble has to be. Past
troubleshooting experience and hunches certainly play a part in figuring out which is the
faulty function. However, do not ignore hard evidence just because one assumes trouble is
known prior to proper troubleshooting steps.
• Always ask: "Would a failure of this function cause these symptoms"

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Step 4: Localizing the Faulty Function

This step requires careful evaluation of each of the probable faulty functions listed in the previous
step. The goal is to determine exactly which area of the system is causing or generating the
problem. This is the first step that requires taking a measurement. The measurement taken may be
a system pressure, operating speed, sequence, time delay, temperature, or any variable parameter

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that is related to the equipment operation. The purpose of this step is not to find the faulty
component; it is just to isolate the problem to a circuit or function. More than one of the previously
listed probable faulty functions may be contributing to the overall problem. This step is not
complete until each and every listed possibility is properly checked. The following key points
should be noted:

• Check all pressures, flows, inputs, and outputs associated with the areas of probable faulty
functions.
• If an abnormal reading is obtained, the equipment setup used to obtain the reading and the
reading itself should be rechecked.
• Do not be discouraged if several hours of troubleshooting reveal that a function is good.
Proving a function is operating properly is important to the troubleshooting effort because
it narrows down the possibilities of where the problem is located. The first function you
choose to check out often will not be the faulty one.
• Check the troubleshooting log periodically to ensure that troubleshooting efforts are still
working in the right direction and have not lost sight of the original troubleshooting goal.

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Step 5: Localizing the Fault to a Component

This step continues isolating the fault once the faulty function or functions have been determined.
A thorough knowledge of the equipment operation, as well as individual component
characteristics, is required for successful completion of this step. Schematic diagrams should be
used at this point to ensure that no details go unnoticed. When localizing the trouble to a faulty
component, keep in mind the following points:

• Evaluate each component within the faulty function to determine which components are
probable sources of the symptoms noted.
• Careful consideration must be given to how each component could affect overall function
of the system under both normal and failed conditions.
• Removal of components from the system and use of a test stand may be helpful or even
necessary to ascertaining the function of more complex components.

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Step 6: Failure Analysis

This step requires the failed component(s) to be repaired or replaced and, most importantly, the
cause of the failure corrected. The following key points should be noted.

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• Knowledge of component failure modes and rates is very important. Always make a
complete check of the associated components of the failed unit.
• A considerable amount of information can be rapidly gained through a careful visual
inspection.
• Avoid replacing a component until the exact cause of the problem is found and repaired.
Keep in mind though; the main purpose of troubleshooting is to get the equipment
operational. Additional troubleshooting failure analysis can be done after the equipment is
running.
• Documentation is imperative at this point, both to aid in troubleshooting the problem
should it return and to point out recurring design deficiencies.

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Step 7: Retest Requirements

Now that the equipment is operational, check all the functions that have been affected by the
failure. Although the equipment has been repaired and is now functioning, all operations must be
checked and verified. The information obtained in this step can also aid in troubleshooting next
time by providing some baseline information. One key point to remember is:

• Fail Safe: do all checks that will ensure the equipment is operating correctly.

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The seven-step method and its associated important points are provided as a general guide to assist
the maintenance person. Circumstances vary from task to task and may require a slightly different
troubleshooting approach. Experience and the basic path outlined here will allow an appropriate
approach and solve problems in a more efficient manner.

Troubleshooting With Flowcharts

The experienced troubleshooter usually is an "old hand" at reading a variety of block and schematic
diagrams, as well as troubleshooting trees. Focus is not shifted, draw a model flowchart depicting
an ideal troubleshooting strategy. Assuming familiarity with the equipment in a facility, the
troubleshooter can make changes in this model and turn it into a flowchart showing the ideal
procedure for troubleshooting equipment. The model strategy to be depicted represents a
composite drawn from research findings and from procedures used by highly competent and
experienced troubleshooters of a wide variety of equipment. First, we will describe it step-by-step,
and then we will review the flowchart depicting each of those steps.
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Typical Troubleshooting Process

Because of the variety of items they are expected to maintain, troubleshooters do and use different
things. Some use screwdrivers, while others use oscilloscopes, stethoscopes, voltmeters, or wiring
diagrams. Some spend a great deal of time disassembling in order to gain access to test points or
adjustments, and others spend none. Some require access to large amounts of documentation, while
others need only a page. Whatever the nature of the equipment to be fixed, and the equipment used
to accomplish that purpose, competent troubleshooters do not differ so much by WHAT they do,
but rather by HOW they go about doing it. The strategy (the approach) is much the same for all
equipment; only the tactics (the steps for implementing the strategy) differ. Here is what competent
troubleshooters do, in the approximate order in which they do it.
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Step 1: Talk with the Operator

Operators are the richest potential source of information about what is wrong and where the trouble
is. Competent troubleshooters always talk to the operators when available. Operators are with the
equipment when the trouble occurs, and they generally know what the operators and the equipment
were doing when it happened. The operator can provide indications of the problem by describing
what happened that was different from normal operation. Many times, the operator helps point the
troubleshooter in the general direction:

• There was a little puff of smoke right over there.

• I pressed this button and it went clankety-clank.
• I tried to run the program, but it only printed gibberish.
• It wont start no matter what I do.
• The picture is all crinkly.

This information may tell the competent troubleshooter a great deal about what is wrong and
where. Sometimes though, the operator is not that helpful:

• The things busted again.

• I said something to it and now it wont work right.
• I think I hurt its feelings.

Under these circumstances, the troubleshooters patience and ability to ask the right questions may
result in more helpful information. Attempting to make the operator feel inferior by using highly
technical terms or sarcasm in questioning will not increase the level of communication or
cooperation and only serves to waste valuable time. In many cases, the operator can tell the

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troubleshooter exactly what and where the trouble is. When that happens, other troubleshooting
steps can be avoided; the troubleshooter merely verifies the symptoms and clears the trouble.

• This rod is bent.

• This cam has worn down again.
• This belt broke.
• The connector is loose on this cable.

While sometimes wrong or not too helpful, operators are still the most potent source of information
available, and competent troubleshooters head for the operator as a first step.
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Step 2: Verify Symptoms

Immediately after their interview with the operator, competent troubleshooters verify symptoms.
They know that hearing or seeing a symptom is not automatic proof of a malfunction. Just because
equipment does not work properly does not mean something is wrong with it. Suppose an operator
forgot to turn it on or plug it in Suppose a switch or a valve was left in the wrong position Human
error is notorious for being a source of troubles, and competent troubleshooters know it is
inefficient and potentially embarrassing to break out test equipment and sophisticated analytical
procedures before verifying the symptoms. Before television, there was only radio. When a radio
malfunctioned, its owner took it to the radio repair shop, plopped on the counter, and described its
symptoms. Often, a customer would complain about a "hissing radio." "It doesn't work anymore,"
the owner would complain. "It just hisses and makes crackling sounds, but it doesn't get any
stations." The minute the customer said "hisses," the troubleshooter would casually turn the radio
around, look at the back, and verify the trouble. Sure enough, there was nothing wrong with the
radio. The operator had accidentally snapped the AM short-wave switch to the short-wave position,
making reception of AM stations impossible. From the troubleshooters point of view, the problem
was then "How do I switch the switch without making the customer feel foolish" Generally, the
solution was to take the radio to the back room and make the "fix" there or to ask the customer to
return the following day. This is but one classic example of an operator-induced problem. There
are many, many others, and experienced troubleshooters can describe the amount of time spent
troubleshooting failure that were not there. Competent troubleshooters verify symptoms before
proceeding with more involved efforts. They determine whether the trouble is real or not to ensure
they do not spend time troubleshooting when they should be instructing an operator on how to
avoid the trouble in the future. When the trouble is real, symptom verification will often provide
benefits in addition to actual confirmation of a problems existence. By operating the equipment,
the troubleshooter will often collect more clues about the trouble's location than were provided by
the initially reported symptom. When something goes wrong, it can show up in more ways than
one. Troubleshooters who can tell the difference between normal and abnormal operation will spot
these additional clues. "I do a lot of troubleshooting by telephone," a highly competent
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troubleshooter of video equipment explained. "When a customer tells me whats wrong, Ill have
them operate the system for me and tell me what happens. Lots of times I'm able to tell them what
the problem is right on the phone. I don't even have to see the equipment." (Let alone rig test
equipment.) No question about it. Competent troubleshooters verify symptoms before digging into
the equipment itself.
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Step 3: Attempt Quick Fixes

Even before they have located a trouble, competent troubleshooters attempt quick fixes; that is,
they attempt solutions that are fast to try, even though they may be illogical in terms of the
symptoms presented. They check fuses, adjust controls, push circuit boards firmly into their
sockets, clean contacts, clean filters, replace gaskets, vacuum, dust, and bang or kick interlocked
doors or cabinets to make sure they are properly seated. They tighten this or reset that, adjust here
or align there. Troubleshooters know that these actions will clear the trouble some of the time, and
since they are rapidly accomplished, they are worth doing. If quick fixes work, time and effort
have been saved. If they do not work, only a moment has been lost and the information has been
gained that certain parts of the equipment, at least, are not the cause of the trouble. Often,
troubleshooters engage in these rapid clearing actions while verifying symptoms and looking for
other visible signs of malfunction. Auto mechanics, for example, are likely to twist or jiggle spark
plug wires while looking around the engine compartment, regardless of the nature of the trouble.
They know it is worth doing this since rough-running engines are sometimes caused by loose, oily,
or wet contacts. In a way, quick fixes are a form of preventive maintenance. In common usage,
preventive maintenance means periodic general servicing of equipment, whether it needs it or not.
These actions are carried out because they will either lengthen the life of the equipment or increase
the amount of time the equipment is operational they will minimize down time. Competent
troubleshooters know that many troubles are caused by inadequate preventive maintenance or a
total absence of such routine care. Thus, some quick-fix actions can be thought of as belated
preventive maintenance. There is another reason for attempting a quick fix or, if you prefer, for
attempting solutions without first doing detailed troubleshooting. Equipment troubles do not occur
with equal probability; some are much more likely to occur than others. Competent troubleshooters
know this. Troubleshooters also know which troubles are likely to occur most often and the
symptoms associated with those troubles. Moreover, everybody knows that some troubles are more
common than others. When the table lamp does not light, typical troubleshooting does not begin;
the bulb is commonly changed first. When the car does not turn over, the battery is commonly
checked. It is not always the battery, and it is not always the light bulb, but the probability is high
that these are the sources of trouble. When they are, it would be inefficient to pretend that these
probabilities do not exist, especially when clearing actions are quick and easy to take. It would be
very costly to pretend that trouble probabilities do not exist and demand that troubleshooters
always follow the same procedure for the sake of uniformity or because the prescribed procedure
will eventually lead to the trouble. Efficient troubleshooting, then, requires that troubleshooters be
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armed with all available trouble-probability information. Unarmed, they are deprived of a potent
tool for rapid trouble isolation. Regardless of what their information is called, competent
troubleshooters attempt solutions that are rapid and efficient because they pay off generously either
in a trouble cleared or in information gained.
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Step 4: Review Troubleshooting Aid

When troubleshooters have talked with the operator, verified symptoms, and tried quick fixes, but
still have not located the fault, additional information must be collected. The troubleshooting aid
is the next most efficient source of information to check out. Why Because such aids offer some
prepackaged information that troubleshooters would have to seek elsewhere if the aid were absent.
Of the several types of troubleshooting aids, some are brief and not too helpful, while others are
highly sophisticated or even automated. For example, consider the easy-to interpret "idiot lights"
in automobile that indicate when the oil pressure is too low or when the alternator ceases to provide
a suitable charge for the battery. The cockpit of a modern aircraft is loaded with bells, buzzers,
and sirens to indicate various malfunctions and even impending malfunctions. In one fighter
aircraft, for example, there is a repeating sound that changes frequency and tempo as gravity forces
are built up during a turn. The higher the G-forces, the higher and more rapid the sound, telling
the pilot of an approaching malfunction. The sound monitors a stress condition of the aircraft, and
from listening the pilot knows whether or not a correction is needed. In this case, there is no need
to talk with an operator, collect additional symptoms, or try quick fixes other than the one
suggested by this troubleshooting aid. More and more modern equipment is being designed to
provide direct information about troubles. Sensors detect troubles that are then reported by lights,
sounds, and other forms of information display. These aids are a response to the growing
complexity of some types of equipment, but reflect what is still a growing technology. Though
immensely useful, it is still possible for the telltales themselves to fail, making the troubleshooting
task even harder than before. Therefore, the importance of providing troubleshooters with other
well-designed aids is still as strong as ever. A sometimes-overlooked troubleshooting aid is the
"Caution" information attached to the equipment itself. "Caution: Remove all red tags before
operating" is one example. "Caution: High voltage in this cabinet" is another. True, these aids do
not help in locating troubles, but they do help to save the equipment and the troubleshooter from
early death. Still another type of aid is the "If/Then" page, which typically describes symptoms on
the left and suggested actions on the right. Troubleshooters may find aids like this in the owners
manual that came with the automobile and the instructions accompanying your appliances. They
indicate what some common troubles are and what to do about them. Similar troubleshooting aids
may be provided with more sophisticated equipment, and some maintenance people construct their
own. Related to these is the troubleshooting tree, a type of flowchart that walks the troubleshooter
through a series of actions and decision points, and hopefully, to the trouble. Often called fully
procedural troubleshooting aids, these aids are a form of thinking prompt, or a form of
prepackaged analysis intended to relieve the troubleshooter of the need to memorize all the steps
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to follow. Well-constructed aids of this type do indeed improve the speed and accuracy with which
faults are located, even by the inexperienced troubleshooter. At least one study comparing the
usefulness of procedural troubleshooting aids with more traditionally constructed maintenance
manuals, showed these aids to be better than the manuals. More troubles were located, and
inexperienced troubleshooters made as few errors as experienced people. This should be expected,
as the fully procedural troubleshooting aid is a carefully constructed and tested way of guiding the
troubleshooter to the source of the problem. Troubleshooters have to know more about the system
in order to make good use of traditional maintenance manuals. In addition to knowing the
geography of the system, they need more specific troubleshooting knowledge to make up for the
incomplete or inaccurate information in the manual. Then there are the sophisticated diagnostics
aids used in locating malfunctions in computers and similar equipment. They do not require the
troubleshooters assistance at all, except to initiate the diagnostic operation. Diagnostics are
programs designed to exercise a system, note discrepancies between normal and abnormal
operation, and report the nature, and often the exact source, of the trouble either on a video display
or printer (for example, "Bad RAM at CY"). When troubleshooting aids exist, experienced
troubleshooters use the ones that remind them of the efficient paths to follow for information
collection or those that report specific troubles. They do not use aids containing information they
have already memorized through practice and experience, and they do not use aids that are poorly
designed.
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Step 5: Step-by-Step Search

When other sources of information fail to reveal the trouble's source, troubleshooters turn to a step-
by-step search through the equipment itself. This is the last resort of competent troubleshooters,
however, as it is the least time-efficient system of information gathering when compared to other
information sources. This is not to say that the step-by-step search is unimportant; it is only to say
that this procedure (oddly referred to as "systematic," "analytical," or "logical" troubleshooting) is
used by competent people only after all other information sources fail. Several step-by-step search
procedures might be used. A random search could be a way to test and replace components, and
troubles would eventually be cleared. Unfortunately, since as many troubles would be located later
as would be sooner, this approach is used only by the uninformed. A sequential search involves
systematic testing, starting from one end of the equipment and working item by item to the other
end. Although this procedure will also lead eventually to the trouble, it too is inefficient because
troubles at the far end of the equipment take a long time to get to. The preferred search procedure
is one that yields the most information for the least effort; that is, the most information per action,
such as per test check or per trial replacement. Ideally, this search procedure is one that
successively eliminates half the system as a possible trouble source. Called the split-half or half-
split search, the procedure involves successively testing the system at or near its midpoint. When
a test shows normal operation, then the portion of the system preceding that point is considered
OK and is eliminated from suspicion. By successively eliminating approximately half of the
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remaining system with each test, the trouble is located more efficiently than with a random or
sequential search. Four points must be made:

1. It is seldom possible to test a system exactly at the midpoint of the next section to be
checked. No matter. The object is to test at a point each time that will eliminate a large
chunk of the system from suspicion that the trouble may be lurking there.
2. Some systems lend themselves to rapid replacement of large segments containing a large
number of components, such as chassis or circuit boards. Such board swapping can quickly
isolate the trouble to the replaced unit or eliminate it from suspicion. Even though the
swapping might have been done at some distance from a mid-point, the speed with which
it is done makes the procedure useful.
3. The split-half search is used only when a troubleshooter must adopt the equal probability
hypotheses: "As far as I know right now, the trouble could be anywhere." Competent
troubleshooters stop using this search procedure as soon as (a) they develop an idea worth
testing, or (b) the trouble is located. Once they know or strongly suspect the trouble's
location, they are likely to test or replace the suspected component or assembly. If they
find the trouble, they fix it. If they do not find it, and all other information sources have
proven inadequate, they resume the split-half search until they can attempt a fix.
4. Finally, those who expect to be skilled in the step-by-step search (called signal tracing for
electrical and electronic equipment, flow tracing for hydraulic or pneumatic equipment,
and linkage tracing for mechanical equipment) need to have considerable knowledge.
They need to be able to read diagrams, use test equipment, interpret waveforms, and locate
components and test points. This explains why often it is considerably more economical to
have two types of troubleshooters: those who can isolate a trouble to a unit, such as a
gearbox, transmission, circuit board, or card; and those who can trace the trouble to the
defective component within the unit. The former generally can clear more than 80% of the
troubles they encounter after very little training. It is very expensive to insist that every
troubleshooter be as knowledgeable as those who can clear most or all of the troubles ever
encountered.

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Step 6: Clear the Trouble

Once a trouble is located, someone is expected to eliminate it. Trouble clearing is often done by
the troubleshooter, but sometimes it is assigned to someone else. The master auto mechanic, for
example, does the diagnosis, but then may assign the actual repair work (trouble clearing) to
someone else. The chief engineer at a radio or TV station may be called in to troubleshoot, and
then turn the trouble-clearing activity over to the on-duty engineer. Manufacturers hotshot
troubleshooters who travel to clients locations to solve difficult problems often leave the actual
trouble clearing to the local staff. Trouble clearing is different from trouble locating, and locating

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requires a different set of skills than clearing. This article concentrates only on locating the source
of the trouble.
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Step 7: Perform Preventive Maintenance

Preventive maintenance is the process of clearing troubles before they happen, a process that good
troubleshooters perform as regularly and carefully as time and policy permit. Performing PM is
more than just a ritual or just another company policy; preventive maintenance saves a great deal
of time and money and reduces equipment downtime. It is appropriate to do PM on some machines
even before starting to hunt for the trouble. PM usually is fast and may clear the trouble. However,
for most machines, PM is carried out after the trouble has been cleared. One troubleshooter
explained it this way: "Look, when the customers machine is down and the plant has come to a
grinding halt, they dont want to see my troubleshooters oiling and greasing. They want that
equipment up and running! The oiling and greasing is done after the equipment is operational."
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Step 8: Make Final Checks

Competent troubleshooters always check to make sure the trouble is actually cleared and the
system is functioning normally. They know too well how easy it is to cause a new trouble while
clearing an old one. They also know how easy it is to leave something like a setscrew loose, or
something unplugged or out of adjustment. Therefore, a final check of normal operation is a
necessary part of the troubleshooting sequence.
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Step 9: Complete Paperwork

Troubleshooters are not immune to the bureaucratic plea to "fill out those forms!" Even though
paperwork is not troubleshooting, it is part of the troubleshooters job. Often, the history of a
machine is recorded in an equipment log. Dates of PMs, information about retrofit, and parts that
have been changed are recorded at the time of service or repair. Referring to and keeping up a log
are two paperwork activities that are part of the maintenance job. Sometimes troubles can be
quickly located by simply reading the history in the log, often because the same trouble occurs
regularly in that equipment. For this reason, the equipment log is a useful source of information,
and good troubleshooters take the time to update these logs as well as to refer to them.
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Step 10: Inform Area Supervision/Instruct Operators

Once the equipment is returned to service, the user is informed of this fact. Often, operators are
instructed in the proper use or care of the equipment or cautioned about peculiarities of the system.
Although this activity is not strictly part of the troubleshooting procedure, it is important to the
continued proper functioning of the equipment.
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The Flowchart Model

The next step is to review a flowchart depiction of the action and decision steps in the strategy just
described. A flowchart is a graphical tool used to represent the steps of a process. The flowchart
uses standard symbols to represent process steps, decisions, and other events. Figure 2 shows
typical standard flowchart symbols.

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Figure 2: Typical Flowchart Symbols

A flowchart depicting the typical troubleshooting process just described is shown in Figure 3. This
flowchart represents the troubleshooting procedures followed by an individual at the location
where the equipment trouble is noted.

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Figure 3: Flowchart Model
Troubleshooters usually receive a report of trouble in the form of a symptom:

• Its jammed again.

• It wont start.
• I cant get it to complete the cycle.

After locating the correct machine (and good troubleshooters always make sure they have the right
machine), they try to interview the operator. Unless the machine is jammed or otherwise
inoperable, they operate the machine and verify the symptoms collected from the operator. If the
problem is operator-induced, they clear it and then instruct the operator in ways to prevent the
problem from occurring again. If the problem is real, they try quick fixes (check interlocks, plugs,
and cables; replace units). If any of these work, preventive maintenance may be called for and
carried out. Then, final checks are made, documentation (paperwork) is completed, the area is
cleaned and checked, and the area supervisor is informed. If quick fixes do not solve the problem,
troubleshooters follow troubleshooting aids if they are available. If aids are not available, a half-
split search procedure is used as a last resort. When troubleshooters develop a good idea about
where or what the trouble is, they test their hypothesis by attempting a solution. If a solution does
not work, the search is continued. If the solution does work, troubleshooters complete any
preventive maintenance that is indicated and then follow the end steps already described (final
check, documentation, area check, and communication).
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Five Action Steps for Systematic Troubleshooting

The seven-step troubleshooting method described previously assumes that little may be known of
the process or system with a problem. Many times that is the case. The technician, electrician, or
mechanic must systematically try to resolve the problem by using his or her skills and intuition.
There are often cases, however, where a familiar piece of equipment or system breaks down. In
those cases, an abbreviated five-step process can be used to find the fault, get the system up and
running. It is important to note that, although this is a five-step approach, the same basic guidelines
of the seven-step troubleshooting method are followed. The steps are simply combined to be
specific to the problem at hand.
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Five-Step Troubleshooting Process

The five-step troubleshooting process consists of the following:

1. Verify that a problem actually exists.

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2. Isolate the cause of the problem.
3. Correct the cause of the problem.
4. Verify that the problem has been corrected.
5. Follow up to prevent future problems.

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Each of these steps is described next using the flowchart approach.

Step 1: Verify That a Problem Actually Exists

The troubleshooting process begins with symptom recognition. To troubleshoot, there must first
be a problem. In this alternate approach to troubleshooting, the troubleshooter must first verify that
there actually is a problem. This is actually a combination of the first two steps of the seven-step
method, symptom recognition and symptom elaboration. To verify that there actually is a problem,
the troubleshooter must use all available means of information. This includes the equipment
operator, equipment indications and controls, and technical documentation about the equipment or
system. Contacting the equipment operator should be the first action taken. The operator usually
can supply many of the details concerning the failure incident. To get the most information, the
troubleshooter should ask probing questions. Some examples are:

• What are the operators indications of the trouble

• How did the operator discover the trouble
• What were the conditions at the time the trouble first occurred
• Is the trouble constant or intermittent

Next, the troubleshooter should observe the equipment or system to get a first-hand impression of
the trouble. During this observation, the troubleshooter should note all abnormal symptoms. To
evaluate the equipment thoroughly and elaborate on the symptoms observed, the troubleshooter
will probably need to examine the equipment documentation. This includes prints, operating
characteristics, and procedures. Since the equipment operator is probably most knowledgeable
about the equipment, it is important to discuss the documentation with the operator. This will help
to determine if any changes exist. Some examples of useful graphic documentation are:

• Panel graphics
• Loop diagrams
• Piping and instrumentation diagrams
• Block diagrams
• Wiring diagrams
• Schematic diagrams Each of these examples is described briefly next.

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Panel Graphic

A panel graphic is a graphic representation of the system that is mounted on an equipment or

system control panel. Although the panel is intended to provide the operator with a big picture of
the operations, it can be useful to the troubleshooter during this step. Figure 4 is an example of a
panel graphic.

Figure 4: Panel Graphic

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The above example does not provide extensive information to the troubleshooter. However, it can
be used to identify sources of power, valve line-ups, or instrumentation connections.

Loop Diagram

A loop diagram is used to provide detailed mechanical information about a process. This diagram
does not give significant electrical or instrumentation information. Figure 5 is an example of a
loop diagram.

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Figure 5: Loop Diagram

A more useful diagram for electricians and technicians is the piping and instrumentation diagram,
described next.
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Piping and Instrumentation Diagram

A piping and instrumentation diagram (P&ID;) shows the functional layout of a fluid system and
its piping, valves, and instrumentation as clearly and accurately as possible. It is accurate to the
extent that all components are connected to each other as shown in relation to flow path orientation.
A P&ID; does not attempt to represent the actual physical layout of equipment, i.e., a valve that
may appear to be right at the discharge of a pump can physically be located quite some distance
from the pump and on another elevation (floor). Many times, however, a P&ID; will use a broken
line encircling a group of equipment to indicate that it is all in one building. Another name
commonly used for P&IDs; is bubble diagram due to the use of a circle for locators and symbols.
A piping and instrumentation diagram depicts all components of a particular system, including
pipe sizes, flange sizes, valve sizes, flow direction, and references to other related diagrams. Rather
than try to pictorially include all the valves, piping, instruments, and equipment in a fluid system,
a P&ID; uses standardized symbols to represent these items. A section of a simple P&ID; is shown
in Figure 6.

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Figure 6: Simple P&ID; Section

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The P&ID; is useful when troubleshooting entire systems or processes to find a faulty component.
A P&ID; shows the relationship between mechanical, electrical, and control components of the
system. It does not give any details on the electrical or control circuitry. For circuit troubleshooting,
the block diagram, wiring diagram, and schematic diagram may be more useful.

Block Diagram

Block diagrams are the simplest of all electrical diagrams. A block diagram illustrates the major
components and electric or mechanical interrelations in block (square, rectangular, or other
geometric figure) form. The lines between the blocks represent the connections between the
systems or components. Each line may represent one wire or several wires. The purpose of a block
diagram is to introduce the system as a whole, convey the general operation and arrangements of

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the major components, and show the normal order of progression of a signal or current
flow. Figure 7 is an example of a block diagram.

Figure 7: Block Diagram

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Block diagrams are used to show the parts included in the system and the electrical order the parts
are in. Knowing this, the system can be analyzed to determine where a fault might lie. Block
diagrams are useful but have some disadvantages. They do not show the accurate physical location
of the components in the system. Also, a single line represents all electrical connections. There
usually is no indication whether the single line represents a cable or several cables.

Schematic Diagram

Schematic diagrams (often just called schematics) are drawings that show all the components in
their proper electrical positions, but not necessarily in their proper physical locations. Schematic
diagrams are very useful to the technician troubleshooting an electrical or electronic circuit.
Schematic diagrams usually are designed to be read from left to right and from top to bottom.
There typically are standard electrical diagram symbols and device function numbers on these
diagrams. The positions of the contacts and switches usually are shown as they would be in the
relaxed or de-energized state. A schematic diagram is shown in Figure 8.

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Figure 8: Schematic Diagram

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Once a possible faulty component has been identified using a schematic diagram, in-circuit tests
must be performed to verify the suspected failure. To perform the tests, the technician must know
where to connect test equipment in the circuit. A wiring diagram is used to supply this information.

Wiring Diagram

Wiring diagrams are mostly used when troubleshooting systems. They may be used in conjunction
with schematic diagrams for component and wiring locations. Wiring diagrams show the relative

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position of various components of the equipment and how each conductor is connected in the
circuit. These diagrams are classified in two ways:

• Internal diagrams, which show the wiring inside a device.

• External diagrams, which show the wiring from the components to the rest of the system.

A wiring diagram is structured such that is represents all the wires that were presented in the
schematic diagram in their actual locations. It shows all electrical connections in an enclosure.
Each wire is labeled to indicate where each end of the wire is terminated, such as a terminal board
location. Using the documents described so far, a technician can accomplish a great deal toward
finding the cause of the problem. During this step, the technician identifies possible faults that
could result in the problem. These faults should be listed so that they can be checked and eliminated
if possible. The flowchart in Figure 9 shows a block-by-block representation of this step. In the
next step, we will discuss isolating the real cause of the problem.

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Figure 9: Step One: Verify That a Problem Actually Exists

Step 2: Isolate the Cause of the Problem

The second step of the five-step troubleshooting process relies heavily on the troubleshooters
technical skills and intuition. During this step, the troubleshooter is actively involved in isolating
the cause of the problem. This involves physical activity, such as reading instrumentation,
connecting test equipment, adjusting parameters, and possible dis assembly. It also involves mental

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activity, such as logic, evaluation, and reasoning. The specialized knowledge of the troubleshooter
plays a key part in this step. To safely and effectively isolate the cause of the problem, keep the
following in mind:

• Begin investigating the easiest items to check. Eliminate all convenient possibilities first
to save time.
• Be aware of special operating modes (self-tests, built-in diagnostics, etc.) that may aid in
the troubleshooting process.
• Use appropriate safety precautions and equipment when troubleshooting in the field.
• When taking instruments in a piping system off-line and when placing them on-line, follow
appropriate operating procedures.
• Recognize the obvious, but do not ignore what may be concealed.

Using the appropriate documents and test equipment, the troubleshooter continues to eliminate
possible causes. As each check is completed, the trouble becomes more isolated. Using techniques
previously discussed, such as half-splitting and signal tracing, helps to narrow the problem down
quickly. A flowchart illustrating the process used to isolate the cause of the problem is shown
in Figure 10. Once the problem has been isolated to a specific component, it can be repaired.
Correcting the problem is discussed next.

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Figure 10: Step Two: Isolate the Cause of the Problem

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Step 3: Correct the Cause of the Problem

The third step of the five-step troubleshooting process is correcting the cause of the problem. This
step involves performance of the repair or other activity that eliminates the problem. This can be
as simple as turning a switch or adjusting a valve, or it could be as complex as re-winding a motor

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or overhauling a pump. To correct the cause of the problem, the troubleshooter performs both
failure analysis and a retest of the equipment. This is shown in the flowchart pictured in Figure
11.

Figure 11: Step Three: Correct the Cause of the Problem

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Step 4: Verify That the Problem Has Been Corrected

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Once the corrective action is taken, the troubleshooter should verify that the trouble has been
corrected. This usually involves rechecking the same indications that proved there was a problem.
This time though, the checks should prove that a problem does not exist. This step should be
thorough. If there are both an abbreviated procedure and an expanded procedure for checking the
equipment, use the expanded procedure. This helps ensure that the problem no longer exists and
did not mask another problem. During this verification, the following should be observed:

• Check all indications that relate to the repaired area.

• Perform a valve/switch line-up check to validate the integrity of the system.
• Using approved procedures, establish normal operating conditions and check equipment
performance.
• Check for abnormal operation of all inputs and outputs to the repaired equipment.

By thoroughly verifying the proper operation of the repaired equipment, the troubleshooter can be
relatively sure the problem has been resolved correctly. To help ensure the problem does not
reoccur, the next step in the process is performed.
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Step 5: Follow Up to Prevent Future Problems

The final step in the five-step troubleshooting process is to follow up to prevent future problems.
This step involves taking preventive measures and recommend actions that could help keep the
equipment from failing. This may include the following:

• Changing the preventive maintenance schedule to help prevent failures.

• Recommend a different supplier if a replacement component is unsatisfactory.
• Recommend procedure modifications that may prevent future failures.
• Conduct operator/maintenance training to raise awareness of the potential for problems.
• Complete proper documentation and troubleshooting log entries to aid in future
troubleshooting of similar problems.

Although the system retest and preventative measures taken may not seem as vital as fixing the
problem and getting the equipment back on-line, these steps are vital to long-term productive
performance. The flowchart shown in Figure 12 depicts the actions taken in these steps.

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Figure 12: Step Four: Verify That the Problem Has Been Corrected Step Five: Follow Up to
Prevent Future Problems
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Deriving Logical Troubleshooting Flowcharts and Strategies

In observing competent troubleshooters in action, troubleshooters will not always see the use of
the most efficient, ideal procedure. Sometimes the use of less-than-ideal tactics as a means of
dealing with various constraints can be performed. For example, telephone maintenance people
are often faced with a trouble referred to as CCIO ("Cant Call In or Out"). Once they have ruled

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out trouble in the central office as the cause, they are supposed to check the telephone instrument
itself to verify that the trouble exists as reported. Then, they are supposed to check their way from
the instrument toward the telephone exchange until they pinpoint the trouble. However, they do
not always troubleshoot in this manner. At one company, they always examine the first checkpoint
they come to as they are driving toward the customers telephone, regardless of where that point is
in the logical chain of test points. Why Because the cost of operating repair trucks is so high that
company policy has been set to follow a more efficient vehicle-use procedure. Gas is saved, but
the procedure takes longer. Policy says that it is more important to minimize "windshield time"
than it is to maximize troubleshooting efficiency. In observing troubleshooters at another plant, a
troubleshooter would note that other troubleshooters generally fail to verify their diagnosis with
test equipment. Instead, the troubleshooter might keep trying different solutions until success in
clearing the trouble is seemingly achieved; appearing as if changing parts at random is the solution.
Why Not because the troubleshooter is not aware of more efficient troubleshooting procedures,
but because the test equipment is awkwardly located some distance away. It is easier to test the
guesses by changing parts than to take the time and effort needed to verify a diagnosis. Why is the
test equipment kept in the tool crib instead of at a location closer to those who need it It has always
been done that way! At a third company, troubleshooters follow a similar procedure, not because
the test equipment is relatively inaccessible, but because the schematic diagrams are classified and
are kept locked up. It is easier, though less efficient, to try a string of solutions than to bother
signing the schematics in and out. The variations just described illustrate two types of reasons for
deviating from the ideal troubleshooting strategy:

1. There is sound reason for deviation. Although the deviation results in a troubleshooting
strategy that is somewhat less than ideal, it fits a larger plan. There is a good reason for the
deviation, and it is not inefficient in the context of the larger plan.
2. There is no sound reason for deviation. The less-than-ideal strategy is thought to be easier
because it has always done it that way. Little or no thought has been given to how it should
be done, and how certain constraints could be better dealt with.

If a troubleshooting strategy deviates from the models shown on the previous pages, the deviation
should be for good reasons rather than because it has always been done that way.
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Deriving Your Own Troubleshooting Strategy

Now that two types of ideal troubleshooting strategies have been identified,seven-step and flow
charting, it is time to develop a specific troubleshooting procedure that will fit specific equipment
and related situation. The troubleshooter will translate an ideal strategy into specific tactics
appropriate to troubleshooting your equipment and create a troubleshooting tool.
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Here is What To Do

1. Select the model strategy that best matches the procedure where the troubleshooter is
comfortable with using on the floor.
2. On a piece of paper, write the name of the equipment.
3. Under the name of the equipment, write down the level expected to isolate troubles to:

• block (chassis, unit, card)

• faulty component

1. Indicate whether or not have other experienced people are available to call on for help.
2. Follow the model to build a flowchart. Make the flowchart specific to the equipment and
circumstances. Write down the appropriate phone numbers to call, people to talk to, names
of references to use, names of tools or test equipment to use, and names and/or numbers of
required documentation forms.
3. When a draft is complete, test it by answering these questions:

• Is the equipment properly identified It is not very helpful to do this in the abstract.
• Does the flowchart follow the model in each of the key steps
• Is the flowchart consistent with the information recorded at the top of the page
• Are the specific items named in the flowchart
• If the strategy deviates from the model, can the troubleshooter justify that deviation with a
sound reason, such as company policy or other legitimate constraints

When the flowchart meets the test criteria, the troubleshooter has derived the ideal troubleshooting
strategy for the equipment.
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Types of Failures

Most problems a troubleshooter faces are relatively simple to analyze and repair. The equipment,
or an associated component, fails and the failure is obvious. There are times, however, when the
problem is not so apparent. In fact, some problems only occur sometimes. When a failure is
sporadic, or it is not always present, it is called an intermittent failure.
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Steps for Troubleshooting Intermittent Failures

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An intermittent failure can create much aggravation and frustration for the troubleshooter. It also
can create havoc within a process or system operation. Diagnosing the fault, as difficult as it is,
can be accomplished using these general guidelines:

1. Attempt to recreate the problem.

2. Isolate the fault once the problem re-occurs.
3. Monitor the operation if the problem does not re-occur.

A brief description of each of these guidelines follows.

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Attempt to Recreate the Problem

If the problem is no longer apparent and operator error has been ruled out, the system or equipment
must be examined to find the fault. One of the first things a troubleshooter should try to do is
recreate the problem. Using information obtained from the operator and from any equipment
history or logs, make an attempt to establish operating conditions that are similar to those that
existed at the time of failure. This may require placing the equipment in a state that is contrary to
other equipment operation. For this reason, troubleshooting of an intermittent failure is performed
off-line, usually in a maintenance shop. Three basic types of intermittent problems will be
described. Most intermittent problems fall into one of the following categories:

1. Thermally induced failure

2. Mechanically induced failure
3. Erratic failure

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Although other classifications could be used, an intermittent problem usually occurs only under
certain circumstances. Contrary to common belief, most equipment does not have a mind of its
own. Two of the most likely things to change in a system during operation are temperature and
mechanical functions. For this reason, the first two categories exist. The third category, erratic
failure, is a catchall for other intermittent problems. It is also the most difficult type of problem to
troubleshoot.

Thermally Induced Failure

The thermally induced failure is a problem that only becomes apparent when equipment is warmed
up. This problem may only occur on very hot days or when air conditioning is not operating. It
may also occur each time the equipment has operated for an extended period of time at normal
operating temperatures. To isolate the thermally induced failure, the equipment must first be

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cooled down. After the equipment is cool, it can be re-energized and allowed to warm up to normal
operating temperature. Once the equipment has operated for some time, the thermally induced
failure should re-appear. Once the problem re-appears, it can be verified by cycling the equipment
through a cool-to-warm state several times. To help isolate the thermally induced failure, the
equipment may need to be cooled down in sections as it operates. This can be done using a
directional forced air source or a special product developed for this specific purpose.

Mechanically Induced Failure

A mechanically induced failure is relatively easy to recognize. This type of failure occurs when
the equipment or circuit experiences a vibration, mechanical shock, or motion. By repeatedly
tapping on the troubled area, the fault condition should appear and reappear. Tapping or applying
pressure to different areas of the equipment can isolate the faulty component.

Erratic Failure

The most difficult trouble to diagnose is the erratic failure. An erratic failure is a failure that is
virtually impossible to predict. It occurs randomly and under different operating conditions. Many
times, these types of failures are related to voltage transients or irregularities. Static discharge
voltages and damage associated with static discharge can lead to erratic failures. Digital
equipment, such as computers and peripherals, are good examples of devices that are subject to
these problems. Finding a solution to an erratic failure is not easy. Most of the time, this type of
problem cannot be recreated. It usually requires substitution of components on a sub-system basis.
For example, assume that a computer system has erratic failures resulting in the system "locking
up" at various times. The system locks up in various modes, programs, and operating conditions.
There is no apparent trend to the failure. A computer-based diagnostic software program may even
pass on the system. In a case like this, each system component can be replaced individually with a
known "good" component. The system can then be run for an extended period of time after each
substitution is made. If the fault does not reappear, the component that was replaced can be
assumed to be bad. Although this is not very practical, it may be the only way to isolate the fault.

Alternatives to Recreating Failures

In the case of each type of intermittent failure, it is important to recreate the fault condition so that
the fault can reoccur. Once this has been accomplished, normal troubleshooting techniques can be
used to find the cause and repair it. Finding the solution to an intermittent failure can be as
rewarding as solving a "whodunit" mystery. The very name intermittent failure guarantees that the
problem is not always going to occur. In the case of erratic failures especially, it may be virtually
impossible to see the fault reoccur. If this is the case, alternate monitoring methods can be used to
track the equipment's operation over an extended period of time. Some of these methods include:

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• Memory oscilloscope
• Chart recorder
• Noise monitor

This is just a partial list of devices available for long-range monitoring of the suspect system. Other
means can be used to help diagnose the erratic failure. Once the monitoring has been performed,
the results must be analyzed. Each aspect of the factors that may contribute to the failure must be
assessed to determine the real cause of the problem. While using a monitoring device provides
useful information concerning the symptoms of the problem, it does not identify the cause of the
problem.
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Identifying All Possible Causes of Trouble

Simply fixing a trouble does not necessarily solve a problem. Many times, a repair results in only
temporary restoration of system performance. This is because the emphasis is often on getting the
equipment up and running, not on fixing the problem. Consider the following example:
Maintenance mechanics were called upon to repair a circulation pump that had failed during
normal operation. Upon investigation of the failure, the mechanic determined that fuses had blown
in the pump controller. An electrician replaced the fuses and re-energized the pump and controller.
Together, the electrician and the mechanic observed the restart of the pump. Upon hearing
abnormal grinding noise and observing a noticeable deficiency in pump discharge flow rate, they
de-energized the pump. The mechanic inspected the pump and found severely worn and damaged
bearings. The bearings were replaced, and the pump was placed into operation. The pump
discharge flow rate was normal, and no abnormal sounds were heard during the trial run of the
pump, so it was returned to service. Although the normal life expectancy of shaft bearings on the
pump was in excess of 3,500 hours of continuous use, the bearings once again failed after only
560 hours of continuous use. The bearing replacement was performed again, with similar results.
After the third bearing failure, a thorough examination of the pump revealed a severely misaligned
impeller shaft. By the time this problem was detected, the shaft was badly scored and had suffered
heat damage. If the time had been taken to diagnose the root cause of the initial problem, the shaft
probably could have been saved. At the very least, costly downtime and replacement bearing costs
could have been avoided.
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The above example may seem extreme, but there have probably been worse instances. By taking
the time and using a problem-solving tool or technique, the root cause of a trouble can be
determined.

Cause and Effect Diagrams

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Determining the root cause of a problem involves considering the possible causes of the effect. In
this case, the trouble's symptom is the effect and the system components and operating conditions
are potential causes. A cause and effect diagram is used to consider the possible causes associated
with a particular problem. The cause and effect diagram is developed as necessary to help isolate
the primary or root cause of the problem. This involves gathering data, considering all factors
(causes) that contribute to the trouble (effect), and using a process of elimination to determine the
root cause. Although the cause and effect diagram is considered a performance-improvement tool,
it is worthwhile to consider it as a troubleshooting aid. Using the cause and effect diagram
technique can help prevent "hunt-and-peck" troubleshooting and reduce the aggravation associated
with undisciplined problem solving. To resolve a problem in the quickest manner possible and
help prevent its re-occurrence, the causes of the problem must be identified. The cause and effect
diagram is used to graphically show the relationship of each of these causes to the problem. The
graphical method used to display this relationship is a fishbone diagram. The term "fishbone"
refers to the appearance of the diagram once it has been drawn. Its shape resembles that of a
fishbone. An example of a fishbone diagram is shown in Figure 13.

Figure 13: Fishbone Diagram

There are many techniques that can be used to determine the possible causes of a problem. One of
the best techniques is brainstorming. Brainstorming is a group-oriented problem-solving
technique. To effectively brainstorm, a group of people who are willing to work together is
required. This is especially useful when troubleshooting a process with many components. It can
also be useful when dealing with a piece of equipment that has mechanical, electrical, and control
devices. The more diverse the equipment, system, or process, the more useful the brainstorming
technique becomes. Brainstorming involves systematically listing all possible causes for a
problem. Giving each member of the group a turn to suggest a possible cause does this. Each
suggestion is considered as plausible and is written down for consideration. Each member suggests
one cause at a time until there are no more suggestions. All group members then, prior to any
discussion, review the compiled list. Once the group has reviewed the list of suggested causes,

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they are discussed. During the discussion, suggested causes that are similar should be grouped
together. For instance, "faulty circuit breaker" and "loose wiring" may be grouped under the
heading "electrical" or, even more generically, "materials." Some general group headings that are
useful in any troubleshooting analysis are:

• Materials
• Operator
• Methods
• Equipment
• Environment

Each of these areas can be broken down into smaller subgroups as required. Once the major
headings are determined, the initial fishbone diagram should look like the one shown in Figure
14.

Figure 14: Major Group Headings on a Fishbone Diagram

Next, the subgroups can be determined, if necessary, and individual causes added. An example of
subgroups could be "mechanical equipment" and "electrical equipment" under the "equipment"
group. As the subgroups and individual tasks are added, the cause and effect diagram takes on its
fishbone appearance. This is shown in Figure 15.

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Figure 15: Expanded Cause and Effect Diagram

Ideally, the brainstorming approach to constructing the cause and effect diagram is best. However,
as a technician or mechanic, it may be difficult to get a group together to come up with the possible
causes. In any event, the concept of cause analysis using the cause and effect diagram is useful,
even on an individual basis. The process of constructing a cause and effect diagram in itself
promotes a broader examination to find the actual root cause of a trouble.

Constructing a Cause and Effect Diagram

The basic steps to constructing the cause and effect diagram, whether in a group or individually,
are described next.

Step 1: Identify the Trouble or Problem

This step should be easy. The problem started with a broken or damaged piece of equipment, a
malfunctioning circuit, a disturbed process, or some similar specific occurrence. The problem is
given a name, which is written on the right-most side of a piece of paper. Placement of the problem
on a piece of paper is illustrated in Figure 16.

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Figure 16: Placing the Problem on the Cause and Effect Diagram
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Step 2: Draw a Main Line Pointing to the Problem

To illustrate a direct path to the problem, a single straight line is drawn from the left side of the
piece of paper to the designated problem. The line ends in an arrow pointing to the problem. The
problem and the line pointing to it are shown in Figure 17.

Figure 17: Line Pointing to the Problem

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Step 3: Identify the Possible Major Causes of the Problem

Identify possible major causes of the problem and designate them on the drawing. This is
accomplished by listing each of the potential major causes inside a box around the centerline (the
line that points to the problem). Once the possible major causes have been listed, draw connecting
lines between the boxes and the centerline. These lines are drawn with an arrow on the end pointing
to the centerline, as shown in Figure 18.

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Figure 18: Designating Major Causes

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Step 4: Identify Each Possible Minor Cause Associated With the Major Causes

Minor causes are things that potentially contribute to the major cause. Evaluate each major cause
designated in step three and identify everything that can contribute to ft. These items are listed
individually on lines that point into the major cause line. The minor causes on a cause and effect
diagram are shown in Figure 19.

Figure 19: Designating Minor Causes on a Cause and Effect Diagram

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Step 5: Identify Each Contributing Factor to the Minor Causes

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Each minor cause on the cause and effect diagram has factors that contribute to them. Once the
minor causes have been designated, the factors that contribute to these causes must be identified.
These factors normally are very specific. Depending on the type of trouble initially identified in
step one, the factors could be major process components, such as a tank level detector; a specific
control device, such as a valve actuator solenoid; or a discrete component, such as a 220-ohm, -
watt resistor. These contributing factors are designated on the cause and effect diagram by writing
them individually on a line that points into the minor cause it is associated with. The resulting
diagram is shown in Figure 20.

Figure 20: Designating Factors That Contribute to Minor Causes

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Step 6: Review the Cause and Effect Diagram

Once the cause and effect diagram is complete, it should be reviewed carefully to ensure that all
possible causes and contributing factors have been identified. Once the diagram has been constructed
and reviewed, the troubleshooter can begin to systematically check the potential causes to isolate the
root cause of the problem. By using the cause and effect diagram to sort out and relate all of the
potential causes of a problem, the troubleshooter can get to the root of the problem and avoid
mistaking a symptom for a problem.

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