UNIT 11

ATTRIBUTE DATA AND ITS

MANAGEMENT

Structure_____________________________________________________
11.1 Introduction 11.5 Data Integration
Expected Learning Outcomes Methods of Integration
11.2 Related Terminologies 11.6 Summary
11.3 Data Linkages 11.7 Activity
Linking Non-spatial Data with Spatial Data 11.8 Terminal Questions
11.4 Attribute Data Management 11.9 References
Non-spatial Data Structure 11.10 Further/Suggested Readings
11.11 Answers

11.1 INTRODUCTION
GIS comprises of spatial and attribute data. Spatial data describes the geometries of spatial
features whereas attribute data defines the characteristics of the spatial features. The spatial data is
incomplete without the non-spatial or attribute data. For any GIS application and its further analysis
is generally based upon attributes information. Therefore, no GIS will work in the absence of non-
spatial data. Besides, these databases are needed to be integrated together for further viewing,
analysis and obtaining results in a GIS environment.
In the previous unit you have read about types of data and its conversion, creation of new data,
transformation of data. In this unit, we will discuss related terminologies of attribute data
management and data linkages including linking non spatial data with spatial data. In addition, we
will also discuss attribute data management and data integration covering various methods of data
integration.
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Expected Learning Outcomes_____________________________

After studying this unit, you should be able to:
 describe commonly used terminologies in attribute data management;
 discuss linking non-spatial data with spatial data;
 know attribute data management; and
 explain methods of data integration.

11.2 RELATED TERMINOLOGIES

In this section we will discuss the related terminologies that you should be
aware of while studying attribute data management.
Data: are observations or measurements (unprocessed or processed)
represented as text, numbers, or multimedia.
Dataset: a structured collection of data generally associated with a unique body
of work.
Database: an organised collection of data files stored as multiple datasets.
Database Management System (DBMS): is a software package that allows for
the creation, storage, maintenance, manipulation, and retrieval of large
datasets that are distributed over one or more files.
Attribute data: are data stored in a table. And the table is in the form of rows
and columns to store data (Fig. 11.1). Each row represents a spatial feature,
each column describes a characteristic of the spatial feature with their
geometry. In the table, at the intersection of a row and a column represent the
value/significance of a particular characteristic for a particular feature shown in
either string, decimal or text etc.

Fig. 11.1: Arc with street segment in the polygon files has a set of associated
attributes. These attributes include street name, address ranges on the
left side and the right side, as well as PIN codes on both sides.

Feature Attribute Table: A feature attribute table has access to the spatial
vector data. In the georelational data model, the feature attribute table uses the
feature ID for the each feature to link to the geometry of that feature (Table
11.1). For the object-based data model, each feature attribute table has a
defined field that stores the geometry of a feature (Table 11.2).

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Table 11.1: An example of the georelational data model where the soils
coverage uses LU/LC Class to link to the spatial and attribute
data.

Record LU/LC Class Area Soil Moisture Content

01 001 105.99 0.021

02 002 8299.25 0.022
03 003 496.38 0.023
04 004 532.11 0.023
05 005 669.80 0.019

Table 11.2: The object-based data model uses the shape field to store the
geometry of building polygons. The table therefore contains
both spatial and attribute data.

Object ID Shape Shape_Area Shape_length

01 Polygon 2358.12 329.12

02 Polygon 23587.42 46807.12

03 Polygon 5872.17 12398.3

04 Polygon 1469.01 18790.2

05 Polygon 1469.01 21783.8

Types of Attribute Data: There are two methods for classifying attribute data.
The first method followed for classifying attribute data is by data type. In this
method common data types used are number, text (or character), date, and
binary large object (BLOB). The second method used to classify attribute data
is by measurement scale. The measurement scale concept groups attribute
data into nominal, ordinal, interval, and ratio data, with increasing degrees of
sophistication.
Value Attribute Table: It is the value of the cell that comes into numeric
number and each cell number is represented with its frequency (number of
count to the particular cell) (Table 11.3). For example, in raster file format data,
it has a value attribute table, which lists the cell values and their
frequencies/count in integer raster of land use/land cover feature. A value
attribute table differs from the feature attribute. A feature attribute table
consists of rows and columns. Each row represents a spatial feature, and each
column represents a property or characteristic of the spatial feature (Fig. 11.1
and Table 11.4).
Table 11.3: A value attribute table lists the attributes of value and count.
The value field refers to the cell value, and the count field
refers to the number of cells.

Object ID Value Count

000 101, 082 189

001 101,086 1258

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002 101,110 860

003 180, 082 249

004 180, 086 1987

Table 11.4: A feature attribute table represented by rows and columns.

Label_ID Hardness Depth Maturity

001 122 12.1 Low

002 124 8.4 High

Data capture: There are different means to capture data for a computer. It may
be captured either by collecting document to be typed in, making measurement
and keying it and/or asking people to fill in questionnaires or listing information
of the measurable events. Data may also be collected directly by an input
device without using a key board, such as bar code reader, scanning picture,
using sensors for data logging. Data as attributes can be entered by direct data
loggers, manual keyboard entry, optical character recognition (OCR) or,
increasingly, voice recognition, etc. (Fig. 11.2).

Fig. 11.2: A schematic view of data capture.

11.3 DATA LINKAGES

Linking non-spatial (attribute) data with spatial data is to utilise data for multiple
purposes. Therefore, the purpose includes analysis, expedite data retrieval and
obtain redundancy free database etc.
In GIS sense, a data link connects data from different sets (e.g., non-spatial
data with spatial data). For example, suppose you want to know what
percentage of total food grains production of each state of India is grown for
export. Let us assume that you have required data stored in your computer into
two separate files in which one file containing data of total food grains

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production for each state and another is on food grains export. You must
combine these two files to solve the problem. Once the files are combined then
it becomes simple for computer to process. The production and export situation
may be seen spatially on map once these data are linked to the state boundary
map. Hence, data linkage is very useful to determine location, conditions,
trends, patterns and modelling.
11.3.1 Linking Non Spatial Data with Spatial Data
Linking non-spatial (attribute) data with spatial data serves multiple purposes.
Firstly, keeping the non-spatial data separate and joining for analysis and
mapping allows the spatial data to handle easily. Secondly, many tables
containing non-spatial database may be joined together making the retrieval
faster and maintaining the database redundancy free.

In GIS language, the logical linking of attribute or external data is called ‘relate’
and appending of attribute data is termed as ‘append or join’
(http://webhelp.esri.com). When the data is permanently joined, (e.g., with the
change in property), the data needs to be updated in the map itself. The
temporary join is saved in terms of link only in the project file with various
formats or terms used by various software like .apr and .mxd in ArcView old or
new version, .wor in MapInfo, etc. In this case, with the change in property,
whenever the data in table is updated, the map also gets updated.
The basis of data joining between and among various tables or between spatial
and non-spatial data is the common identifier known as ‘primary key’ and
‘foreign key’. This identifier is unique in both the files like a unique code which
is not repeatable anywhere in the file. Sometimes, with smaller database,
names are taken as common identifier but in large database there may be
several identical names with different identities. Thus, for each feature unique
code is assigned to avoid this kind of confusion. For example, in spatial terms
there may be two villages of same names in a block or taluka. If one wants to
join the population data of those all the villages with the village map, there will
be an error in joining the data to the corresponding village of same name. In
larger context, the same district names exist in two states in India for example,
Bilaspur exists in Himachal Pradesh and Chhattisgarh States, Hamirpur district
exists in Himachal Pradesh and Uttar Pradesh states, Aurangabad district
exists in Bihar and Maharashtra States, and Pratapgarh district exists in Uttar
Pradesh and Rajasthan States. One example of this can be seen in Fig. 11.3.
At lower level, like Block, Panchayat and Villages, there are large numbers of
repetitions of names. In this case, data of one spatial unit (district, block,
panchayat or village) may be linked to another one having same name. For
instance, data of Aurangabad district of Bihar may go to the Aurangabad district
of Maharashtra and vice-versa after joining, if there is no unique identity for
each district in the spatial data (map) as well as non-spatial (attribute or table)
data. And for this reason, unique identity is required for data joining. Example of
different spatial units is given in Fig. 11.4.

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Fig. 11.3: Map of India showing districts with same name “Bilaspur” in Himachal
Pradesh and Chhattisgarh with different spatial locations.

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Fig 11.4: Non-spatial and spatial data joining based on unique identities.

This way, various small attribute tables containing specific details of the spatial
features are joined with spatial features using the unique but common
identities, where a common field like DIST_ID in above example is essential in
all attribute tables for data joining as an identifier. This relates the various
tables or attribute table (non-spatial data) with spatial data to the exact feature.

SAQ 1
a) Define DBMS.
b) What is attribute data?
c) What is the difference between data relate and join?

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11.4 ATTRIBUTE DATA MANAGEMENT

You have read about data linkages in the previous section. Let us now discuss
the attribute data management.
Attribute data management deals with attribute data, creation of attribute data,
retrieval of other attributes data into spatial data, query building for data
management, over all retrieval and manipulation of data. You have already
ready about that how to manage attribute data table with spatial data in the
previous section.
Now let us discuss about basic concept based on database management.
Based upon this concept data management is performed very effectively.
Database management normally refers to the management of tabular data in
row and column format. It is frequently used for personal, business,
government, and scientific endeavours. To know about database management,
let us discuss the non-spatial data strucuture.
11.4.1 Non-spatial Data Structure
Non-spatial data structure is a database which refers to attributes data, logs
data etc. It is a data without spatial location like geographical referenced
position and represented as a database model.
A database model is the theoretical foundation of a database and fundamentally
determines in which manner data can be stored, organised and manipulated in
a database system. It thereby defines the infrastructure offered by a particular
database system.
Databases can be organised in different ways known as database models.
These conventional database models are: relational, network, hierarchical and
object-oriented (Fig 11.5).

Fig. 11.5: Database models: a) Relational; b) Network; c) Hierarchical; and d)

Object-oriented database models.

 hierarchical data are organised by records on a parent-child one-to-many

relations
 network data are organised by records which are classified into record types
within pointers linking associated records
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 relational data are organised by records in relations which resemble a table

 object-oriented data are uniquely identified as individual objects that are
classified into object types or classes according to the characteristics
(attributes and operations) of the object.
Now let us discuss all these database models one by one.
i) Hierarchical Model
It organises data in a tree structure. There is a hierarchy of parent and child
data segments. This structure implies that a record can have repeating
information generally in the child data segments. Data in a series of records
have a set of field values attached to it. It collects all the instances of a specific
record together as a record type. These record types are the equivalent of
tables in the relational model and with the individual records being the
equivalent of rows. To create links between these record types, the hierarchical
model uses parent child relationships. These are a 1: N mapping between
record types. This is done by using trees, like set theory used in the relational
model, borrowed from mathematics. For example, an organisation might store
information about population in a city such as ward name, locality name, street
number, house number, residents name, etc. The organisation might also store
information about resident’s children such as name and date of birth. The
resident and children data forms a hierarchy where the resident data represents
parent segment and children data represents child segment. If a resident has
four children then there would be four child segments associated with one
resident segment. In a hierarchical database, the parent-child relationship is
one-to-many. This restricts a child segment to having only one parent segment.
In the hierarchical model, the links established by the pointers are permanent
and cannot be modified. This makes the hierarchical model more rigid and
inflexible causing difficulties in expansion or modification of databases.
Hierarchical database management systems (DBMSs) were popular from the
late 1960s with the introduction of IBM’s Information Management System (IMS)
DBMS through the 1970s.
ii) Network Model
The popularity of the network data model coincided with the popularity of the
hierarchical data model. Some data were more naturally modelled with more
than one parent per child. But the network model permitted the modelling of
many-to-many relationships in data. The basic data modelling construct in the
network model is the set construct. A set consists of an owner record type, a set
name and a member record type. A member record type can have that role in
more than one set; hence the multi-parent concept is supported. An owner
record type can also be a member or owner in another set. The data model is a
simple network, and link and intersection record types may exist as well as sets
between them. Thus, the complete network of relationships is represented by
several pair wise sets; in each set, some (one) record type is owner (at the tail
of the network arrow) and one or more record types are members (at the head
of the relationship arrow). Network model becomes complex with the increase in
size of database. This model also suffers from inflexibility but the degree of

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inflexibility is lower compared to the hierarchical model because it provides

multi-parent relationship.
iii) Relational Model
Relational model based on the concept proposed by Codd (1970) and is
popular among GIS users. A relational database allows the definition of data
structures, storage and retrieval operations and integrity constraints. In such a
database, data and relations between them are organised in tables. A table is a
collection of records and each record in a table contains the same fields. The
properties of relational tables are:
 values are atomic
 each row is unique
 sequence of rows is insignificant
 each column has a unique name
 column values are of the same kind
 sequence of columns is insignificant
Certain fields may be designated as keys, which mean that searches for
specific values of that field will use indexing to speed them up. Fields in two
different tables take values from the same set; a join operation can be
performed to select related records in the two tables by matching values in
those fields. Often, but not always, the fields will have the same name in both
tables. For example, an organisation table might contain (employee-ID,
department-code) pairs and a department table might contain (department
name-code, number of employee in the department) pairs to identify an
organisation’s salary expenses. We could sum the salaries of employees in the
department by joining on the employee-code and department-code fields of the
two tables. This can be extended to joining multiple tables on multiple fields.
Because these relationships are only specified at retrieval time, the relational
databases are classed as dynamic database management system. The
relational database management system (RDBMS) is database based on
relational model.
The main disadvantage is the terminology of relational database which can be
confusing because of the use of different terminologies by different users.
Although the relational model is flexible than hierarchical model and network
model but still suffers from data redundancy and can be slow and difficult to
implement. Its efficiency is reduced with handling of complex data formats of
GIS because of limited range of data types.
iv) Object-Oriented Model
Object-oriented database (OODB) paradigm is the combination of object-
oriented programming language (OOPL) systems and persistent systems. The
power of OODB comes from the seamless treatment of both persistent data as
found in databases and transient data as found in executing programmes.
Object DBMSs add database functionality to object programming languages.
They bring much more than persistent storage of programming language
objects and provide full-featured database programming capability. A major
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benefit of this approach is the unification of the application and database

development into a seamless data model and language environment. As a
result, applications require less code, use more natural data modelling and code
bases are easier to maintain.
In contrast to a relational DBMS, where a complex data structure must be
flattened out to fit into tables or joined together from those tables to form the in-
memory structure, object DBMSs have no performance overhead to store or
retrieve a web or hierarchy of interrelated objects. This one-to-one mapping of
object programming language objects to database objects has two benefits over
other storage approaches. Firstly, it provides higher performance management
of objects and secondly, it enables better management of the complex
interrelationships between objects. This makes object DBMSs better suited to
support applications such as risk analysis systems, telecommunications service
applications, World Wide Web (WWW) document structures, design and
manufacturing systems which have complex relationships between data. Main
problem of object oriented model is the implicit uncertainty of geographical
ideas; therefore, it is difficult to represent them in rigidly bounded datasets.
There is also no theoretical base or standard query language for object oriented
model.

11.5 DATA INTEGRATION

Data integration as a process of making different data sets compatible with
each other, so that they can reasonably be displayed on the same map and
their relationships can sensibly be analysed (Flowerdew, 1991). Data
integration helps to bring all the data together at the same platform to answer
variety of questions related to spatial data. In Unit 9, you have studied that GIS
data standardisation is needed for the seamless integration of various
information layers or themes to get the real picture of any situation or place to
make better decisions based on the spatial relationships, connections and
patterns, and attribute properties. This is not possible without integration of
various data sets.

The data creation standards are still not uniform all across the globe. As a
consequence, data is created in different standards like coverage or
boundaries, time period, data structure, different formats, types, accuracy levels
of various kinds, etc. as per the needs. It is created from various sources and
by using various methods.
In data integration, data from different sources or of different standards are
standardised to make compatible to place one over other with matching
locations and boundaries for spatial analysis and mapping. The major
conversion in this case is done for coordinate and projection system and scale.
The other standards are conceptual or logical. For example, the other
standards like the land use data of one part of the region is done for three level
classification and the other part is level four. In this case, both the parts need to
be brought into the same level by either expanding or reducing one class for
uniformity to integrate and work.
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11.5.1 Methods of Integration

The following types of integration may be done:
i) Horizontal Integration: It is a process to merge the data of all the adjacent
areas seamlessly. This is done when the area of interest is digitised in two
or several contiguous spatial sub-units. For example, toposheet-wise
digitisation of resources for a district or state to need be mosaiced finally as
a single unit. In this process, the adjacent sheets are brought together and
matched for point to point locations doing edge matching with various
techniques. For example, Fig. 11.6 shows horizontal integration in a simple
way where each state digitised separately in a mosaiced form to make the
map of India.

Fig. 11.6: Horizontal integration of adjacent sheets/maps to prepare one single

map.

a) Vertical Integration: It is a process to keep all the databases of common

area one over other with matching all points or locations in all the data
layers (Fig. 11.7). It is superimposition on computer like keeping various
maps on tracing sheets/transparencies of same area layer-by-layer.
The other vertical integration is the conceptual or thematic adjustment for
identical entities in all the layers if the data is of different time period. For
example, making identical land use classes or soil classes for all the years
for integration and studies or keeping the same administrative boundaries of
an area for temporal studies as the data sets are often created at various
scales or classes for various requirements over the time.

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Fig. 11.7: Vertical integration of various thematic layers. (Source:

http://webhelp.esri.com)

The above horizontal and vertical data integration is done for the attribute data
also.
b) Spatial and Non-Spatial Data Integration: It is also referred to data
linkages, which we have already discussed in the sub-section 11.3.1 of this
Unit. Attribute data attachment with spatial data is also data integration
making compatible as per the spatial units where the number of features will
be equal to the number of rows in any table for complete matching all the
units and rows. Mismatch of units or rows in terms of identifier will leave the
incomplete integration of non-spatial data into the spatial data.
While doing integration there are some conversion principles that should be
taken into account which are considered stepwise as listed below:
 the conversion of data from analogue to digital form
 all the data are converted into the same data format like .shp of arcview
before integrating
 coverage or boundaries and locations are matched for the integration, if the
data are of non-matching pairs
 temporal matching is also taken care of before integration. For example, a
data is of 1991 and other data is of 2001, both need to be of identical time
based on their nature and applications
 standardisation of projection and reference system, which is prerequisite for
all data sets to be integrated together. If the various data layers of same
area are prepared in different projections and reference systems, the
seamless integration is not possible due to different transformation models,
and
 scale and accuracy of various data layers are also required to be
standardised for integration.

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Similarly, the standardisation is also needed in the attribute data of any

administrative or spatial unit with the change of the administrative unit or
boundary of the spatial unit. For example, if a district is divided into two districts,
the attribute data like population also needs to be divided accordingly before
integration.
c) Conceptual/logical Integration: GIS database that are sourced from
different places, inputs and characteristics are standardised to make
compatible to place one over other with matching locations and boundaries
for spatial analysis and mapping. Data conversion for the data procured
from different sources is done either though coordinate, projection system
and scale or through the other standards under conceptual or logical
conversion. For instance, Urban Master Plan data is structured with five
levels of classification while Land use-land cover data is designed with three
or four levels of classification. In this case, both the sources need to be
brought into the same level by either expanding or reducing one class for
uniformity to integrate and work.

SAQ II
a) What do you mean by data integration?
b) Define vertical integration.
c) What are conventional data models?
d) Define relational data.

11.6 SUMMARY
Let us summarise what you have studied in this unit.
 Data are observations or measurements (unprocessed or processed)
represented as text, numbers, or multimedia. Dataset is a structured
collection of data generally associated with a unique body of work.
 Database management System (DBMS) is a software package that allows
for the creation, storage, maintenance, manipulation, and retrieval of large
datasets that are distributed over one or more files. Attribute data are data
stored in a table. And the table is in the form of rows and columns to store
data.
 In GIS sense, a data link connects data from different sets. Linking non-
spatial (attribute) data with spatial data serves multiple purposes. In GIS
language, the logical linking of attribute or external data is called ‘relate’ and
appending of attribute data is termed as ‘append or join’
 The basis of data joining between and among various tables or between
spatial and non-spatial data is the common identifier known as ‘primary key’
and ‘foreign key’. This identifier is unique in both the files like a unique code
which is not repeatable anywhere in the file.

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 Attribute data management deals with attribute data, creation of attribute

data, retrieval of other attributes data into spatial data, query building for
data management, over all retrieval and manipulation of data.
 Non-spatial data structure is a database which refers to attributes data, logs
data etc. A database model is the theoretical foundation of a database and
fundamentally determines in which manner data can be stored, organised
and manipulated in a database system. Databases can be organised in
different ways known as database models. The database models are:
relational, network, hierarchical and object-oriented.
 Data integration as a process of making different data sets compatible with
each other, so that they can reasonably be displayed on the same map and
their relationships can sensibly be analysed.
 Horizontal integration is a process to merge the data of all the adjacent
areas seamlessly. Vertical integration is a process to keep all the databases
of common area one over other with matching all points or locations in all the
data layers.

11.7 ACTIVITY
1. Check the hard disk of your computer and see how files are stored in
different folders and subfolders.
2. Visit any drug shop and observe how they arrange the medicines in different
stacks or shelf and relate this data in a GIS.

11.8 TERMINAL QUESTIONS

1. Explain data capture with a neat diagram?
2. What are data linkages? Explain linking non spatial data with spatial data?
3. Give a brief account of non-spatial data structure.
4. What is data integration? Explain different methods of data integration.

11.9 REFERENCES
 Buckley, D. J. (1997) The GIS Primer: An Introduction to Geographic
Information System. GIS Solutions Inc. (http://www.innovativegis.com/
basis/primer/The_GIS_Primer_Buckley.pdf).
 Chang, K.-T. (2010) Geographic Information System, Tata McGraw-Hill,
New Delhi.
 Codd, E. (1970) A relational model for large shared data banks.
Communications of the Association for Computing Machinery, vol 13, no 6,
pp 377-87.
 Flowerdew, R. (1991) Spatial Data Integration. In: Maguire, D. J., Goodchild,
M. F. and Rhind, D. W. (Eds.). Geographical Information Systems: Principles
and Applications. Vol. 1 (pp. 375-387), Longman Scientific and Technical,
London.
 Montegomery, G. E. and Schuch, H. C. (1993) GIS Conversion Handbook.
GIS World Inc., Fort Collings.
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 National Land Records Modernization Programme (NLRMP): Guidelines,

Technical Manuals and MIS 2008-09, Department of Land Resources,
Ministry of Rural Development, Government of India, p. 99.
 United Nations (2000) Handbook on Geographic Information Systems and
Digital Mapping. Studies in Methods Series F No. 79, ST/ESA/STAT/
SER.F/79, Department of Economic and Social Affairs Statistics Division.
New York.
 www.google.com/earth
 http:www.leica-geosystems.com/en/index.htm
http://webhelp.esri.com/arcgisserver/9.3/dotnet/index.htm#geodatabases/an
_over-776141322.htm
 http://webhelp.esri.com/arcgisdesktop/9.2/index.cfm?TopicName=About_join
ing_and_relating_tables
 https://2012books.lardbucket.org/books/geographic-information-system-
basics/s09-02-geospatial-database-management.html
Data from above-mentioned websites was retrieved between 29th July 2011 and
5th July 2012; 29th January 2023 and 5th February 2023.

11.10 FURTHER/SUGGESTED READINGS

 Fazal, S. (2008) GIS Basics, New Age International Publishers, New Delhi.
 Longley, P. A. Goodchild, M. F. Maguire, D. J. and Rhind, D. W. (2001)
Geographical Information Systems and Science. Wiley Publication,
Chichester.

11.11 ANSWERS
SAQ I
a) DBMS is defined as a software package that allows for the creation, storage,
maintenance, manipulation, and retrieval of large datasets that are
distributed over one or more files.
b) Attribute data are the data stored in a table. And the table is in the form of
rows and columns to store data.
c) The difference between data relate and join is the temporary joining of
attribute data is called relate and permanent joining of attribute data is
termed as append or join.

SAQ II
a) Data integration is a process of bringing all the data sets from various
sources into one platform.
b) Vertical integration is a process to keep all the databases of common area
one over other with matching all points or locations in all the data layers.
c) The conventional database models are the models such as relational,
network, hierarchical and object-oriented.

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d) Relational data are the data organised by records in relations that resemble
a table.

Terminal Questions
1. Please refer to section 11.2.
2. Please refer to section 11.3.
3. Please refer to subsection 11.4.1.
4. Please refer to section 11.5.

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80 Contributor: Dr. Shashi Kumar and Prof. Vijay Kumar Baraik