UNIT-01

INTRODUCTION TO CLASSROOM MANAGEMENT

Written By:
Professor Dr. Rehana Masrur
Rukhsana Durani

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1.1 Introduction
Successful classroom management refers to the maximum learning outcomes of the students in
academics with the less efforts of the teacher. Teachers usually used classroom management as a
process of smoothly running classroom lessons besides the disturbing behavior of the students.
Every classroom has its own reality. If the group of the same students moves from one class to
another, they will experience entirely a different reality. They face different level of motivation
and expectations in different classrooms and consequently they react accordingly to these
situations.

The aim of classroom management is to encourage and established students self-control through
promotion of positive behavior and academic achievement .Classroom management includes
many things that starts from the tone of the voice of the teacher, the design in which the
classroom furniture is organized ,the physical environment of the classroom, The importance of
classroom management for teacher and students,componenets of the classroom management, the
syllabus and expectations from students, the strategies adopted by the teacher for the
maintenance of discipline to the procedures followed by the teacher for daily planning. These
features will be discussed in detail in this unit.

1.2 Objectives of the unit

After studying the material, it is expected that you will be able to:

1. Define and explain the concept of classroom management.

2. Describe the importance of classroom management.

3. Explain the need and role of classroom management.

4. Identify the components of classroom management.

5. Compare various designs of classroom management.

1.3 Definitions of classroom management

Effective classroom management is an indicator of students success. The primary purpose

of the classroom management is to get control on the students. Classroom management
consists of practice and processes that a teacher uses to uphold an environment in which
instruction and learning can occur smoothly. (Wong, H. K., 2004).

Classroom management refers to those methods and strategies used by the educators to maintain
a helping classroom learning environment. Although there are various techniques involves in
classroom management but the most important strategies are those which realize the students that
they are in the environment which allow them to learn and achieve.
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 http://www.ehow.com/about_5438989_classroom-management-definition.html

1. The term classroom management does not have just a single definition. Most commonly
it refers to the procedures in which the teacher sets up the classroom in such a way that
the students learn more effectively.
2. “Classroom management is a multifaceted process which depends upon an engaging
curriculum, student’s responsibility, appropriate teaching modeling, effective instruction,
and management skills to work toward conflict resolution with individuals and the whole
class.” (Mallory, M.2008)

1. “The concept of the classroom management is broader than the notion of student
discipline .it includes all the things teachers must do to foster student involvement and
cooperation in classroom activities and to establish a productive working environment”

2. “Classroom management can and should do more than elicit predictable obedience;
indeed, it can and should be one vehicle for the enhancement of student self-
understanding, self-evaluvation, and the internalization of self-control.”

3. “Classroom management describes the processes you use to keep a classroom organized,
lessons running smoothly, and students engaged in the lesson. Although maintaining
discipline is a component of classroom management, establishilg procedures and rapport
are just as important in keeping a classroom running efficiently.”

Corina Fiore, eHow http://www.ehow.com/facts_5410362_define-

Contributor classroom-management.html

Activity-1

Visit on the websites included in references for searching out more definitions and for more
clarity of the concept.

1.4 Importance of classroom management

Good teachers manage their classroom through proper procedures and routine while
ineffective teachers lack this aspect of classroom management .when the class is organized
and disciplined the teacher can allocate much time to teaching rather than spending more
time on disciplining the students .There are some important features of classroom
management which are discussed below.

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1.4.1 Consistent routine

The term procedure refers to something which the teacher wants to do while routine is
something which the students do automatically. For example if the teacher starts each
class with the procedure by writing an activity on board daily .the students follow and
complete that task as they know what the teacher expects from them. Therefore, they take
the start of the class silently and on-task. Procedure and routine are the ways through
which the classroom runs, they are not the laws which will come with consequences if
they are broken.

1.4.2 Effective time management

Effective time management leads the classroom to maximum learning out put. Once the
students understand the procedure and routine of the classroom, they do work efficiently
without extra instructions. Instead of making them sit passively and waiting for their
teacher’s announcement, they actively participate in learning according to the minutes set
down by the teacher. When the students get involve in their daily activities, meanwhile
the teacher gains enough time for managing other routine activities such as attendance,
arrangement of resources for activities in the class etc. In this way the daily agenda of the
classroom does not effect.

1.4.3 Positive atmosphere

A well managed classroom has a positive atmosphere .The students know that their
teacher is the leader and instructor of the classroom. A properly manage class runs
through a systematic procedure by the teacher. Every student feels comfortable because
they know that teacher is facilitating them in learning and is always ready and
approachable for the answers of their questions. A friendly atmosphere provides
opportunity to the learner to interact with teacher and peer groups, while on the other
hand a stressfull, negative and fearful atmosphere do not allow purposeful learning.

1.4.4 High test scores

The rationale of the test is not to bring forth the students mistakes but to guide them for
good performance in the class. Those teachers, who effectively managed their
classrooms, inform the students on a very first day that what they will learn from the
particular unit.Becuase it makes the students ready for learning. Expert teacher Julie
Johnson says that “she demonstrates what she wants them to do. They practice the skill
together and then I test them the same way we practice….in my class, test is not a bad
word”. When students develop their confidence, it reflects from their test scores. (Harry
k.Wong & Rosemary,2009)

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1.4.5 Student impact

Effective classroom management is important because it has a great impact on the overall
performance of the students such as their behavior, organization skills, attitude, discipline
and achievement etc. If the teacher has good skills of management and who can
communicate with students effectively, their student’s intellectual growth will be higher.
A well managed classroom provides a favorable environment for the intellectual growth
of the students.

By Linnea http://www.ehow.com/about_5421809_importance-
Curington, classroom-management.html
eHow
Contributor

1.4.6 Engage students

Classroom management is important for effective teaching because it engages the students in
creative activities and makes them learn the material rather than memorizing them for
classroom tests. A well managed classroom teaching involves the students in question
answer, discussions and other motivating activities. When the teacher moves around the class
while delivering the lecture, gives answer to the questions of the students and responds to
students through verbal and non verbal methods ensure that students are paying attention to
learning. It enhances the confidence of the students and makes the learning more effective.

1.4.7 Preparation

Classroom management becomes more effective when the teacher is prepared before coming
to the class.When the teacher comes with out preparation in the class it gives a time to the
students for creating disturbance in the class, and it causes problems for the teacher in
formulating daily plan. To avoid such disturbed situations the teacher should has handy
lesson plans which she /he can use in time of emergency. This is one of the most important
tools of classroom management.

By Giselle http://www.ehow.com/about_5378723_classroom-
Diamond, management-important.html
eHow
Contributor

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1.5 Importance of goals by the teacher for classroom management
Goals and objectives set by the teacher for the classroom management is very important.
A teacher sets goals and objectives for mental and physical development of the students
and to help them to achieve educational goals ultimately. Students are given objectives
and they strive for its achievement. It realizes them to feel more organized and
responsible in their educational career. Goals and objectives are important for the
classroom management for the following reasons.

1.5.1 Better teaching

The teachers who set goals and objectives for their teaching, they force to make a good
lesson plan and always try to accomplish their objectives. When a teacher has specific
goals in mind, he must carefully plan how to achieve those goals and objectives. For this
purpose the teacher needs to have depth understanding of curriculum that how to proceed
the planning to cover it with in proper time. Many subjects such as mathematics are
cumulative subjects and need students to have master skills as they go on, because those
skills are continuously require to the entire course. Students who have no command on
those skills usually left behind, so by setting goals teachers carefully plan that how to
teach the course while keeping all the students on the same pace.

1.5.2 Student Focus

Students, who are aware about the goals expected from them by the teacher, give a clear
picture to them that where they have to focus their attention. The planned goals provide a
chance to the students to learn more to reach to the already established criteria by a
teacher for lesson. This achievement of goals gives a sense of accomplishment to the
students.

1.5.3 Teaches Goal-setting

Setting of goals by the teacher opens new gates of learning for the students. Students also
learn how to set the goals and derive the objectives from them in the real life situation. It
makes them goal oriented intellectuals. The teacher makes goals for lesson and tries to
achieve them in classroom, and the students learn that what steps should be taken to reach
to success in some activities.

1.5.4 Motivation

Motivation is one the important principle of learning. The students can not learn if they
are not motivated. Motivation also plays an important role in the management of
classroom, for example if the students are highly motivated to learning, they will carry on
the daily activities with high zeal and the class will be automatically disciplined.
Therefore setting of goals in the classroom motivates the students towards highly

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 academic achievement. This motivation of the students can be done by the teacher
through material or verbal incentives. For further detail check the following website.

By Jennifer http://www.ehow.com/info_7796946_important- Updated

VanBaren, teachers-goals-classroom.html January
eHow 17, 2011
Contributor

Activity-2

Arrange a meeting with a teacher of a school in your surrounding and discuss

the importance of classroom management with her/him.

1.6 Designs/styles of classroom management

The arrangement of desks in the classroom makes certain the safe learning and boost up
students participation. To a great extent the physical lay out of the class is very important
in developing a productive classroom environment. The best teachers have a good
understanding of seating arrangement in the class. They always arrange the seats
according to the needs of the students and the subjects. Some teachers change the seating
arrangement through out the years. Following are some of the arrangements styles of
classroom seating.

1.6.1 Rows
Traditionally the desks are arranged in rows, this allow the whole class to see the
blackboard. It is also easy both for teacher and students to walk around the desks in the
class. It provides an opportunity to the teacher to timely assists the students individually
in an easy manner. This type of desks arrangement lessens the possibility of cheating but
increases the ability of students to pass notes to each other. Therefore it is necessary that
the teacher table should be kept in the middle that he or she can see all the students sitting
in the class. It is harder to arrange group activities in this type if class arrangement.

Advantages

 Students can see the blackboard easily.

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  It makes easy the movement of teacher and students in the class.

 The teacher can provide immediate help to each student.

 Chances of cheating reduce.

 It makes the teacher vigilant to keep check on students.

Disadvantages

 Group activities become difficult in such kind of seating arrangement.

 The students can pass on the notes to each other easily.

 Sometime the students feel bore as they are under check of teacher.

1.6.2 Circle
Desks in a circle shape are designed in order to give more focus on the class as a group.
This kind of arrangement is seen mostly in high schools and colleges. This arrangement
encourages all students to get involve in the class activities. This kind of class design
allows the students to have maximum interaction with their peers. Although there is an
opportunity of maximum interaction of students and teachers with each other but there is
a negative point in this class arrangement that some students can not see the blackboard
as some of the students will be at the front of the blackboard while other will be on the
sides on the board.

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 Advantages

 It ensures the maximum participation of students in class discussion.

 Enhances the interaction of classmates with each other.

 The teacher easily focuses on the whole class as a group.

 Best suitable for high classes.

Disadvantages

 Some of the students who are sitting on the sides can not see the blackboard.

 Maximum interaction of students with each other can create discipline problems
in the class.

1.6.3 U-Style
U-style or horseshoe is the combination of both circle and row design. The horseshoe
design is useful for group assignments, group discussions and lectures. All students
sitting in u-style can see the blackboard easily as they look forward. The teacher desk is
usually in the center of horseshoe design. This type of class arrangement is very
advantageous as the classroom become more spacious and both teachers and students can
move easily in the class. Besides that it is also useful for the arrangement of activities in
the class as the area around the seats become spacious.

Advantages

 It is very useful for group activities and group discussions.

 All students can see the blackboard easily.

 The students focus their attention always on teacher’s lecture.

 Teacher remains the focal point during lessons for students.

 It creates more space in the class for movement of students and teacher.

Disadvantages

 As the students are sitting close to each other so it might become difficult for
students to move while leaving their seats.

 Provide a chance of disturbance for problematic students.

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1.6.4 Clusters
While designing the classroom seating arrangement it is important to keep in mind that
how a design will affect the teaching learning process of the classroom. Most common
styles of cluster design are seen in elementary schools in which clusters or groups of four
or five desks are arranged. For example 20 desks are arranged in four groups of five or
five groups of four. This kind of seating arrangement allows the students to do work in
small groups and it can be easily changed if the teacher thinks it necessary. The
blackboard can be easily seen by the students but they can also see other students which
might diverge their attention from learning. Usually clusters arrangement is made around
the teachers table that she or he can easily see the students.

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 Advantages

 It is suitable for the primary level students’ classroom.

 Very useful for those activities which needs division of students in small groups.

 It is easy to shuffle the naughty students within small groups.

 Students can easily see the blackboard.

Disadvantages

 There is a chance of gathering of problematic students in one small group.

 As the students can easily see all groups so there is the possibility that they focus
attention on each other rather than learning.

 Frequent changes of groups might waste the time of the teacher.

1.6.5 Pair seating

In this type of classroom seating two students sit together around one table and there is a distance
between the two tables having separate tables /desks for each student. The seats are arranged in
such a way that allows the teacher to move freely around the class and access to each student

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easily. It is up to the teacher that which students can be paired together in order to avoid the
misbehavior and lose of academics. Usually the teacher follows the philosophy of mix abilities
for students. Pair allows the students to do work independently and and also together.

The students can see the board and all other instructional aids easily in this arrangement. The
teacher can judge the students and they can do the activities with mutual cooperation. The draw
back of this type of classroom management is that those students who are sitting in the corner of
the classroom will be suffered. As the students do not face each other so during class
discussion the students might not hear each other properly. Pair seating is mostly found in
grade3rd, 4th and 5th where the students are more accountable for their behavior and actions in
the class.

Advantages

 It useful for individual activities.

 It is suitable for assessment activities in which the teacher wants to judge the
abilities of the students.

 Lessen the chances of cheating.

 Teacher can give individual attention to the weak students.

 It makes the students independents learners.

 The teacher can move freely in the class.

 It is best suitable for elementary classes.

Disadvantages

 The students might have loss academically as they are sitting almost isolate.
 Lessen the chances of learning of students from each other.
 Those students who are sitting in the corners can not see the board properly.
 Those students who can not do work independently will suffer in this type of
arrangement.

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1.6.6 Semi-circle
Semi-circle seating arrangement is when all the desks touch each other facing the front of the
room in a semi-circle shape. Besides students and teacher interaction the students can see
instructional aids also. Many methods of teaching can be implemented in this type of classroom
such as direct instructions, discussions, group activities etc as the students and teachers are in
face to face communication. The teacher has full control on the class and discipline issues
manimized.He or she can easily move around the class and monitor everybody in an efficient
way. The students also get an opportunity to work to gather in projects and other activities.
Sometime it become hard for the teacher to give one to one attention to students because seats
are arranged very closed and there is no space in the middle of two seats which make it difficult
for a teacher to access to each student individually, this type of classroom seating arrangement
creates problems especially on the primary level where the students need individually attention
of their teachers.

Advantages

 Maximum face to face interaction of teacher and students.

 Teacher can apply different methods of teaching in this type of seating design.

 Teacher can easily monitor the work of the students.

 It is suitable for those projects which needs grouping of students.

 Instructional aids are easily visible to the students.

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Disadvantages

 Not suitable for primary classes.

 Those students who are weak might suffer as the teacher can not approach them if
they are sitting in the middle.

 Chances of individual attention of teacher for students reduced.

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Check and study the following references for further reading and solving the activities.

Michael Classroom management, creating positive learning environment 56-

Arthur, 69
Cristopher http://www.uwsp.edu/education/pshaw/Seating%20Arrangements
Gordon, .htm
Nancy Butter
field

From: Alexandra Course: EDUC 390 Updated:

Ramsden College: University of Delaware January
Email: Instructor: Eugene Matusov 17, 2011
alexr@udel.edu ClassWeb: http://ematusov.soe.udel.edu/EDUC390.99F
Date: 12/16/99
Time: 9:45:29 AM
Remote Name: 128.175.52.104

By Stacey http://www.ehow.com/info_7960263_classroom-arrangement- Updated

Winkler, eHow styles.html :
Contributor Februar
y 22,
2011

Activity-3

Visit three primary/elementary and secondary schools of your areas, if feasible include both
genders, and observe seating arrangements and student’s behavior.

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1.7 Physical Arrangement of the Room

The physical arrangement of the classroom can either support or delay the teacher's
instructional effort and the quality of learning that takes place. Different arrangements of the
classroom are suitable for different instructional styles and learning activities. A classroom that
is not well arranged and organized to be functional can encourage student off-task behavior.

Carolyn Evertson emphasizes that “examining the physical arrangement of the classroom to
minimize distractions and maximize access (student access to instructor, materials, and
demonstrations as well as teacher access to each student), matching the arrangement to the
objectives of the lesson.”

Arrangement of the classroom influences student behavior and the competency with which
procedures and routines can be carried out daily. Some classrooms might have seats or tables
which cannot be moved, such as in science or computer lab, students in classes seated at
individual desks with unattached chairs, at chair desks (chairs with a writing surface attached), or
they share space with other students at a table. In the latter situations the furniture can be
rearranged to the most appropriate pattern. Young children may also need an open area for
activities and space for lining up, or they may need to move within the classroom to approach to
various learning centers.

The following are the important considerations for classroom arrangement which the teacher
should keep in mind while starting lesson in class. Regardless of the instructional method used in
the classroom, teachers must consider each of the following before selecting instructional
resources:

1. Eye Contact: Many educationists agree that it is essential for all students to be able to
see the teacher as well as for the teacher to see all students during teaching learning
process in the classroom. (Students should not have their backs to the teacher when
instruction is being provided.) A good way to check this out is for the teacher to occupy
each seat when the students are not in the room.
2 Room Dividers: Bookshelves or other classroom dividers should be short enough the
teacher can observe students sitting in any area of the classroom.

3. Instructional Aids: If the teacher is teaching through instructional aids such as board or
an overhead projector, it should be placed in such a way that all students can see the
board or screen.

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 4. Unhindered Passageways for Teachers: the arrangement in the classroom should be
spacious enough that the teacher should be able to move freely about the room, between
students or groups of student, to supervise their work and provide them help. This can be
checked out by moving around the room when the students are not present in the
classroom. Frequent movement by the teacher within the classroom supports on-task
behavior.
5. Student Traffic: High traffic areas, such as around the teacher's table, the trashcan, the
pencil sharpener, doors, and windows should be provided easy student access and
movement.
6. Student Space: For independent seatwork it is necessary that there should be sufficient
separation between individuals.
7. Student Access to Materials: Materials used by the students should be in such location
which is accessible to all students and movement to and from this area should be clear
and unhindered. The teacher can a design an area or corner where materials for the day's
class or subject are placed prior to class the students are to pick up the materials
themselves.
8. Restricted Access: Materials which are not for students use should be stored in a
location not easily reachable to students.
9. Interruption: Unnecessary objects and materials should be removed from the room or
kept in storage of classroom to reduce disruption. The location of doors, windows, other
students, reading groups, animals in the classroom, etc. can also serve as distractions and
their locations should be considered when planning the arrangement of the classroom.

Components of classroom management

1. Classroom Design

Although it is often overlooked, but the most important element of classroom

management is planned design made by the teacher. Proper arrangement of the
positioning of teachers table, desks, chairs, displays, storage and other essential
apparatus to create a warm and welcoming room. These arrangements can be done
during summer vacation prior to the arrival of students. The teacher should make it
sure that all unnecessary and distracting items have removed from your classroom.
This is also a good time to check your room for safety hazards.

2. Rules of the classroom

Develop rules that promote respect, care and unity amongst the students of your
classroom is the basic components of classroom management. Because it gives clear
direction to the students that what they have to do and what they have not to do. Teacher
should make her expectations for the behavior of the students clear at the beginning of
the year. The rules should be reinforced through out the course continuously, and should
be posted in a visible location of the classroom. These rules should be signed form the
students which will realize them that they have read the rules with their parents and
understand how to behave properly.

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 3. Discipline
Classroom rules must have tangible consequences. Students observe the limitations of
each teacher from the very first day of school. So the teacher needs to be firm, fair and
consistent. The class should be started with the warmth welcome to the student and
confirm their knowledge about the classroom rules. If the teacher has some disruption by
issuing demerits, detention, or other official warnings he or she should never, hit, harass,
embarrass or shout at students-this is very unprofessional and often illegal action.

4. Scheduling of classroom
Keep your class in order by staying on time and on task. The class work must be done
during class time, and plenty of time should be left for in-class assignments. Cramming
work and instruction if too close to other activities can create disruptive behavior and
poor understanding of concepts in the class. There should be space before and after every
room change, lunch, and recess for students to settle down. Having a regular daily
schedule helps you and your students to prepare for upcoming tasks. Be firm but fair with
your students. Always leave room for unseen events.

5. Organization of classroom
Organization is the most important component of classroom management. It refers to the
organization of teacher both outside and inside of the classroom. Keeping student files,
assignments, lesson plans and administrative paperwork in order all comes under
organization. It sets a good example for your students and keeps teacher from wasting
instructional time looking for materials. Share the skills of organizing the things with
your students. Take their help in posting the classroom calendar, homework schedule and
assignments on the board. Allow your students to see and learn how you make notes for
them. It will help them to discriminate irrelevant information from important details. The
skill of organization makes the students independent learners. They can perform the tasks
with the less help of their teacher, and in this way the discipline problems reduced in the
classroom.

6. Instructional Technique
Teachers are able to communicate information wit their students as they see fit. The basic
component by which teacher can make their students discipline and organized in the
classroom is his or her skills of instructional techniques. The expertise of the teacher in
the instructional techniques reflects the best management of her classroom. For this
purpose it is important that the teacher should tailor his/her instructional technique to the
grade level of the students and subject area. A practical on demonstration of electricity
will keep 8th graders occupied, but may prove disordered in a 3rd grade classroom. So it
should be according to the style and intensity of lessons and class. Follow-up lecture
method sessions will comfortable the group activities. For better management consult
your colleagues for ideas about new lessons and to earn about each of your student's
learning style.

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 7. Communication of teacher
If the communication in the class is weak than it will adversely effects the management
of the class. Communication is the most important component of classroom management.
It is essential that a teacher should have clear and constant lines of communication with
their students, administration, colleagues, and parents. Without it teacher will lose the
respect of colleagues, attention of her students, and cooperation of parents. For better
communication it is necessary that teacher should be responsive to the concerns of others
and be flexible and willing to accommodate rational requests.

8. Learning Goals

Establishing learning goals is vital and important component of classroom management

which leads to the success of teaching learning process and efficient management of
classroom. For good management of lessons in the class the teacher should communicate
and explain the learning goals at the beginning of each unit or at the beginning of each
class period. It will be helpful both for teacher and students, if you provide them with a
learning goal for activities or for each unit, they will be clear about the extent of
knowledge which they should be able to learn and display. The learning goals need to be
check after each lesson to provide a positive feed back to the students. It is also necessary
for the teacher to bring innovative changes in her lesson planning.

9. Routines of classroom
Structuring the routine of classroom is very important in school settings. In elementary
schools the teachers set the routine of classrooms for the beginning and end of each day.
For example, playing time of students, warmth welcome to the students as they enter in
the classroom in the morning and taking the last minutes of class time to summarize the
lessons taught that day. Daily schedules is an important component as it also effective
tool in aiding student learning. A teacher should post the schedule outlinining of the basic
topics he/she will be teaching each day, along with a brief explanation of each topic. It
will help the students better prepare themselves.

10. Classroom Rules and Social Expectations

Establishing clear classroom rules and ensuring that students know the consequences of
their actions can go a long way toward minimizing disruptive behavior. Post a list of
classroom rules somewhere visible to students at any given time, or give each student a
handout containing the rules. Some general classroom rules may include raising a hand to
ask a question and remaining seated while the teacher is speaking. Social expectations
should also be somewhat emphasized, such as sharing supplies when necessary and being
respectful toward fellow students.

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 11. Correction and Discipline
If the class is disciplined and students are conveyed in a positive way about their
misbehavior, the problems of mismanagement in the class not arise. Students should be
informed of the consequences of their behavior if they disobey the classroom rules and
regulations. The actions in response to disruptive behavior and disobedience must be very
carefully taken. Disciplinary actions should start from gentle, such as a verbal warning, to
harsher such as a trip to the principal's office, and should reflect the type of mistake done
by the students in order to realize their mistake. Students should not be sent to the
principal for minor violations such as talking to a neighbor student during a class lecture,
nor should they be given a verbal warning for engaging in a dangerous behavior because
it can harm the other students.

12. Encouragement and Praise

Encouragement and praise both are very important components of classroom. Because it
motivate the students towards learning. Although disciplinary actions are necessary often
to correct students' misbehavior but the emphasis in any classroom should be on
rewarding positive behavior. If the behavior of the students is under control ultimately the
classroom will be managed. A student who wants attention from his/her teacher but he
only receives that attention when he misbehaves, will continue to misbehave on student’s
part. A teacher can avoid this occurrence by rewarding students, either verbally or with
incentives (candy, a short break from lecture, etc), for being on-task and attentive praise
and encouragement to each student is an effective method of minimizing disrupting
behavior and promoting good behavior and engaged the students in learning.

13. Consistency
The next component of classroom management is consistency. Everything a teacher does
in the class should be consistent and constant, from setting learning goals for each class
period to provide a disciplinary action to misbehavior of each student. Lack of
consistency on part of teacher promotes a sense of hesitation among students and often
leads to a higher frequency of disruptive behavior.
By Ashley Black, e How http://www.ehow.co.uk/info_7889557_six updated:
Contributor -components-classroom-management.html February 03,
2011
Washington State
University

20
Activity-4
1. Visit to the nearby school of your area and observe the important components of
classroom management implements by the teacher.

Need and role of classroom management

Classroom management is essential for smooth running of teaching learning process. The
managed and discipline class leads to the maximum learning out put. The need of the classroom
management arises on the basis of following reasons.

1. Productive environment inside of classroom is very necessary for the students

learning. This atmosphere of class can only be attained when the classroom is well
manged.If the atmosphere of the classroom is positive the students will be sitting in
the class without any fear and will be able to concentrate on the learning.

2. The management of classroom enables the students to remain cooperative,

respectful, and on task with each other and with teacher. Students are more
receptive as learners when guidance is more focused, and they behave better by
virtue of respect for teachers instead of because of fear of consequences.

3. Organization of the classroom is the fundamental element for positive learning

environment of the class. It minimizes the wastage of time as well as of other
resources because every activity of the class goes according to the pre set organized
way. The more organized a teacher is, the more effective he/she can be. Students,
especially at higher levels of education, are likely to respond positively to structured
and organized environments.

4. Planning and management both play an important role in effective teaching learning
process. When the classroom is well managed, the planning made by the teacher for
all activities of the classroom will be implemented successfully.

5. In an organized and manage class the teacher attention remain focused and works
with a sense of purpose in the classroom.

6. It becomes very easy for the teacher to engaging all the students in purposeful
activities during school hours, therefore the management of classroom play very
essential part in engaging the students in creative activities.

21
 7. Encouragement boost up the energies of students for effective learning, and it is
only possible when the teacher gives attention to the students according to their
level. A managed and control classroom makes this job very easy for the teacher.

8. The basic role of classroom management is to provide an opportunity to the teacher

to motivate her/his students to meet the challenges and exceed expectations.

9. Collaboration stimulates the students for teamwork in all learning activities whether
that held in side or outside of the classroom.
Students help each other to learn while participating in constructivist learning
activities.

10. Classroom management has important role in fixing the rules and procedures of the
classroom. Without rules and procedures the learning environment can not be
fruitful.

11. Classroom management has a great contribution in the achievement of learning

goals of a lesson deliver by the teacher. Because the students can learn far better in
the discipline classroom environment.

12. It is very essential for the teacher to arrange the classroom seating according to the
nature and requirements of the subject. Each subject demands different arrangement
of seating in the classroom. So the skills of management of the teacher make it easy
to arrange the seats of students according to the activities of the subjects.

13. The teachers and administrator need to have real estimate of resources need for a
school and classroom activities, the management enables both teacher and
administration to make the actual estimate of required resources for all activities.

14. The classroom management enables the teacher to remain consistent in his or her
behavior with students during classroom lesson. Through effective and consistent
feedback to the students a teacher establish a positive relationship with individual
students to realize them that they are valued.

Summary

Classroom management is the term teachers and instructors use to explain the act of managing
their classroom and students to guarantee that stressful and non-educational circumstances are
avoided, and students learn topics and subjects effectively. Classroom management is a broader
term and involves more than the management and discipline of the students. It also involves the
availability of additional information on topics and all activities related to teaching learning
22
processes in the class. Effective classroom management makes the classroom atmosphere less
stressful for teachers and ensures that students are provided with the correct information and
knowledge with in a calm environment in which they can learn easily and effectively.
Maintaining good management in the classrooms is one of the most difficult tasks facing by
inexperienced and new teachers. Many disrupting behaviors in the classroom should be
improved before they become serious discipline problems. Such behaviors can be minimized by
the teacher's ability to utilize effective organizational practices. Such practices are the spirit of
the teaching learning process and are crucial to establish and maintain classroom control.

Classroom management will differ from one teacher to another. Because it depends on the
teacher’s personality, teaching styles, attentiveness, awareness and number of students in their
classroom at any given time. Effective classroom management involves teachers being prepared
for teaching of lessons, organized for activities ,motivating students, providing and maintain
proper and effective discipline, making students feel comfortable,facilititate students ,building
student self-esteem and designing productive and interesting lesson plans. Besides that the
designing of classroom environment and the seating arrangement is very essential classroom
management is a skill that is not only learned but learn by daily practiced.

Self Assessment questions

Q.1 Define the concept of classroom management?

Q. 2 How classroom management is important for effective teaching? Discuss in detail.

Q 3. Critically explain the different designs of classroom management with example.

Q 3. Describe the major components of classroom management.

Q 4. Write a detail note on the need of classroom management.

Bibliography
1. Wong, Harry & Wong, Rosemary. (2009). The first days of school: how to be an
effective teacher. Singapore: Harry K. Wong Publications, Inc.

2. Wong, H.K., (2004) The First Days of School California: Harry K. Wong Publishing, Inc.

3. Nayak, A. Rao, V. (2002).Classroom teaching: methods and practices.APH publishing

Corporation. New Delhi.

4. The ED 310 Task Force.(1998).Organizing and Managing Classroom Environments.

Simon & Schuster custom Publishing. Gould Street.

5. Good, T, Brophy, J. (1997). Looking in Classroom. Longman (6th ed.) .New York.
23
6. L. Robert, L. Smith, C. and (1984). Effective Classroom Management, Nichlos
Publishing Company, New York.

7. McCreary, R. Classroom management definitions. Retrieved

March25,2011,from.http://www.ehow.com/about_5438989_classroom-management-
definition.html.

8. Fiore, C. Retrieved on March26th, 2011 from http://www.ehow.com/facts_5410362_define-

classroom-management.html.

9. Curington, L. Retrieved on March26th 2011 from

http://www.ehow.com/about_5421809_importance-classroom-management.html.

10. Giselle, D. Retrieved on March26th 2011 from

http://www.ehow.com/about_5378723_classroom-management-important.html.

11. Jennifer,V.(2011).Retrieved on March 26th 2011from

http://www.ehow.com/info_7796946_important-teachers-goals-classroom.html.

12. Ramsden, A. (1999).Seating arrangements. Retrieved on March 30th 2011from

http://www.uwsp.edu/education/pshaw/Seating%20Arrangements.htm.

13. Stacey, W.(2011).Retrieved on March 30th 2011 from

http://www.ehow.com/info_7960263_classroom-arrangement-styles.html.

14. Ashley, B. (2011). Washington State University.

http://www.ehow.co.uk/info_7889557_six-components-classroom-management.html.

24
25
UNIT 2

COMPONENTS OF CLASSROOM MANAGEMENT

Written By:

Dr Naveed Sultana

Reviewed By:

Prof. Dr. Rehana Masrur

1
UNIT 2

COMPONENTS OF CLASSROOM MANAGEMENT

2.1 Introduction

2.1 Objectives:
2.3 Different Components of Classroom Management
2.4 Use of teachers’ qualities, techniques and skills
2.5 Individual Differences

2.6 Personality Development

2.7 Cognitive styles and abilities

2.8 Temperament

Self Assessment Questions

2.9 Cultural background

2.10 Asperger's Syndrome

2.11 Teaching Students with Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder

2.12 Oppositional Defiant Disorder (ODD)

2.13 Conduct disorder (CD)

Self Assessment Questions

Bibliography

2
2.1 Introduction

Classroom management is a term used by teachers to describe the process of ensuring that
classroom lessons run smoothly despite disruptive behavior by students. The term also implies
the prevention of disruptive behavior. It is possibly the most difficult aspect of teaching for many
teachers. Classroom management is closely linked to issues of motivation, discipline and respect.
A large part of traditional classroom management involves behavior modification, although
many teachers see using behavioral approaches alone as overly simplistic. Many teachers
establish rules and procedures at the beginning of the school year. According to specialists in the
field of education, school and classroom management aims at encouraging and establishing
student self-control through a process of promoting positive student achievement and behavior.
Thus academic achievement, teacher efficacy, and teacher and student behavior are directly
linked with the concept of school and classroom management.

Classroom management focuses on three major components: content management, conduct

management, and covenant management. Every teacher has to focus on these components if
he/she wants to become a successful teacher in his/her career.

In addition to promoting order in the classroom and guaranteeing the physical and psychological
safety of all who are present. One desired outcome is to teach and establish behaviors that will
serve one well in life: politeness, respect for others and their ways, responsibility for one's own
behavior, and giving one's best effort, among others. Teachers are responsible to promote values
among their students that values will lead to a moral and satisfying life such as empathy,
kindness, helpfulness, and tolerance.

Pupils seem to respect teachers who are firm and decisive while being concerned, patient, and
tolerant. Punishment alone DOES NOT” teach ‘them a lesson" (or else it teaches the wrong
one). Punishing a behavior does not guarantee that a more appropriate one will take its place.
Controlling simply by intimidation generates the "four R's" of reaction to nasty discipline:
retreat, resentment, rebellion, and revenge.

We don't win when we subdue our students. We win when our students learn new and better
behaviors. Handle behavioral situations in such a way that everyone leaves the event feeling as
if they have been respected and treated fairly.

2.1 Objectives:
After studying this unit prospective teachers will be able:
1. To describe different components of classroom management necessary for managing the
classroom for teaching learning process.

3
 2. To learn and apply teaching techniques and skills to make the teaching learning effective,
interactive, attractive and communicative.
3. To describe the nature and importance of individual differences as main component of
classroom management.
4. To explore the effect of cultural back ground on the learning of students.
5. To evaluate the role of child development and its different kinds for making the teachers
well conversant about the different requirements of students at elementary level.
6. To enlist the different characteristics of temperament which differentiate the students
with each other.
7. To analyze the different cognitive styles and abilities and their contribution for effective
learning.
8. To understand and describe the nature and effect of Asperger’s syndrome on students’
personality.
9. To differentiate the Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), Oppositional
defiant disorder (ODD), and Conduct disorder (CD).
10. To describe the effects of Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), Oppositional
defiant disorder (ODD), and Conduct disorder (CD) on students’ learning.
2.3 Different Components of Classroom Management
Classroom management is fundamental to achieving positive educational outcomes.
Organization and behavior management in the classroom provide students with structure, which
promotes learning. This is especially important in elementary school classrooms, but the same
principles can be applied to middle school and high school students as well. There are six basic
components of classroom management that can help turn a rowdy classroom into a place for
learning.
(A) Learning Goals
Establishing learning goals is vital to successful classroom management. Communicate learning
goals at the beginning of each unit of material or at the beginning of each class period. It may be
helpful to you and your students if you provide them with a learning rubric for activities or for
each unit that explains the extent of knowledge which they should be able to demonstrate. Be
sure to provide feedback on whether each student is meeting the learning goals you establish.

(B) Routines

In elementary school classrooms, teachers may set routines for the beginning and end of each
day. Daily schedules can also be effective tools in aiding student learning. Post a schedule
outlining the basic topics you will be teaching each day, along with a brief description of each
topic, to help students better prepare themselves.

© Classroom Rules and Social Expectations

4
Establishing clear classroom rules and ensuring that students know the consequences of their
actions can minimize disruptive behavior. Post a list of classroom rules somewhere visible to
students at any given time, or give each student a handout containing the rules. Some general
classroom rules may include raising a hand to ask a question and remaining seated while the
teacher is speaking. Social expectations should also be somewhat emphasized, such as sharing
supplies when necessary and being respectful toward fellow students.

(D) Correction and Discipline

Students should be informed of the consequences of their actions if they should disobey
classroom rules and expectations. Be very clear about what actions you will take in response to
disruptive behavior and disobedience. Disciplinary actions should progress from mild, such as a
verbal warning, to more severe, such as a trip to the principal's office, and should reflect the type
of infraction. Students should not be sent to the principal for small infractions such as talking to a
neighbor during a lecture, nor should they be given a verbal warning for engaging in a dangerous
behavior that could harm another student.

(E) Encouragement and Praise

Though disciplinary actions are often necessary to correct students' misbehavior, the emphasis in
any classroom should be on rewarding positive behavior. A student who wants attention from his
teacher but only receives that attention when he misbehaves will continue to misbehave. You can
prevent this phenomenon by rewarding students, either verbally or with treats (candy, a short
break from lecture, etc), for being on-task and attentive. Providing praise and encouragement to
each student is an effective method of minimizing disruptive behavior and promoting good
behavior and engaged learning.

(F) Consistency

The sixth component of classroom management is consistency. Everything a teacher does should
be consistent, from setting learning goals for each class period to dispensing a disciplinary action
for every student misbehavior. Lack of consistency on your part promotes a sense of uncertainty
among students and often leads to a higher incidence of disruptive behavior.

Activity: 01
Discuss with your course mates about different components of classroom management and enlist
which components are addressed by your teacher during teaching.

5
2.4 Use of teachers’ qualities, techniques and skills
(i) Teachers’ qualities

All students have had hundreds of teachers in their lifetimes. A very few of these teachers they
remember as being exceptionally good. What are the qualities that combine to create an
excellent, memorable teacher? Why do some teachers inspire students to work three times harder
than they normally would, while others inspire students to skip class? Why do students learn
more from some teachers than others?

If you are trying to become a better teacher, these are important questions. This issue of
"Emphasis on Teaching" focuses on the four essential qualities that distinguish exceptional
teachers: knowledge, communication skills, interest, and respect for students.

(a) Knowledge

Students consistently and clearly target as the number one quality of a good teacher exactly what
you would expect: knowledge of the subject. You must be an expert in your field if you are
going to be a good teacher. This is a prerequisite.

(b) Communication

The second core quality that good teachers possess is the ability to communicate their knowledge
and expertise to their students. You may be the greatest expert ever in your field, but what would
happen if you lectured in Latin? How much would your students learn?

A good teacher can take a subject and help make it crystal clear to the students. A bad teacher
can take that same material and make it impenetrable. Or a bad teacher can devote so little time
and effort to preparation that the material presented is intrinsically confusing and disorganized. A
good teacher is willing to expend the effort needed to find innovative and creative ways to make
complicated ideas understandable to their students, and to fit new ideas into the context available
to the student. A good teacher can explain complicated material in a way that students can
understand and use.

There is a saying, "Give me a fish and I eat for a day, teach me to fish and I eat for a lifetime."
This is the philosophy of a good teacher. Give your students an answer and they can solve one
problem, but show students the techniques needed to find the answer for themselves and they can
become self-sufficient in the field. Students need to be shown how to apply the new techniques
you teach to problem solving.

6
 (c) Interest

A good teacher starts with a firm knowledge of the subject, and builds on that with a clarity and
understanding designed to help students master the material. The best teachers then go one step
further. Because good teachers are interested in the material being taught, they make the class
interesting and relevant to the students. Knowledge is worthless unless it is delivered to the
students in a form they can understand. But the effort expended making the material
understandable is wasted if the students are asleep when it is delivered, or if the students can see
no point in learning the material.

Good teachers recognize this, and work hard to make their material relevant. They show students
how the material will apply to their lives and their careers. Bad teachers make material "relevant"
by threatening students with failure on a test. Good teachers go far beyond this: they make
students want to learn the material by making it interesting.

(d) Respect

Good teachers always possess these three core qualities: knowledge, the ability to convey to
students an understanding of that knowledge, and the ability to make the material interesting and
relevant to students. Complementing these three is a fourth quality: good teachers have a deep-
seated concern and respect for the students in the classroom. Why else would a teacher put in the
time and effort needed to create a high quality class?

The creation of a good class requires an immense amount of work. You don't simply come up
with clear explanations and examples and experiments for class off the top of your head. You
don't create fair, consistent, high quality tests and homework assignments (read "learning
experiences") five minutes before you hand them out. You don't figure out ways to integrate new
materials and research into a class in an understandable way on the drive in one morning. You
work at this sort of quality all the time. You spend time with your students so you can learn
about holes in their understanding. You read and write and create to build an exciting and
interesting class every day. The only thing that would drive you to do that is a concern and
respect for the adults in your classroom.

Conclusion

When you strive and work to become a good teacher and to create a good class, the four core
qualities are essential: knowledge, the skills to convey that knowledge, the ability to make the
material you are teaching interesting and relevant, and a deep-seated respect for the student.
Without these four qualities, good teaching will not exist.

(ii) Teachers’ Techniques

For effective teaching to take place, an appropriate teaching method must be employed. A
teacher may develop lesson plans or use lesson plans that have been developed by other teachers.
When deciding the teaching methods to use, a teacher considers the students' background
7
knowledge, environment, and learning goals. Students have different ways of absorbing
information and of demonstrating their knowledge. Teachers often use techniques which cater to
multiple learning styles to help students retain information and strengthen understanding. A
variety of strategies and methods are used to ensure that all students have equal opportunities to
learn. A lesson plan may be carried out in several ways: Questioning, explaining, modeling,
collaborating, and demonstrating.

(i) Setting the scene

The importance of starting off on the right foot cannot be overestimated. The students are most
likely to learn in a relaxed and friendly environment.

(ii) Being student centered

Being student centered means focusing on what the students want to know and involving them in
the learning as much as possible. Essentially it is about moving away from an authoritarian form
of teaching where you, as the teacher, knows exactly what the students need to know and are
going to teach it whether they like it or not.

(iii)Assessing prior knowledge

Finding out what students know already is very important. Remember that even if they know it
already, time spent rehearsing the information is not wasted – by calling it up, they will be
preparing themselves for learning.

(iv) Getting students to participate

Students are most likely to learn when they are actively involved with the learning. This keeps
students interested. Thus you could have a discussion, some practical work, get the students to
think through a case and look at a model all in one session. Useful techniques include
questioning, brainstorming, interaction with students and role-play.
(v) Asking questions and dealing with answers
Questions are the simplest way of getting students to interact with a teacher. However, asking
questions is not as simple as it appears. Questions can also probe at different levels of
knowledge. The most common questions asked by teachers look at recall of facts. However, it
may be more useful to see whether the student can use those facts, and whether they can solve
new problems with those facts. The most common problem we see with asking questions is that
teachers don’t allow students long enough to think of an answer. Remember that complex
questions need more thinking time. Rather than answering the question yourself when the student
can’t, ask yourself why. There are several possibilities:
 the student doesn’t understand - try putting the question another way
 the question had more than one part and the student cannot remember the first point – try
to keep it simple
 the question was too difficult – reframe the question at an easier level (this may make
several smaller questions) as working through the answer to the question with you in
small stages will help students understand the underlying concept.
(vi) Checking understanding
8
During a session it is worth monitoring the progress of the students. Check that they understand
the points you have just covered and make sure they have no questions before you move onto the
next topic. By checking you will be able to manage the pace of the session (this means the speed
at which information is delivered) and make sure that the information is delivered at the right
level or pitch.
(vii) Using visual aids
This is another way of keeping students interested. The aphorism “a picture tells a thousand
words” is true. Students can interact with diagrammatic information easily. Common tools are
diagrams (from books, CD ROMs etc), flip charts and overhead projectors. It is important to
think about why you are using a visual aid and take some time over selecting the correct one.
(viii) Setting homework
This is often referred to as lifelong learning through which students can understand the content
as doing by self at home. Students often refer to this as ‘setting homework’, and are familiar with
the process as they have been exposed to problem-based-learning.
(ix) Summarising and closing a session
Summarising at the end of a session is important. We could reduce a lot of teaching theory to the
statement “tell them what you going to do, do it, tell them what you just did”. This perfectly
demonstrates the three part nature of a well planned lesson, and also reveals a critical fact about
the summary – no new facts. The summary is just that – a summary of the content of the lesson
at the end of the lesson. Its aim is to reinforce the most important points of the lesson. It can be
done in several ways. The most common are teacher led; where the teacher summarises the most
important points for the students, or student led; where the students are invited to summarise for
the group.The last part of a session involves preparing students for what is to come next week –
this enables them to read up, activate the knowledge they already have and make the most of the
lesson.

(iii) Teachers Skills

In this section we have to look at the basic teaching skills you will need to start teaching. You
will now be able to plan a simple lesson, and use your time with the students effectively. The key
points to remember are:
When am I teaching? – make sure you are prepared
What am I teaching? –make sure you understand the aims and objectives of the session
Overall teachers have to concentrate on following teaching skills:

a. Effective classroom teaching to varied audiences in terms of subject matter

b. Effective classroom teaching in terms of pedagogy
c. Ability to convey the competence in subject matter and confidence in one’s ability to
teach
d. Ability to develop course curriculum and individual lessons
e. Effective use of common instructional aids, including audiovisual techniques
f. Ability to help students understand the general principles and concepts underlying a
particular lesson
g. Ability to explain both basic and difficult concepts clearly
h. Ability to put a specific lesson into larger context (clinical relevance, prior material)

9
 i. Ability to ask good questions (testing, study, case histories)
j. Ability to provide feedback to students
k. Awareness of the strengths and limitations of various means for evaluating teaching
performance
l. Ability to adjust lesson plan based on information garnered from student questions
m. Ability to foster an effective learning environment including showing respect for the
student, encouraging their intellectual growth and providing a role model for scholarship
and intellectual vigor.

Activity: 2

Keeping in view the qualities, techniques and skills of teacher, enlist the characteristics of your
teacher and share it with your class fellows.

2.5 Individual Differences

Students are all different. That is what makes students unique and interesting human
beings. Obvious differences include hair color, height, size, and eye color. Other
differences may not be so obvious, but definitely affect learning and behavior in the
classrooms. Although classroom management plans are written for most classroom
settings, classroom management is also affected by student characteristics. Individual
goals, interests, culture, home background, age, academic ability levels, mental health
issues, behavior problems, eating disorders, inappropriate or unhealthy sexual
practices, use of drugs, and addiction problems influence the classroom management
plan. Classrooms are also affected by life circumstances of the children and
adolescents. Students come from a wide range of experiences and situations that
determine how they react to classroom activities and classroom management
procedures. Although schools should be places of safety and security, they often
provide opportunities for student-on-student bullying and inappropriate interactions
between students (Marzano, Gaddy, Foseid, Foseid, & Marzano, 2005). Just as
teachers modify instruction for student differences, teachers make adjustments to
classroom management to meet the needs of different students (Evertson & Emmer,
2009).

To identify individual differences, teachers may look at many different sources for
information. Sources might include classroom observations, work samples, school
records, standardized testing, and reports from other teachers (Evertson & Emmer,
2009).

Individual differences is a cornerstone subject area in modern psychology. Diversity in

10
the classroom takes multiple forms. We often think of diversity in demographic or
group terms, such as age, class, culture, disabilities, ethnicity, gender, or sexual
orientation. But the most common involves individual difference: in background,
levels of preparation, learning styles, interests, and abilities.
You aren’t simply teaching one students with twenty different faces; you are teaching
twenty different students, each with distinctive needs and talents, and different levels
of motivation, attention, knowledge, time to devote to your class, and maturity.
Many instructors fear that the very diversity of our classes means that talented students
aren’t sufficiently challenged and that the weakest students determine the class’ pace.
How can you provide an optimal learning environment for every student? Instead of
asking whether you should teach to the top or to the middle, consider ways to meet the
needs and build on the strengths of all your students.
Here are some practical suggestions.
1. Get to know your students
Nothing undermines stereotypes or misconceptions quicker than simple knowing your
students. Learn something about their strengths, talents, and interests and draw upon
those in your interactions with them. And remember, students who feel connected to
you work harder.
2. Make sure your students know why the material is worth learning.
Students who are engaged and motivated will put more effort into your course.
3. Create a classroom where student input about content and pedagogy is
welcome.
No doubt you will feel uncomfortable when students criticize an aspect of your class or
your teaching style. But if you are to reach them effectively, you need to encourage
them to reflect critically on their own learning.
4. Vary your presentation style.
Because students have diverse learning styles, consider using a variety of instructional
approaches: lectures, discussion, PowerPoint presentations, audio (including music),
video, charts and graphs, simulations, and images.
5. Highlight critical concepts and skills.
Make sure that all students master key concepts and skills.
6. Approach the material interactively.
Inquiry-based instruction, hands-on experiments, project and problem-based learning.
7. Integrate small group learning into your teaching.
Collaborative and team-based learning, including pairs and small group activities,
allow students to learn from their peers.
8. Don’t get locked into “lock-step” teaching.
All students don’t need to be doing exactly the same thing at the same time. You might
adopt “differentiated instruction,” where one group pursues one activity while you
work closely with another group on particular skills or concepts.
9. Create a support system.
Some students need additional help if they are to succeed. You can refer them to
student support services, but also holding special sessions or creating online tutorials
to address struggling students’ special needs.

11
(a) Need of individual differences

The aim of education is to enable each student to attain all-round development according to
his/her own attributes. To achieve this, students should be provided with suitable assistance and
guidance in accordance with their abilities and learning needs, so that they can develop their
potential to the full.

Each student is a unique individual, different in cognitive and affective development, social
maturity, ability, motivation, aspiration, learning styles, needs, interests and potential. Apart
from this, there are other factors underlying student differences. These include innate differences
in intelligence, differences in social and economic background, variations in past learning
experiences, and perhaps variations in the level of congruence between the learner and the
curriculum. In view of these factors, catering for individual differences is intended neither to
narrow the gap between individuals nor to even out their abilities and performance. It should aim
for understanding why students are able or unable to learn well and finding appropriate ways to
help them learn better.

We have the conviction that all students can learn. To address the needs of students, teachers
should provide them with a variety of learning opportunities for effective learning, such as using
diversified resources rather than focusing only on textbooks, and making use of a spectrum of
intelligences and multi-sensory experiences to tap the different potential of students. Schools can
adopt different modes of assessment to find out the strengths and weaknesses of students before
deciding on the appropriate curriculum, and learning and teaching strategies for them.

Activity: 3
Share with your course mates about their individual differences and prepare the list of different
individual differences prevail in your class.

2.6 Personality Development

Personality" can be defined as a dynamic and organized set of characteristics possessed by a
person that uniquely influences his or her cognitions, motivations, and behaviors in various
situations. The word "personality" originates from the Latin persona, which means mask.
Significantly, in the theatre of the ancient Latin-speaking world, the mask was not used as a plot
device to disguise the identity of a character, but rather was a convention employed to represent
or typify that character. Personality may also refer to the patterns of thoughts, feelings and
behaviors consistently exhibited by an individual over time that strongly influence our
expectations, self-perceptions, values and attitudes, and predicts our reactions to people,
problems and stress. In a phrase, personality is not just who we are, it is also how we are.

12
Philosophical assumptions

The study of personality is not a purely empirical discipline, as it brings in elements of art,
science, and philosophy to draw general conclusions. The following five categories are some of
the most fundamental philosophical assumptions which may lead to personality aspects:

1. Freedom versus Determinism

This is the debate over whether we have control over our own behavior and understand the
motives behind it (Freedom), or if our behavior is causally determined by forces beyond our
control (Determinism). Determinism has been considered unconscious, environmental, or
biological by various theories.

2. Heredity versus Environment

Personality is thought to be determined largely by genetics and biology, by environment and

experiences, or by some combination of both. There is evidence for all possibilities that most
personality traits are based on the joint influence of genetics and environment.

3. Uniqueness versus Universality

The argument over whether we are all unique individuals (Uniqueness) or if humans are
basically similar in their nature (Universality). Gordon Allport, Abraham Maslow, and Carl
Rogers were all advocates of the uniqueness of individuals. Behaviorists and cognitive theorists,
in contrast, emphasized the importance of universal principles such as reinforcement and self-
efficacy.

4. Active versus Reactive

Do we primarily act through our own initiative (Active), or react to outside stimuli (Reactive)?
Behavioral theorists typically believe that humans are passively shaped by their environments,
whereas humanistic and cognitive theorists believe that humans are more active.

5. Optimistic versus Pessimistic

According to optimistic view personality theories differ on whether people can change their
personalities (Optimism), while pessimism believes if people are doomed to remain the same
throughout their lives (Pessimism). Theories that place a great deal of emphasis on learning are
often, but not always, more optimistic than theories that do not emphasize learning

(A) Physical Development

Physical development refers to physical changes in the body and involves changes in bone
thickness, size, weight, gross motor, fine motor, vision, hearing, and perceptual development.
Growth is rapid during the first two years of life. The child's size, shape, senses, and organs
13
undergo change. As each physical change occurs, the child gains new abilities. During the first
year, physical development mainly involves the infant coordinating motor skills. The infant
repeats motor actions which serve to build physical strength and motor coordination. Here gross
motor skills and fine motor skills need to be discussed separately for comprehending the physical
development.

(i) Physical Development: Gross motor skills

The term "gross motor" development refers to physical skills that use large body movements,
normally involving the entire body. In the sense used here, gross means "large" rather than
"disgusting."

Between ages 2 and 3 years, young children stop "toddling," or using the awkward, wide-legged
robot-like stance that is the hallmark of new walkers. As they develop a smoother gait, they also
develop the ability to run, jump, and hop. Children of this age can participate in throwing and
catching games with larger balls. They can also push themselves around with their feet while
sitting on a riding toy.

Children who are 3 to 4 years old can climb up stairs using a method of bringing both feet
together on each step before proceeding to the next step (in contrast, adults place one foot on
each step in sequence). However, young children may still need some "back-up" assistance to
prevent falls in case they become unsteady in this new skill. Children of this age will also be
stumped when it's time to go back down the stairs; they tend to turn around and scoot down the
stairs backwards. 3 to 4 year olds can jump and hop higher as their leg muscles grow stronger.
Many can even hop on one foot for short periods of time.

Also at this age (3 to 4 years), children develop better upper body mobility. As a result, their
catching and throwing abilities improve in speed and accuracy. In addition, they can typically hit
a stationary ball from a tee with a bat. As whole body coordination improves, children of this age
can now peddle and steer a tricycle. They can also kick a larger ball placed directly in front of
their bodies.

By ages 4 to 5, children can go up and down the stairs alone in the adult fashion (i.e., taking one
step at a time). Their running continues to smooth out and increase in speed. Children of this age
can also skip and add spin to their throws. They also have more control when riding their
tricycles (or bicycles), and can drive them faster.

During ages 5 to 6, young children continue to refine earlier skills. They're running even faster
and can start to ride bicycles with training wheels for added stability. In addition, they can step
sideways. Children of this age begin mastering new forms of physical play such as the jungle
gym, and begin to use the see-saw, slide, and swing on their own. They often start jumping rope,
skating, hitting balls with bats, and so on. Many children of this age enjoy learning to play
organized sports such as soccer, basketball, t-ball or swimming. In addition, 5 to 6 year olds
often like to participate in physical extracurricular activities such as karate, gymnastics, or dance.
Children continue to refine and improve their gross motor skills through age 7 and beyond.

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 (ii) Physical Development: Fine Motor Skills

Fine motor skills are necessary to engage in smaller, more precise movements, normally using
the hands and fingers. Fine motor skills are different than gross motor skills which require less
precision to perform.

By ages 2 to 3 years, children can create things with their hands. They can build towers out of
blocks, mold clay into rough shapes, and scribble with a crayon or pen. Children of this age can
also insert objects into matching spaces, such as placing round pegs into round holes. 2 to 3 year-
olds often begin showing a preference for using one hand more often than the other, which is the
beginning of becoming left or right-handed.

Around ages 3 to 4 years, children start to manipulate clothing fasteners, like zippers and snaps,
and continue to gain independence in dressing and undressing themselves. Before they enter
school, most children will gain the ability to completely dress and undress themselves (even
though they may take a long time to finish the task). At this age, children can also begin using
scissors to cut paper. Caregivers should be sure to give children blunt, round-edged "kid"
scissors for safety reasons!

3 to 4 year- olds continue to refine their eating skills and can use utensils like forks and spoons.
Young children at this age can also use larger writing instruments, like fat crayons, in a writing
hold rather than just grasping them with their fist. They can also use a twisting motion with their
hands, useful for opening door knobs or twisting lids off containers. Because children can now
open containers with lids, caregivers should make certain that harmful substances such as
cleaners and medications are stored out of reach in a locked area to prevent accidental
poisonings.

During ages 4 to 5 years, children continue to refine fine motor skills and build upon earlier
skills. For instance, they can now button and unbutton their clothes by themselves. Their artistic
skills improve, and they can draw simple stick figures and copy shapes such as circles, squares,
and large letters. Drawing more complex shapes, however, may take longer.

5-7 year-olds begin to show the skills necessary for starting or succeeding in school, such as
printing letters and numbers and creating shapes such as triangles. They are able to use paints,
pencils and crayons with better control. Children can also complete other self-care tasks beyond
dressing and undressing, such as brushing their teeth and combing their hair. Children of this age
can also independently feed themselves without an adult's immediate supervision or help.

(B) Cognitive Development

Cognitive development refers to the ways children reason (think), develop language, solve
problems, and gain knowledge. Identifying colors, completing a maze, knowing the difference
between one and many, and knowing how things are similar are all examples of cognitive tasks.
Children learn through their senses and through their interactions with people and things in the
world. They interact with the world through the senses (see, touch, hear, smell, taste), and
15
construct meaning and understanding of the world. As children gain understanding and meaning
of the world, their cognitive development can be observed in the ways they play, use language,
interact with others, and construct objects and materials. As children grow and interact with their
world, they go through various stages of development. Although the stages are not precisely tied
to a particular age, there are characteristics that describe children at different ages.

(I) The Importance of Early Childhood Cognitive Development

Early childhood generally refers to the period from birth through age 5. A child’s cognitive
development during early childhood, which includes building skills such as pre-reading,
language, vocabulary, and numeracy, begins from the moment a child is born. Developmental
scientists have found that the brain acquires a tremendous amount of information about language
in the first year of life even before infants can speak. By the time babies utter or understand their
first words, they know which particular sounds their language uses, what sounds can be
combined to create words, and the tempo and rhythm of words and phrases.

There is a strong connection between the development a child undergoes early in life and the
level of success that the child will experience later in life. For example, infants who are better at
distinguishing the building blocks of speech at 6 months are better at other more complex
language skills at 2 and 3 years of age and better at acquiring the skills for learning to read at 4
and 5 years of age. Not surprisingly, a child’s knowledge of the alphabet in kindergarten is one
of the most significant predictors of what that child’s tenth grade reading ability will be.

When young children are provided an environment rich in language and literacy interactions and
full of opportunities to listen to and use language constantly, they can begin to acquire the
essential building blocks for learning how to read. A child who enters school without these skills
runs a significant risk of starting behind and staying behind.

(II) Stages of Early Childhood Cognitive Development

During the first few years of life, children undergo a rapid period of cognitive development,
taking them from an extremely primitive state of function to one in which they begin to
understand complex concepts. The developmental psychologist Jean Piaget classified this
development into two major stages: sensorimotor and preoperational, the latter of which
comprised four substages. The Piagetan model is one way caregivers can evaluate a child's
development and identify any delays or challenges.

(a) Sensorimotor Stage

The earliest stage of cognitive development is the sensorimotor stage. Children develop and
utilize motor skills, but their intellectual development is restricted almost entirely to sensory
input. In this stage, children understand little that is not occurring directly to them, and anything
that passes from their direct, immediate experience loses its importance. A ball that rolls out of
sight ceases to exist. Children usually grow out of this stage by two years of age.

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 (b) Symbols

The first part of the preoperational stage involves the development of symbolic thinking. Here,
children can retain symbolic knowledge of an item or person even when it is not in their line of
sight. A child can remember extended family members, or realize that a favorite toy is missing
and look for it. This stage usually occurs between two and four years of age.

(c ) Language

Another stage in the preoperational phase of cognitive development is the growth and use of
language. Young children begin to understand language, but early on can only grasp literal
meanings. Older children learn to interpret the spoken word and can understand the intent behind
what they hear. A child late in this stage could interpret the phrase, "I'd like to give you some
cereal, but I don't see your bowl," as a request to get their bowl, where a younger child would
have to be told directly. Children between three and six years old experience this stage of
development.

(d)Intuition

The intuitive stage of development marks the beginning of non-magical thinking in children.
Young children, when asked how something happened, often come up with completely
nonsensical answers. As children begin to develop cognitively, the ability to reason comes into
play, as does their understanding of the steps involved in a process. A young child might believe
that food just appears in the kitchen cabinets and refrigerator, while an older child would
understand that parents must go to the store and purchase groceries. This stage encompasses
children between four and seven years of age.

(C) Social and Emotional Development

The expression of feelings about self, others, and things describe emotional development.
Learning to relate to others is social development. Emotional and social development are often
described and grouped together because they are closely interrelated growth patterns. Feelings of
trust, fear, confidence, pride, friendship, and humor are all part of social-emotional development.
Other emotional traits are self concept and self esteem. Learning to trust and show affection to
others is a part of social-emotional development. The child's relationship to a trusting and caring
adult is a foundation of emotional development and personality development. Furthermore, when
a child has been neglected, rejected, and does not feel secure, he has difficulty developing skills
to socialize with others.

Overall social and emotional development refers the development of social skills and emotional
maturity that are needed to forge relationships and relate to others. Often developing empathy
and understanding the needs of others is also included in the area of social development.
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In order to develop socially, children need to interact with their peers and adults in a socially
acceptable way. Developing good social skills is necessary for them to be able to eventually form
healthy relationships and fit into various social scenarios comfortably.

Parental interactions are the building blocks for healthy social and emotional development in
children. By giving lots of love and attention to the baby, parents form a close bond with the
child, allowing him or her to grow in a comfortable, secure and socially healthy atmosphere.

As a child grows and matures, his language skills improve, making social emotional
development and social interactions with peers an important part of his life, as he becomes more
involved with other children and adults around him. When the child reaches
preschool, friendships become increasingly important. At this stage of social development,
children often prefer to play with same-sex friends, and often start forming ” best friend”
relationship with selected peers.

Friendships, attention and approval of his or her peers and significant adults become increasingly
important to a preschool child. At this age, children become focused on seeking approval from
their parents and friends. They often prefer playing with their friends or alone, apart from their
parents. They begin to show a strong desire for independence and often insist on making their
own choices and preferences in clothing, food, activities and so on. Most preschoolers at this
stage of social development, however, still often need an adult assistance and supervision in
order help them settle arguments or get necessary supplies. Many social development skills are
acquired at this age as children learn to compromise, share and take turns.

The early years of a child’s life present a unique opportunity for healthy development, and
research has shown the great importance of the first five years of life. During these formative
years, both positive and negative experiences help shape the children’s cognitive,
social, behavioral and emotional development.

Social and emotional development milestones are often harder to specify than those of
physical development. This area includes various skills that involve self-awareness and self
control. Social and emotional development is reflected in the ability of the child to pay
attention, make smooth transitions from one activity to another, empathies and cooperate with
others and other skills. Research shows that social development in children skills are very
important in school readiness for children and play a big role in the child’s social integration in
school.

Activity: 4

Prepare the chart of characteristics of physical, cognitive and emotional development of child.

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2.7 Cognitive styles and abilities

(a) Cognitive styles

Cognitive style or "thinking style" is a term used in cognitive psychology to describe the way
individuals think, perceive and remember information. Cognitive style differs from cognitive
ability (or level), the latter being measured by aptitude tests or so-called intelligence tests.
Controversy exists over the exact meaning of the term cognitive style and also as to whether it is
a single or multiple dimension of human personality. However, it remains a key concept in the
areas of education and management. If a pupil has a cognitive style that is similar to that of
his/her teacher, the chances that the pupil will have a more positive learning experience are
improved. Likewise, team members with similar cognitive styles likely feel more positive about
their participation with the team. While matching cognitive styles may make participants feel
more comfortable when working with one another, this alone cannot guarantee the success of the
outcome.

Cognitive styles refer to the preferred way individual processes information. Unlike individual
differences in abilities (e.g., Gardner, Guilford, Sternberg) which describe peak performance,
styles describe a person's typical mode of thinking, remembering or problem solving.
Furthermore, styles are usually considered to be bipolar dimensions whereas abilities are
unipolar (ranging from zero to a maximum value). Having more of ability is usually considered
beneficial while having a particular cognitive style simply denotes a tendency to behave in a
certain manner. Cognitive style is a usually described as a personality dimension which
influences attitudes, values, and social interaction.

A number of cognitive styles have been identified and studied over the years. Field independence
versus field dependence is probably the most well known style. It refers to a tendency to
approach the environment in an analytical, as opposed to global, fashion. At a perceptual level,
field independent personalities are able to distinguish figures as discrete from their backgrounds
compared to field dependent individuals who experience events in an undifferentiated way. In
addition, field dependent individuals have a greater social orientation relative to field
independent personalities. Studies have identified a number connections between this cognitive
style and learning (see Messick, 1978). For example, field independent individuals are likely to
learn more effectively under conditions of intrinsic motivation (e.g., self-study) and are
influenced less by social reinforcement.

Other cognitive styles that have been identified include:

 scanning - differences in the extent and intensity of attention resulting in variations in the
vividness of experience and the span of awareness
 leveling versus sharpening - individual variations in remembering that pertain to the
distinctiveness of memories and the tendency to merge similar events

19
  reflection versus impulsivity - individual consistencies in the speed and adequacy with
which alternative hypotheses are formed and responses made
 conceptual differentiation - differences in the tendency to categorize perceived
similarities among stimuli in terms of separate concepts or dimensions

Theoretically, cognitive styles could be used to predict what kind of instructional strategies or
methods would be most effective for a given individual and learning task.

(b) Cognitive abilities

You have probably heard about cognitive abilities or cognition. What is cognition? Cognition has
to do with how a person understands and acts in the world. It is a set of abilities, skills or
processes that are part of nearly every human action.

Cognitive abilities are the brain-based skills we need to carry out any task from the simplest to
the most complex. They have more to do with the mechanisms of how we learn, remember,
problem-solve, and pay attention rather than with any actual knowledge. Any task can be broken
down into the different cognitive skills or functions needed to complete that task successfully.
For instance, answering the telephone involves at least: perception (hearing the ring tone), deci-
sion taking (answering or not), motor skill (lifting the receiver), language skills (talking and
understanding language), and social skills (interpreting tone of voice and interacting properly
with another human being).

The fields of neuropsychology, cognitive psychology, and thus cognitive training are based on
the framework that cognition consists of different mental functions or cognitive abilities which
are based on specific constellations of brain structures. For instance memory skills rely mainly
on parts of the temporal lobes (next to the temples) and parts of the frontal lobes (behind the
forehead).

In the table below, you can browse through the main brain functions involved in cognition. You
will also find brain teasers that will help you challenge all the cognitive abilities described
below: Learn and have fun!

COGNITIVE ABILITIES ARE MENTAL SKILLS

Cognitive Ability/Brain
Skills involved
Function

Recognition and interpretation of sensory stimuli (smell, touch,

Perception hearing, etc.)

Attention Ability to sustain concentration on a particular object,

action, or thought.

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 Ability to manage competing demands in our environment.

Short-term/ working memory (limited storage).

Memory Long-term memory (unlimited storage).

Ability to mobilize our muscles and bodies.

Motor Ability to manipulate objects.

Skills allowing us to translate sounds into words and gener-

Language ate verbal output.

Ability to process incoming visual stimuli.

Visual and Spatial Ability to understand spatial relationship between objects.

Processing
Ability to visualize images and scenarios.

Abilities that enable goal-oriented behavior, such as the abil-

ity to plan, and execute a goal. These include:

Flexibility: the capacity for quickly switching to the appro-

priate mental mode.

Theory of mind: insight into other people’s inner world,

their plans, their likes and dislikes.

Executive Functions Anticipation: prediction based on pattern recognition.

Problem-solving: defining the problem in the right way to

then generate solutions and pick the right one.

Decision making: the ability to make decisions based on

problem-solving, on incomplete information and on emo-
tions (ours and others’).

Working Memory: the capacity to hold and manipulate

information “on-line” in real time.

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 Emotional self-regulation: the ability to identify and man-
age one’s own emotions for good performance.

Sequencing: the ability to break down complex actions into

manageable units and prioritize them in the right order.

Inhibition: the ability to withstand distraction, and inter-

nal urges.

Activity: 5

Keeping in view the nature of cognitive styles and abilities, enlist different styles and abilities of
yourself and your class fellows, and compare it with content of this topic.

2.8 Temperament

Children, from birth, differ in the ways they react to their environment. Temperament refers to
the quality and degree or intensity of emotional reactions. Passivity, irritability, and activity
are three factors that affect a child's temperament. Passivity refers to how actively involved a
child is with his or her environment or surroundings. A passive infant withdraws from or is
otherwise not engaged with a new person or event. An active infant does something in response
to a new person or event. There is also difference in the level of irritability (tendency to feel
distressed) of infants. Some infants may cry easily and be difficult to comfort and soothe even if
you hold them. Other infants may rarely cry and are not bothered as much by change. Caring for
these infants is usually viewed as easier for adults. Activity levels or levels of movement also
vary in infants. Some infants make few movements, are quiet, and when asleep, may hardly
move. Other infants constantly move their limbs (arms and legs) and may be restless in sleep.

As caregivers, we need to nurture and give loving attention to all infants regardless of their
temperament. We also need to adjust to the temperament of different children. Even very
irritable infants can grow to be emotionally happy and well adjusted if caregivers are patient,
responsive, and loving in their caregiving ways.

(a) Temperament Characteristics

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 (i) Activity

Activity refers to the child's physical energy. Is the child constantly moving, or does the child
have a relaxing approach? A high-energy child may have difficulty sitting still in class, whereas
a child with low energy can tolerate a very structured environment. The former may use gross
motor skills like running and jumping more frequently. Conversely, a child with a lower activity
level may rely more on fine motor skills, such as drawing and putting puzzles together. This trait
can also refer to mental activity, such as deep thinking or reading—activities which become
more significant as the person matures.

(ii) Regularity

Regularity refers to the level of predictability in a child’s biological functions, such as waking,
becoming tired, hunger, and bowel movements. Does the child have a routine in eating and
sleeping habits, or are these events more random? For example, a child with a high regularity
rating may want to eat at 2 p.m. every day, whereas a child lower on the regularity scale may eat
at sporadic times throughout the day.

(iii) Initial reaction

Initial reaction is also known as Approach or Withdrawal. This refers to how the child responds
(whether positively or negatively) to new people or environments. Does the child approach
people or things in the environment without hesitation, or does the child shy away? A bold child
tends to approach things quickly, as if without thinking, whereas a cautious child typically
prefers to watch for a while before engaging in new experiences.

(iv) Adaptability

Adaptability refers to how long it takes the child to adjust to change over time (as opposed to an
initial reaction). Does the child adjust to the changes in their environment easily, or is the child
resistant? A child who adjusts easily may be quick to settle into a new routine, whereas a
resistant child may take a long time to adjust to the situation.

(v) Intensity

Intensity refers to the energy level of a positive or negative response. Does the child react
intensely to a situation, or does the child respond in a calm and quiet manner? A more intense
child may jump up and down screaming with excitement, whereas a mild-mannered child may
smile or show no emotion.

(vi) Mood

Mood refers to the child’s general tendency towards a happy or unhappy demeanor. All children
have a variety of emotions and reactions, such as cheerful and stormy, happy and unhappy. Yet

23
each child biologically tends to have a generally positive or negative outlook. A baby who
frequently smiles and coos could be considered a cheerful baby, whereas a baby who frequently
cries or fusses might be considered a stormy baby.

(vii) Distractibility

Distractibility refers to the child’s tendency to be sidetracked by other things going on around
them. Does the child get easily distracted by what is happening in the environment, or can the
child concentrate despite the interruptions? An easily distracted child is engaged by external
events and has difficulty returning to the task at hand, whereas a rarely distracted child stays
focused and completes the task at hand.

(viii) Persistence and attention span

Persistence and attention span refer to the child’s length of time on a task and ability to stay with
the task through frustrations—whether the child stays with an activity for a long period of time
or loses interest quickly.

(ix) Sensitivity

Sensitivity refers to how easily a child is disturbed by changes in the environment. This is also
called sensory threshold or threshold of responsiveness. Is the child bothered by external stimuli
like noises, textures, or lights, or does the child seem to ignore them? A sensitive child may lose
focus when a door slams, whereas a child less sensitive to external noises will be able to
maintain focus.

Activity: 6

Observe your class fellows and enlist the characteristics of their temperament and discuss with
them.

Self- Assessment Questions

1. Discuss the concept and components of classroom management. Also highlight

the role of teacher for managing the class effectively.

2. Discuss the role of individual difference in managing the classroom activities.

3. Explain the different aspects of personality development.

4. How does temperament affect the classroom environment? Discuss.

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 2.9 Cultural background

Students are not only intellectual but also social and emotional beings, and all these dimensions
interact to impact learning and performance. To plan an effective course, it is important to
consider who our students are, taking into account their;

 Prior knowledge
 Intellectual development
 Cultural background
 Generational experiences and expectations

All these aspects are important but knowledge of cultural back ground plays a vital role in the
context of classroom management. During the teaching teacher may concentrate on these
questions: What is the cultural back ground of the students? How might cultural differences
among your students (or between you and your students) affect the course you are planning?

While all cultures value learning, the kinds of learning valued in particular cultures, the manner
in which learning is believed to best occur, and the ways in which the roles of students and
teachers are conceptualized may differ profoundly from culture to culture. When students from
different cultures share a classroom – or if you, as the instructor, come from a different culture
than your students – it is important to consider how cultural background can affect classroom
dynamics and learning.

(a) Tips for teaching in a diverse classroom

Here are six types of knowledge you can develop to help your students succeed in your
classroom.

1. Learn about your own culture

Become aware of how the influence of your own culture, language, social interests, goals,
cognitions, and values could prevent you from learning how you could best teach your students
of culturally and linguistically diverse backgrounds. Also, understanding and respecting your
own cultural roots can help you respect your students’ cultural roots.

2. Learn about your students’ culture

Understand how your students’ cultures affect their perceptions, self-esteem, values, classroom
behavior, and learning. Use that understanding to help your students feel welcomed, affirmed,
respected, and valued.

3. Understand your students’ linguistic traits

25
Learn how students’ patterns of communication and various dialects affect their classroom
learning and how second-language learning affects their acquisition of literacy.

4. Use this knowledge to inform your teaching

Let your knowledge of your students’ diverse cultures inform your teaching. This, along with a
sincerely caring attitude, increases student participation and engagement.

5. Use multicultural books and materials to foster cross-cultural understanding

Sensitively use multicultural literature, especially children’s literature, to honor students’ culture
and foster cross-cultural understanding. Be open to a variety of instructional strategies as
students’ cultures may make certain strategies (such as competitive games or getting students to
volunteer information) uncomfortable for them.

6. Know about your students’ home and school relationships

Collaborate with parents and caregivers on children’s literacy development and don’t rely on
preconceived notions of the importance of literacy within your students’ families.

Acquiring this rich store of knowledge may seem overwhelming, but whatever investment you
can make will be well worth the time and effort. Make it a career-long goal to build your
knowledge bases a little piece at a time. At the very least, notice how your students with diverse
backgrounds react differently to various language and literacy teaching strategies and be willing
to modify your approach to find mutual success.

Activity: 7

Conduct an interview with your class fellows to examine their cultural back ground and its
impact on their learning
2.10Asperger's Syndrome
Asperger's syndrome, also called Asperger's disorder, is a type of pervasive development
disorder (PDD). PDDs are a group of conditions that involve delays in the development of many
basic skills, most notably the ability to socialize with others, to communicate, and to use
imagination.
Although Asperger's syndrome is similar in some ways to autism -- another, more severe type of
pervasive development disorder PDD -- there are some important differences. Children with
Asperger's syndrome typically function better than do those with autism. In addition, children
with Asperger's syndrome generally have normal intelligence and near-normal language
development, although they may develop problems communicating as they get older.
Asperger's syndrome was named for the Austrian doctor, Hans Asperger, who first described the
disorder in 1944. However, Asperger's syndrome was not recognized as a unique disorder until
much later.

26
 (a) What Are the Symptoms of Asperger's Syndrome?

The symptoms of Asperger's syndrome vary and can range from mild to severe. Common
symptoms include:

 Problems with social skills: Children with Asperger's syndrome generally have
difficulty interacting with others and often are awkward in social situations. They generally do
not make friends easily.
 Eccentric or repetitive behaviors: Children with this condition may develop odd,
repetitive movements, such as hand wringing or finger twisting.
 Unusual preoccupations or rituals: A child with Asperger's syndrome may develop
rituals that he or she refuses to alter, such as getting dressed in a specific order.
 Communication difficulties: People with Asperger's syndrome may not make eye
contact when speaking with someone. They may have trouble using facial expressions and
gestures, and understanding body language. They also tend to have problems understanding
language in context.
 Limited range of interests: A child with Asperger's syndrome may develop an intense,
almost obsessive, interest in a few areas, such as sports schedules, weather, or maps.
 Coordination problems: The movements of children with Asperger's syndrome may
seem clumsy or awkward.
 Skilled or talented: Many children with Asperger's syndrome are exceptionally talented
or skilled in a particular area, such as music or math.

(b) What Causes Asperger's Syndrome?

The exact cause of Asperger's syndrome is not known. However, the fact that it tends to run in
families suggests that a tendency to develop the disorder may be inherited (passed on from
parent to child).
© How Common Is Asperger's Syndrome?

Asperger's syndrome has only recently been recognized as a unique disorder. For that reason, the
exact number of people with the disorder is unknown, although it is more common than autism.
Estimates suggest Asperger's syndrome affects from 0.024% to 0.36% of children. It is more
common in males than in females, and usually is first diagnosed in children between the ages of
2 and 6 years.
(d) How Is Asperger's Syndrome Diagnosed?

If symptoms are present, the doctor will begin an evaluation by performing a complete medical
history and physical exam. Although there are no tests for Asperger's syndrome, the doctor may

27
use various tests -- such as X-rays and blood tests -- to determine if there is a physical disorder
causing the symptoms.
If no physical disorder is found, the child may be referred to a specialist in childhood
development disorders, such as a child and adolescent psychiatrist or psychologist, pediatric
neurologist, developmental pediatrician, or another health professional who is specially trained
to diagnose and treat Asperger's syndrome. The doctor bases his or her diagnosis on the child's
level of development, and the doctor's observation of the child's speech and behavior, including
his or her play and ability to socialize with others. The doctor often seeks input from the child's
parents, teachers, and other adults who are familiar with the child's symptoms.

(e) Managing the Asperger syndrome

Asperger syndrome treatment attempts to manage distressing symptoms and to teach age-
appropriate social, communication and vocational skills that are not naturally acquired during
development, with intervention tailored to the needs of the individual based on multidisciplinary
assessment. Although progress has been made, data supporting the efficacy of particular
interventions are limited.

(i) Therapies

The ideal treatment for AS coordinates therapies that address core symptoms of the disorder,
including poor communication skills and obsessive or repetitive routines. While most
professionals agree that the earlier the intervention, the better, there is no single best treatment
package. AS treatment resembles that of other high-functioning ASDs, except that it takes into
account the linguistic capabilities, verbal strengths, and nonverbal vulnerabilities of individuals
with AS. A typical program generally includes:

 The training of social skills for more effective interpersonal interactions.

 Cognitive behavioral therapy to improve stress management relating to anxiety or
explosive emotions and to cut back on obsessive interests and repetitive routines,
 Medication, for coexisting conditions such as major depressive disorder and anxiety
disorder
 Occupational or physical therapy to assist with poor sensory integration and motor
coordination
 Social communication intervention, which is specialized speech therapy to help with
the pragmatics of the give and take of normal conversation.
 The training and support of parents, particularly in behavioral techniques to use in the
home.

28
 (ii) Medications

Medication can be effective in combination with behavioral interventions and environmental

accommodations in treating co- morbid symptoms such as anxiety disorder, major depressive
disorder, inattention and aggression.

Activity: 8

Identify the child who is suffering with Asperger syndrome and apply the therapies to overcome
on this disorder.

2.11 Teaching Students with Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder

Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) is a developmental disorder. It is characterized

primarily by "the co-existence of attentional problems and hyperactivity, with each behavior
occurring infrequently alone" and symptoms starting before seven years of age. ADHD is the
most commonly studied and diagnosed psychiatric disorder in children, affecting about 3 to 5
percent of children globally and diagnosed in about 2 to 16 percent of school-aged children. It is
a chronic disorder with 30 to 50 percent of those individuals diagnosed in childhood continuing
to have symptoms into adulthood. Adolescents and adults with ADHD tend to develop coping
mechanisms to compensate for some or all of their impairments.

ADHD is diagnosed two to four times more frequently in boys than in girls. ADHD
management usually involves some combination of medications, behavior modifications,
lifestyle changes, and counseling.

(a) Signs and symptoms

The symptom categories of ADHD in children yield three potential classifications of ADHD. In
1994, it was renamed ADHD and broken down into three subtypes, each with its own pattern of
behaviors:

1. an inattentive type, with signs that include:

inability to pay attention to details or a tendency to make careless errors in schoolwork

or other activities
difficulty with sustained attention in tasks or play activities
apparent listening problems
difficulty following instructions
problems with organization
29
 avoidance or dislike of tasks that require mental effort
tendency to lose things like toys, notebooks, or homework
distractibility
forgetfulness in daily activities

2. a hyperactive-impulsive type, with signs that include:

fidgeting or squirming
difficulty remaining seated
excessive running or climbing
difficulty playing quietly
always seeming to be "on the go"
excessive talking
blurting out answers before hearing the full question
difficulty waiting for a turn or in line
problems with interrupting or intruding

3. a combined type, which involves a combination of the other two types and is the most
common

Although it can be challenging to raise kids with ADHD, it's important to remember they aren't
"bad," "acting out," or being difficult on purpose. And they have difficulty controlling their
behavior without medication or behavioral therapy.

(b) Causes of ADHD

ADHD is not caused by poor parenting, too much sugar, or vaccines.

ADHD has biological origins that aren't yet clearly understood. No single cause has been
identified, but researchers are exploring a number of possible genetic and environmental links.
Studies have shown that many kids with ADHD have a close relative who also has the disorder.

Although experts are unsure whether this is a cause of the disorder, they have found that certain
areas of the brain are about 5% to 10% smaller in size and activity in kids with ADHD. Chemical
changes in the brain also have been found.

Research also links smoking during pregnancy to later ADHD in a child. Other risk factors may
include premature delivery, very low birth weight, and injuries to the brain at birth.
30
Some studies have even suggested a link between excessive early television watching and future
attention problems. American Academy of Pediatrics' (AAP) suggests the parents that children
under 2 years old should not have any "screen time" (TV, DVDs or videotapes, computers, or
video games) and that kids 2 years and older should be limited to 1 to 2 hours per day, or less, of
quality television programming

© ADHD in the Classroom

As your child's most important advocate, you should become familiar with your child's medical,
legal, and educational rights.

Kids with ADHD are eligible for special services or accommodations at school under the
Individuals with Disabilities in Education Act (IDEA) and an anti-discrimination law known as
Section 504. Keep in touch with teachers and school officials to monitor your child's progress.

In addition to using routines and a clear system of rewards, here are some other tips to share with
teachers for classroom success:

 Reduce seating distractions. Lessening distractions might be as simple as seating your

child near the teacher instead of near the window.

 Use a homework folder for parent-teacher communications. The teacher can include
assignments and progress notes, and you can check to make sure all work is completed on
time.

 Break down assignments. Keep instructions clear and brief, breaking down larger tasks
into smaller, more manageable pieces.

 Give positive reinforcement. Always be on the lookout for positive behaviors. Ask the
teacher to offer praise when your child stays seated, doesn't call out, or waits his or her
turn instead of criticizing when he or she doesn't.

 Teach good study skills. Underlining, note taking, and reading out loud can help your
child stay focused and retain information.

 Supervise. Check that your child goes and comes from school with the correct books and
materials. Sometimes kids are paired with a buddy to can help them stay on track.

31
  Be sensitive to self-esteem issues. Ask the teacher to provide feedback to your child in
private, and avoid asking your child to perform a task in public that might be too difficult.

 Involve the school counselor or psychologist. He or she can help design behavioral
programs to address specific problems in the classroom.

(d) Three Components of Successful Programs for Children with ADHD

The three main components for successfully teaching ADHD children are academic instruction,
behavioral interventions, and classroom accommodations. This guide outlines a series of
strategies proven successful in not only educating children with ADHD but all children. By
incorporating techniques from these three areas into their everyday instructional and classroom
management practices, teachers will improve the academic performance and the behavior of their
students with ADHD.

(i) Academic Instruction: The first major component of the most effective instruction for
children with ADHD is effective school instruction. Teachers can help prepare their students
with ADHD to achieve by applying the principles of effective teaching when they introduce,
conduct, and conclude each lesson during the school day. The discussion and techniques that
follow pertain to the instructional process in general (across subject areas); strategies for specific
subject areas appear in the subsequent subsection “Individualizing Instructional Practices.”

(ii) Behavioral Interventions: The second major component of effective ADHD school
instruction involves the use of behavioral interventions. The purpose of behavioral interventions
in the school setting is to assist ADHD students in displaying the behaviors that are most
conducive to their own learning and that of classmates. Well-managed classrooms prevent many
disciplinary problems and provide an environment that is most favorable for learning. When a
teacher’s time must be spent interacting with students whose behaviors are not focused on the
lesson being presented, less time is available for assisting other students. Behavioral
interventions should be viewed as an opportunity for teaching in the most effective and efficient
manner, rather than as an opportunity for punishment.

(iii) Classroom Accommodations: The third component of a strategy for effectively

educating children with ADHD involves physical ADHD classroom accommodations. Children
with ADHD often have difficulty adjusting to the structured environment of a classroom,
determining what is important, and focusing on their assigned work. They are easily distracted
by other children or by nearby activities in the school classroom. As a result, many children with
ADHD benefit from ADHD teaching accommodations that reduce distractions in the classroom
environment and help them to stay on task and learn. Certain accommodations within the
physical and learning environments of the classroom can benefit children with ADHD.

32
Activity: 9

Enlist the problems faced by students with ADHD during their teaching learning process in our
schools.

2.12 Oppositional Defiant Disorder (ODD)

(a) What is it?

Oppositional Defiant Disorder (ODD) is a psychiatric disorder that is characterized by two
different sets of problems. These are aggressiveness and a tendency to purposefully bother and
irritate others. It is often the reason that people seek treatment. When ODD is present with
ADHD, depression, anxiety disorders, or other neuropsychiatric disorders, it makes life with that
child far more difficult. For Example, ADHD plus ODD is much worse than ADHD alone, often
enough to make people seek treatment. ODD is a condition in which a child displays an ongoing
pattern of uncooperative, defiant, hostile, and annoying behavior toward people in authority. The
child's behavior often disrupts the child's normal daily activities, including activities within the
family and at school.
Many children and teens with ODD also have other behavioral problems, such as attention-
deficit/hyperactivity disorder, learning disabilities, mood disorders (such as depression), and
anxiety disorders. Some children with ODD go on to develop a more serious behavior disorder
called conduct disorder. The criteria for ODD are:
1. Often loses temper
2. Often argues with adults
3. Often actively defies or refuses to comply with adults' requests or rules
4. Often deliberately annoys people
5. Often blames others for his or her mistakes or misbehavior.
6. Is often touchy or easily annoyed by others.
7. Is often angry and resentful.
8. Is often spiteful and vindictive.

(i) How often is "often"?

All of the criteria above include the word "often". But what exactly does that mean? Recent
studies have shown that these behaviors occur to a varying degree in all children. These
researchers have found that the "often" is best solved by the following criteria.

33
 (ii) Occurs at least twice a week

 Is touchy or easily annoyed by others

 Loses temper

 Argues with adults

 Actively defies or refuses to comply with adults' requests or rules

(iii) Occurs at least four times per week

 Is angry and resentful

 Deliberately annoys people

(b) What causes it?

No one knows for certain. The usual pattern is for problems to begin between ages 1-3. If you
think about it, a lot of these behaviors are normal at age 2, but in this disorder they never go
away. It does run in families. If a parent is alcoholic and has been in trouble with the law, their
children are almost three times as likely to have ODD. That is, 18% of children will have ODD if
the parents are alcoholic and the father has been in trouble with the law.

© How can you tell if a child has it?

ODD is diagnosed in the same way as many other psychiatric disorders in children. You need to
examine the child, talk with the child, talk to the parents, and review the medical history.
Sometimes other medical tests are necessary to make sure it is not something else. You always
need to check children out for other psychiatric disorders, as it is common the children with
ODD will have other problems, too.

There are a number of sleep disorders which can look like ODD or make it worse.

Who gets it?

A lot of children! This is the most common psychiatric problem in children. Over 5% of children
have this. In younger children it is more common in boys than girls, but as they grow older, the
rate is the same in males and females.

(d) What Are the Symptoms of Oppositional Defiant Disorder?

Symptoms of ODD may include:

 Throwing repeated temper tantrums

34
 Excessively arguing with adults
 Actively refusing to comply with requests and rules
 Deliberately trying to annoy or upset others, or being easily annoyed by others
 Blaming others for your mistakes
 Having frequent outbursts of anger and resentment
 Being spiteful and seeking revenge
 Swearing or using obscene language
 Saying mean and hateful things when upset

In addition, many children with ODD are moody, easily frustrated, and have a low self-esteem.
They also may abuse drugs and alcohol.
(e) What Causes Oppositional Defiant Disorder?

The exact cause of ODD is not known, but it is believed that a combination of biological,
genetic, and environmental factors may contribute to the condition.

 Biological: Some studies suggest that defects in or injuries to certain areas of the brain
can lead to serious behavioral problems in children. In addition, ODD has been linked to
abnormal amounts of special chemicals in the brain called neurotransmitters. Neurotransmitters
help nerve cells in the brain communicate with each other. If these chemicals are out of balance
or not working properly, messages may not make it through the brain correctly, leading to
symptoms of ODD, and other mental illnesses. Further, many children and teens with ODD also
have other mental illnesses, such as ADHD, learning disorders, depression, or an anxiety
disorder, which may contribute to their behavior problems.
 Genetics: Many children and teens with ODD have close family members with mental
illnesses, including mood disorders, anxiety disorders, and personality disorders. This suggests
that a vulnerability to develop ODD may be inherited.
 Environmental: Factors such as a dysfunctional family life, a family history of mental
illnesses and/or substance abuse, and inconsistent discipline by parents may contribute to the
development of behavior disorders.

Activity: 10
Conduct an interview with a student who is suffering with Oppositional Defiant Disorder (ODD)
about his/ her difficulties in normal class room environment.

2.13 Conduct disorder (CD)

In some ways, conduct disorder is just a worse version of ODD. However recent research
suggests that there are some differences. Children with ODD seem to have worse social skills
than those with CD. Children with ODD seem to do better in school. (1). Conduct disorder is the
35
most serious childhood psychiatric disorder. Approximately 6-10% of boys and 2-9% of girls
have this disorder.

Here is the Definition.

A repetitive and persistent pattern of behavior in which the basic rights of others or major society
rules are violated. At least three of the following criteria must be present in the last 12 months,
and at least one criterion must have been present in the last 6 months.

(a) Causes of CD

Aggression to people and animals

Often bullies, threatens, or intimidates others

Often initiates physical fights

Has used a weapon that can cause serious physical harm to others (a bat, brick, broken bottle,
knife, gun)

Physically cruel to animals

Physically cruel to people

Has stolen while confronting a victim (mugging, purse snatching, extortion, armed robbery)

Destruction of property

Has deliberately engaged in fire setting with the intention of causing serious damage

Has deliberately destroyed other's property other than by fire setting

Deceitfulness or theft

Has broken into someone else's house, building or car

Often lies to obtain goods or favors or to avoid work

Has stolen items of nontrivial value without confronting a victim (shoplifting, forgery)

Serious violations of rules

Often stays out at night despite parental prohibitions, beginning before 13 years of age

36
Has run away from home overnight at least twice without returning home for a lengthy period

Often skips school before age 13.

The above problem causes significant impairment in social, academic, and occupational
functioning.

(b) How are ODD and CD related?

Currently, the research shows that in many respects, CD is a more severe form of ODD. Severe
ODD can lead to CD. Milder ODD usually does not. The common thread that separates CD and
ODD is safety. If a child has CD there are safety concerns. Sometimes it is the personal safety of
others in the school, family, or community. Sometimes it is the safety of the possessions of other
people in the school, family or community. Often the safety of the child with CD is a great
concern. Children with ODD are an annoyance, but not especially dangerous. If you have a child
with CD disorder in your home, most likely you do not feel entirely safe. Or, you do not feel that
your things are entirely safe. It is the hardest pediatric neuropsychiatric disorder to live with as a
sibling, parent, or foster parent. Nothing else even comes close. It is worse than any medical
disorder in pediatrics. Some parents have told me that at times it is worse than having your child
die.

© Conduct Disorder and co- morbidity

It has been common in the past for people to think that conduct disorder is just the beginning of
being a criminal. Up until the last few years, children with conduct disorder were often "written
off". It is now clear that this is true only with a minority of cases. It is very easy to focus on the
management of the CD child and forget to check the child out for other neuropsychiatric
disorders. A careful examination of children with CD almost always reveals other
neuropsychiatric disorders. Some of the most exciting developments in this area of medicine
involve understanding these phenomena. It is called co-morbidity that is the tendency for
disorders to occur together.

It is very common to see children with CD plus another one or two neuropsychiatric diagnoses.
By far the most common combination is CD plus ADHD. Between 30-50% of children with CD
will also have ADHD. Another common combination is CD plus depression or anxiety. One
quarter to one half of children with CD have either an anxiety disorder or depression. CD
disorder plus substance abuse is also very common. Also common are associations with Learning
Disorders, bipolar disorder and Tourettes Syndrome. It is exceptionally rare for a child to present
for evaluation by a pediatric psychiatrist to have pure CD. Here are some examples of the co-
morbid presentations.

Looking for co-morbid disorders in every child with conduct disorder is absolutely essential.
Many of the treatments of these children depend on what co-morbid disorder is also present.

37
Activity: 11
Compare the symptoms of Conduct disorder (CD), Oppositional Defiant Disorder (ODD) and
Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). Also enlist the teaching learning problems of these
students.

Self- Assessment Questions

1. Discuss the importance of cultural background in teaching learning process.

2. Explain the different aspects of Asperger’s Syndrome.

3. What do you mean by Attention Deficit Hyperactive Disorder? Also highlight

teaching strategies for teaching the ADHD students.

4. Differentiate the Oppositional Defiant Disorder (ODD) and Conduct Disorder

(CD) and explore their causes and remedies for minimizing their negative effects
on students learning.

38
 Bibliography

Angela Waguespack, Terrence Vaccaro & Lauren Continere (2006). Functional Behavioral
Assessment and Intervention with Emotional/Behaviorally Disordered Students: In Pursuit of
State of the Art. International Journal of Behavioral Consultation and Therapy, 2 (4), 463–474.

Asperger H; tr. and annot. Frith U (1991) [1944]. "'Autistic psychopathy' in childhood". In Frith
U. Autism and Asperger syndrome. Cambridge University Press. pp. 37–92. ISBN 0-521-38608-
X.

Baskin JH, Sperber M, Price BH (2006). "Asperger syndrome revisited". Rev Neurol Dis 3 (1):
1–7. PMID 16596080

Cancio, E. & Johnson, J.W. (2007). Level Systems Revisited: An Impact Tool For Educating
Students with Emotional and Behavioral Disorders. International Journal of Behavioral
Consultation and Therapy, 3 (4), 512–527

Froyen, L. A., & Iverson, A. M. (1999). Schoolwide and classroom management: The reflective
educator-leader (3rd ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice-Hall.

Good, T. & Brophy, J. (2002). Looking in classrooms, 9th edition. Boston: Allyn & Bacon.

Hinshaw, S. P., & Lee, S. S. (2003). Conduct and oppositional defiant disorders. In E. J. Mash &
R. A. Barkley (Eds.), Child psychopathology (pp. 144-198). New York: Guilford Press.

Hu Z, Chan RC, McAlonan GM (2010). "Maturation of social attribution skills in typically

developing children: an investigation using the social attribution task". Behav Brain Funct 6: 10.

Jones, V. & Jones, L. (2006). Comprehensive classroom management: Creating communities of

support and solving problems, 6th edition. Boston: Allyn & Bacon.

Mooney, Carol Garhart (2000). Theories of Childhood: an Introduction to Dewey, Montessori,

Erikson, Piaget & Vygotsky. Redleaf Press. ISBN 1-884834-85-X.

Pardini, D.A., Frick, P.J., & Moffitt, T.E. (2010) Building an Evidence base for DSM-5
Conceptualizations of Oppositional Defiant Disorder and Conduct Disorder: Introduction to the
Special Section. Journal of Abnormal Psychology. 119(4) 683-688.

Rader R, McCauley L, Callen EC (April 2009). "Current strategies in the diagnosis and treatment
of childhood attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder". Am Fam Physician 79 (8): 657–65.

39
Unit #3

Classroom Learning Environment

Written by:
Muhammad Tanveer Afzal
Reviewed by:
Dr. Naveed Sultana
1
Contents of the Unit

 Introduction

 Objectives

 Classroom Activities for effective learning environment

 Individual Differences and their impact on Classroom learning environment

 The Physical setting

 The emotional Climate

 Strategies for creating positive emotional climate

 Classroom activities to build self esteem and feeling of belonging

 Summary

 Self Assessment Questions

 References

2
 Classroom Learning Environment

3.1 Introduction

Learning is one of the important factors of human life, according to psychologists learning

related to mental functions of human and animals’ cognitive systems. It depends upon different

types of knowledge supported by accurate and perceived information learning help the human

being to improve their skills, values understanding and preferences. Goal of learning is to

increase the experience individually and in group also. In learning process involved the

improvement of human brain that depend upon mental capacity of learning subject, the type of

knowledge which he/she want to acquire. Along with this the surroundings circumstances and

socio-cognitive processes may play their role.

In the beginning, learning is very simple, but with the passage of time, as the human brain grows

up, the learning process becomes complex. When a human being born he/she learn on its own

mean without intention, but gradually the cognitive capacity grows better and the learning

capacity also increases. In general we can say that learning can be conscious and unconscious.

For example newly born babies learn unconsciously, such as berating and sucking. Afterwards

when the nervous system develops sufficiently the conscious learning begins to develop.

The conscious learning is based on the information processing model mean acquiring,

processing, saving in memory and then retrieving it for the use. This entire process is based upon

the learning environment and the individuals remember the information after linking it with the

environment. It plays a significant role for the individual to remember the information.

3
Normally teachers argue the information that creates the learning environment in the individuals

mind and he/she relate the previous knowledge with the current situation and develop the new

knowledge or, retain the previous one by rejecting the new one. The teachers arguments depends

upon the suppositions for example if some student could not get the good marks, then what will

be the plan for the future or what are the possible causes, these kind of questions by the teacher

may involve the students in different kind of learning. And consequently, it will provide different

environment to the students to react or handle the situation in the real world.

The above discussion reveals the importance of the learning environment in the process of

learning, therefore this particular unit is focused on the use of activities that help the teachers to

create effective learning environment, use of individual differences for creating conducive

learning environment, change of the physical setting of the classroom, creation of the emotional

climate of the classroom and creating the feeling of the belongingness in the students. The

examples, activities and the explanations are added to deepen the understanding of the

prospective students. The objectives of the unit are as written below.

3.2 Objectives

After completion of this unit, the prospective teachers will be able to:

 Identify different activities to create effective learning environment.

 Use different activities to create effective learning environment.
 Handle the individual differences between the students for establishing effective learning
environment.
 Apply different physical setting for creating effective learning environment.
 Identify different strategies for the development of emotional climate of the classroom.
 Apply classroom activities to build self esteem and feeling of belongingness

4
3.3 Classroom Activities for Effective Learning Environment
3.3.1 Learning Environment

The term “learning environment” is one of the most often used in the field of education.

Due to its extensive use it carries wide meaning and scope therefore it is difficult to define. One

of the most general definitions of learning environment is “a space where the resources, time,

and reasons are available to a group of people to nurture, support, and value their learning of a

limited set of information and ideas”. This definition includes resources that changes from the

school to school and classroom to classroom, same is the case with the group of students and

their intentions towards learning, this all create problems in defining the term learning

environment.

Learning environments are social places even when only one person can be found there.

The center of a learning environment is sharp, clear, and focused, but as discussed above varies

from situation to situation. There are limits to each learning environment, both in what can be

learned there and whose learning will be supported most. It is most common to describe a

learning environment by the types of resources to be found there, but while the resources are

crucial to a learning environment’s effectiveness, resources are only as good as the conditions

under which one has access to them. The variations are striking because the respective

environments support and nurture a definite style of life of the people of that particular area

where the learning environment is intended to be created. The diversity of resources and how

individuals gain access to those resources is a delicate balance. Interventions, such as new

electronic devices, instructional technologies and development in resources such as books, lesson

plans etc, shift the balance and the equity. Therefore the learning environments; places where

diverse people have different access to limited resources and variations in these resources are

5
different for each of the individual under consideration for the purpose of learning as great cause.

The overall aim of the teachers and the educational administration is to provide a suitable climate

for learning. But we know this is very difficult to provide all the needed resources it require a

continuous efforts both by the teachers and the administration. The difficulty is due to the

changing nature of the human and development over the period of time. A student of 2009 may

be satisfied with the learning environment but not of 2015 with the same type of physical and

cognitive settings. So it is the complexity of human learning makes even the identification of

which resources are appropriate for which kind of individuals is very difficult. One of the most

precious resources for learning (time) is usually in short supply. Time spent to comply with the

expectation to “cover the curriculum” seems misplaced to most of teachers. It has come to value

less scope and more depth when it comes to learning. A curriculum is a marvelous aid to learning

and teaching, yet it all too often becomes a ball and chain for even the most able and well-

intentioned teachers that are responsible for the learning environments to be created that are

conducive to learning.

Many scholars and educationist had tried to define the term learning environment some of the

selected definitions are as under.

3.3.2 Different Definitions of learning Environment

 Galbraith (1989, 1990) has suggested that the educational climate consists of both the

physical environment and the psychological or emotional climate (for example, what

takes place during the first session to establish a supportive, challenging, friendly,

informal, and open atmosphere).

6
  Pappas (1990) has laid out four key elements of what he calls the psychological

environment, including spatial behavior, physical characteristics (light, temperature,

noise, decor, and furniture arrangements), the role of tradition, and the affective

experience (how a person anticipates and responds to a learning setting).

 White (1972) has developed several criteria for assessing physical environments, and

Vosko (1984) has looked at several micro components of physical spaces, such as seating

arrangements and distance zones.

 Tagiuri (1968) has presented a taxonomy of environmental climate components,

composed of ecology (building on classroom characteristics), milieu (individuals'

characteristics), social system (interpersonal or group-patterned relationships), and

culture (beliefs, values, and expectations).

 Belsheim (1986, 1988) has described organizational environments within continuing

education settings in terms of culture, politics, economics, technological know-how, and

geographical areas served.

 David (1979) has called for alternative ways of conceptualizing the physical

environment, defining a functional approach to the environment in which physical

features and social and curricular concerns are soon to intersect.

Learning environments take many different forms. To create a learning environment, it is

perhaps less important to focus on developing extensive materials, and more important to

provide the students with appropriate tools and resources to conduct their own inquiries.

However, instructors are not required to provide all resources to students, unless serious time

constraints are present. Engaging students in research and finding relevant resources on their

own is a valuable learning task in many learning environments.

7
In modern literature the term learning environment is being used within the context of

educational software, which is beyond the scope of this level and is not discussed here.

Activity#1

Define the term learning environment keeping in mind the context of the learning of your
area and then compare this definition with the above mentioned definitions and identify the
which one is more closer to your own definition.

3.3.3 Classroom activities for Effective Learning Environment

Classrooms are meant to implement the curriculum developed as per requirement of the

educational policies and plans of the government. The effective implementation of the

curriculum is assessed on the basis of the objectives that have been achieved by that

implementation. The classrooms activities are aligned with the objectives set in the curriculum

and are based upon the learning environment created by the teachers. Effective learning

environment of the classroom is a relative term we cannot say that a particular teacher has

involved the students in the activities so he/she has created the effective learning environment,

because it depend upon the objective under consideration. So the activities should be aligned

with the curriculum activities. The creative curriculum demands classroom activities that creates

effective learning environment.

Curriculum framework is the learning environment which includes the use and

organization of the space in the classroom, the daily schedule and routines, and the social and

emotional atmosphere. In the Curriculum, the learning environment meets students’

developmental needs. It makes all students, including those with special needs, feel safe and

comfortable. As a result, they are helped to become independent and confident learners. For

these reasons, the effective learning environment is the starting point for actually implementing

8
Curriculum. Learning environment can be examined from three perspectives and include a

number of classroom activities.

I-Setting up and maintaining the classroom

The physical space of the effective learning environment for the classrooms that is organized into number

of interest areas involving different activities such as Blocks, Dramatic Play, Toys and Games, Art,

Library, Discovery, Sand and Water, Music and Movement, Cooking, Computers and Outdoors visits.

Interest areas offer multiple opportunities for students to explore, discover, and grow. In each, the

arrangement of furniture and the materials involves students not only in learning but also in caring for the

classroom and what is in it. This also creates the feeling of belongingness in them.

II- Establishing a structure for each day

The managed routines and schedule create a sense of order in effective classrooms. Students being well

aware of their responsibilities and obligations respond well to the teachers’ instructional delivery

techniques. They also know what to expect, and they understand what is expected of them. With the

assurance that their environment is predictable and familiar, they can settle into learning and function as

part of a group. The order around them creates a sense of order inside them. Therefore the orderly

classroom activities help them to inculcate order and organization their life also.

III-Creating a classroom community

The classroom community is only established when the teacher has an ability to involve the students in

the effectives activities. Therefore it is based on the social/emotional environment of the classroom. Here

teachers relates to students in positive ways and helps them do the same with one another. The positive

social climate helps children feel good about school and learn to the best of their ability.

9
 The physical environment in your classroom has a profound effect on individual, the group as a

whole. The physical environment includes the size of the room, the colors of the walls, the type of

flooring, the amount of light, and the number of windows. While teacher may have limited control over

many of these features, he/she may have options about how to organize furniture, what materials to put

out, and what he/she can bring outdoors to make the total space available to you more interesting. A

physical setting that is safe, attractive, comfortable, and well designed helps students engage in the

classroom activities creating effective learning environment for better learning. Such an environment can

support the goals of learning.

One such type f physical environment is shown below where teacher can arrange number of

effective classroom activities for achieving the learning outcomes.

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 Activity#2

State the learning outcomes for the class and subject of your choice and then suggest the
physical environment and the classroom activities to achieve these learning outcomes.

3.3.4 Types of Learning Environments

Traditional schooling is based on an educational setup that has been around from many

decades. Here the purpose of education was to prepare people for jobs for specific areas. And so

11
the organized classroom evolved, where students sat and received their training from a skilled

teacher. Now with the evolution of technology the world is changing more rapidly. This demands

different types of learning environments from the educational leaders and managers. Some of the

types of learning environments have been discussed below.

I. Passive Learning Environment

Such traditional education is rooted in the stimulus-response method of behavioral

psychology. The leader, or teacher, presents the stimulus and then assesses the students to see if

they have learned the appropriate information.

The example of passive learning environment:

 Teacher presenting stimulus: “Whales have blow holes.”

 Teacher providing guidance: “They get their oxygen through these blow holes.”

 Teacher soliciting response: “Do whales breathe through their nose?”

 If a student replies yes, the teacher presents the stimulus again: “No, they do not. Instead

of having noses, they have blow holes to take in oxygen.”

 If a student replies no, the teacher moves on: “Yes that is correct, instead of having a

nose, they breathe in through their blow hole. Now let’s explore…”

In this scenario, the student is a passive participant in the process the information learned

is impersonal. Clearly, the teacher is in control of the learning process; his or her interests dictate

what and how fast the students learn. The teacher keeps the classroom well organized so it can

accommodate large amounts of learner, and all the students receive identical training.

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 II. Active Learning Environment

The new paradigm for active education puts the learner in control of the learning process.

Students can pursue topics that interest them. The process of learning becomes as important as

the result. The goal of active learning is to give students the ability to explore on their own, not

to simply spoon-feed them specific facts.

Here the students are now in charge of their learning. They can each explore the topic

that most interests them, customizing their educational experience. They can actively pursue

information and learn independent thinking skills. The teacher no longer needs to be a subject

expert, an impossible task in this age of so much information. Instead, the teacher now oversees

the learning process.

Many techniques can be used to make the learning environment passive or active some

examples with their elaboration are as under, we can use these techniques as per learning

outcomes and needs. Selection or planning is merely depending upon the teacher.

Examples: lecture or demonstration of scientific experiment, art technique, dramatic method,

Discussion/Problem-solving, Information Presentation/Demonstration etc.

Activity#3

Take a science textbook of sixth class, select at least two learning outcomes for the lesson plan and
discuss the possible learning outcome with any of your classmate to decide the type of learning
environment for that lesson.

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3.4 Individual Differences and Their Impact on Classroom Learning
Environment
The people differ from each other is obvious. How and why they differ is less clear and is

the subject of the study of Individual differences (IDs). Research in IDs ranges from analyses of

genetic codes to the study of sexual, social, ethnic, and cultural differences and includes research

on cognitive abilities, interpersonal styles, and emotional reactivity.

Researchers of Individual Differences addressed three broad areas:

1) Developing an adequate descriptive taxonomy of how people differ;

2) Applying differences in one situation to predict differences in other situations; and

3) Testing theoretical explanations of the structure and dynamics of individual differences.

Here our focus is to gain the answer to the questions “how individual differences affect the

classroom learning environment? And to what extent teacher is can use individual differences of

the students to maintain effective learning environment”.

Normally the classes are formulated on the basis of homogeneity of the students. Like minded

and having same achievement level students are placed in one section. If the situation is this it

becomes easier for the teacher to develop the classroom routines and rules and also help teachers

to create effective learning environment. On the other hand if the grouping is based on the

heterogeneity of the students’ achievement and likeness then the range of individual difference

will be higher and will create the difficulties to maintain the effective classroom environment.

Many teachers and educational managers in our country believe on the heterogeneous grouping

therefore it is necessary for the teachers to be well equipped with the strategies to overcome the

14
difficulties created due the individual differences of the students. There are many techniques to

overcome this problem some of them are listed below.

I-Classroom behavioral strategies and Interventions

The classroom teacher needs to ensure acceptance for all students in the classroom. Teachers’

actions that can promote acceptance include:

 choosing learning materials to represent all groups of students

 ensuring that all students can participate in extra activities

 valuing, respecting, and talking about differences

 celebrating cultural and ethnic differences

 ensuring that learning activities are designed for a variety of abilities

 ensuring that all students are protected from name-calling or other forms of

abusive language

 modeling acceptance

II-Developing Classroom Rules

Well-defined rules in the classroom can prevent many difficulties. When students are

involved in the development of the rules, they are more likely to adhere to them and understand

why they have been put into place. Classroom rules should be limited in number (usually five or

less) and stated in positive terms. Once the rules have been developed and taught, they should be

applied consistently. Most students will perform better in classrooms that are structured,

predictable, and consistent.

III-Positive Classroom Discipline

15
 Teachers need to build a classroom environment where positive interactions are the norm

and disciplinary consequences are minimized. Research indicates that disciplinary environments

actually promote antisocial behavior. It is important that teachers provide immediate, frequent,

and positive feedback.

Activity#4
Interview three teachers of a nearby school for investigating the classroom rules and
routines developed by them to overcome the individual differences.

3.5 The Physical Setting

It is very important to assess how and to what extent teachers actively utilize and manipulate the

physical classroom environment as part of their instructional design. It is difficult, if not

impossible, to separate instructional activity from the environmental setting within which it

occurs.

The classroom temperature, lighting and air quality would appear to have some effect on the

learning environment. In addition, the cleanliness, orderliness and character that a facility

displays influence children’s behavior. Further, the arrangement of furniture and the allocation of

spaces within the classroom can greatly affect what can be accomplished within a given

instructional setting. Physical setting can have both positive and negative effects on the ability to

teach and student’s ability to focus on learning tasks. Therefore teacher attempt to create learning

environments that foster healthy social interaction provide places for student privacy, as well as

facilitate and maintain an appropriate level of sensory stimulation. There are different

components of physical setting; teacher can manipulate these components during the teaching

learning process for achieving the better results and enhancing the students learning.

3.5.1 Classroom Arrangement

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 Classroom furnishings arrangement appears to be the most salient dimension for

supporting curricular objectives. A classroom may contain elements of both territorial and

functional styles depending on the instructional design, although typically one arrangement will

dominate over the other. The further explanation of these facts is as given below.

3.5.1.1 Territorial arrangement:

In territorial arrangements, physical space is partitioned into small portions of student-

owned space. That is, each student is assigned a desk in which to store personal belongings. This

type of spatial arrangement is often thought to be appropriate for lecture instruction to a whole

class and is used most often in classrooms with older students. Research on seating position in

row-and-column arrangements suggests that front-center seat facilitates achievement, positive

student attitudes toward school and self and class participation. The territorial arrangement is not

always synonymous with row-and-column arrangements. Territorial desks can be clustered into

small groups to facilitate a more cooperative learning, instructional teaching strategy. However,

when working in small groups, the territorial arrangement can be either a hindrance or a

facilitator to instructional effectiveness.

3.5.1.2 Functional Arrangement:

In functional arrangements, the physical space is divided into common interest areas or

learning centers available to all students. This type of spatial arrangement is typically used for

small groups of students working on a variety of different activities. Early childhood and open

classrooms are examples of this type of functional arrangement. Research on functional

arrangements suggests that spatial arrangement can have an influence on a young learner’s

location, play activities, and social interaction. Well-defined activity areas can have a positive

17
influence on social interaction and on on-task behaviors. Teachers using this style of spatial

arrangement must take several variables into consideration for behavioral contingency

management due to the increased responsibility placed on the student for self-discipline.

3.5.2 Arrangement of the Physical Environment to Support Teaching Learning Process

The prime responsibility of the teachers is to create and shape the specific learning

environment. Arranging the physical environment of the classroom is one way to improve the

learning environment and to prevent problem behaviors before they occur. Research on the

classroom environment has shown that the physical arrangement can affect the behavior of both

students and teachers and that a well-structured classroom tends to improve student academic

and behavioral outcomes. In addition, the classroom environment acts as a symbol to students

and others regarding what teachers’ value in behavior and learning. If a classroom is not properly

organized to support the type of schedule and activities a teacher has planned, it can obstruct the

functioning of the day as well as limit what and how students learn. However, a well-arranged

classroom environment is one way to more effectively manage instruction because it triggers

fewer behavior problems and establishes a climate conducive to learning.

The spatial structure of the classroom refers to how students are seated, where the

students and teacher are in relation to one another, how classroom members move around the

room, and the overall sense of atmosphere and order. Spatial lay-out is most appropriate to fulfill

these functions:

 Ways to maximize the teacher’s ability to see and be seen by all his or her
students;
 Facilitate ease of movement throughout the classroom;
 Minimize distractions so that students are best able to actively engage in
academics;
 Provide each student and the teacher with his/her own personal space; and

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  Ensuring that each student can see presentations and materials posted in the
classroom.
The physical arrangement of the classroom can serve as a powerful setting event for

providing students effective instruction and facilitate (or inhibit) positive teaching/learning

communications. As with other aspects of instruction, the physical arrangement of the classroom

should be reflective of the diverse cultural and linguistic characteristics of the students and be

consistent with specific learner need.

3.5.2.1 Arranging space

The physical layout reflects your teaching style. If teachers want students to collaborate in

small groups, for example, organize them around tables or clusters of desks. For frequent whole-

group discussions, try a circle or U-shaped desk configuration. If he/she plans on an individualized,

self-paced curriculum, he/she might set up learning stations. Easily accessible materials and supplies

can eliminate delays, disruptions, and confusion as students prepare for activities. In poorly arranged

classrooms, students spend a lot of time waiting, waiting in line, waiting for help, waiting to begin.

To eliminate some waiting, store frequently used items such as scissors and paste in several different

areas.

3.5.2.2 Desk placement

In many classrooms, the largest amount of space is devoted to the arrangement of

individual student desks. Arrange the room so that you can make eye contact with every student

and reach each student with ease. Set your room up, and at the end of each unit or each month,

evaluate and make changes. This will help you as teacher to motivate the students will gradually

become the effective strategy to create conducive learning environment.

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3.5.2.3 Environmental preferences

Other important environmental features include temperature, lighting, and noise level.

These factors affect students in different ways and are directly related to individual learning

styles. Studies suggest that when teachers adjust the environment to students' preferences, the

students perform better academically and are better behaved. Classroom setup can dramatically

affect students' attitudes toward and habits of learning. Students need an environment that is

organized, stimulating, and comfortable in order to learn effectively. Teachers who are aware of

the power of the environment arrange their space purposefully to convey the messages they want

children to receive.

Activity#6
Observe any classroom while the teacher is delivering instruction and try to find the answers
to the following questions.
1. Are the students making choices and selecting activities on their own?
2. Are the students using materials appropriately and creatively once they enter an
interest area?
3. Whether the students stayed involved with an activity for a sustained period of time?
3.6 The Emotional Climate
The basic idea of emotional climate is relatively easy to grasp. Bring in mind an objective

group phenomenon that can be sensed as when one enters a party or a city and feels an

atmosphere of depression, openness or fear-only, as the term "climate" implies, while emotional

climate is an appealing idea, it is an idea that is relatively difficult to make into a precise concept

that can be objectively measured. For example, how does one distinguish between temporary

moods and pervasive climates? Is an emotional climate objective or subjective? How does a

national mood differ from an individual's emotion? How can climates be described? And how

can one measure an emotional climate when people in different neighborhoods, regions or social

classes may feel quite differently? How does emotional climate function, and how does it relate

20
to underlying social-political structures? The answers to all these questions are not simple,

because here the measurement and levels of certain characheteristic for its existence or non

existence has to establish. Therefore it is necessary to define the terms in some detail.

3.6.1 Emotional Atmosphere, Climate, and Culture

An emotional atmosphere or collective mood, as opposed to an emotional' climate,

pertains to the collective behavior that a group or society may manifest when it is focused on a

common event, rather than to the emotional relationships between members of the society.

Speaking of the development of a mood, the attention of every individual is focused on

some exciting object or incident and then, "the excitement of every individual is intensified by

the response each unconsciously makes to the manifest interest of every other individual. The

crowd assumes under these circumstances the character of a closed circuit, each individual

responding to his own excitement as he sees it reflected via the attitudes and emotions of his

neighbor until the crowd are a collective unit." In an analogous way, a society may become

mobilized. In fact, every society, "faces in the direction from which the news comes," and alters

its attitude to conform to what is reported in the press.

Emotional atmospheres are important in their own right and may blend into some of the

climates. Furthermore, a shift in emotional atmosphere may indicate a change in climate. An

emotional climate is more lasting than a local emotional atmosphere and does not simply refer to

collective feeling and behavior but to how the people of a society emotionally relate to one

another for example, whether they care for one another or are afraid of each other. Thus, an

atmosphere of joy, or one of fear, might exist if the people of a nation focused on a common

21
victory, or on an impending invasion, whereas a climate of joy, or one of fear, might exist if the

persons of a nation met each other’s needs.

While an emotional climate may often be labeled by using names for emotions, such as

joy and fear, we may also use labels that directly refer to the emotional relationships that are

involved, such as hostility or solidarity. Such labels might also be used to refer to qualities of a

society's emotional culture.

However, an emotional culture is dynamically stable. It is usually held in place by a

network of socialization practices and ordinarily only changes when a culture is transformed

over generations of people. Climates, on the other hand, are more dependent on political,

religious, economic and educational factors and may change within the course of a single

generation.

Now we are in position to discuss the term school climate and how the educational

leaders can create and use emotional climate for the enhancement of learning.

3.6.2 School climate

Perry was the first educational leader to explicitly write about how school climate affects

students’ and the process of learning. Although there is not one commonly accepted definition

for school climate, the vast majority of researchers and scholars suggest that school climate,

essentially, reflects subjective experience in school. Over the last two decades, educators and

researchers have recognized that there are complex sets of elements that make up school climate.

There is not one commonly accepted list of the essential dimension for school climate. The

following ten dimensions contribute more towards school climate.

1. Environmental

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 2. Structural

3. Safety

4. Teaching and Learning

5. Relationships

6. Sense of School Community

7. Morale

8. Peer Norms

9. School-Home-Community Partnerships (mutual support and ongoing

communication)

10. Learning Community

School climate, not surprisingly and by definition, has a profound impact on individual

experience. Two aspects of school climate (commitment to school and positive feedback from

teachers) have been shown to affect students’ self-esteem. Student self-concept and student

absenteeism are also affected by school climate.

Positive school climate is a critical dimension linked to effective risk prevention and health

promotion efforts as well as teaching and learning correlated with safe, caring, participatory and

responsive school climate.

Safe, caring, participatory and responsive school climate tends to foster great attachment

to school as well as providing the optional foundation for social, emotional and academic

learning. One of the fundamentally important dimensions of school climate is relational and how

“connected” people feel to one another in school. Connectedness is a powerful predictor of

23
adolescent relation and academic outcomes and violence prevention and as a protective factor in

risky, violence, and drug use behaviors.

Emotional school climate promotes or complicates meaningful student learning. For

example, activities like community service and debates enhance the learning environment by

providing students opportunities to actively participate in the learning process and construct their

own knowledge of social and government systems. Moreover, when such activities are presented

in a supportive, collaborative environment, they encourage students to build upon one another’s

ideas on projects. Together, the experience realistically represents the social situation that they

may find themselves part of in the greater civil society.

To the extent that students feel safe, cared for, appropriately supported and lovingly

“emotional” to learn, academic achievement increases. Positive school climate promotes

cooperative learning, group cohesion, respect and mutual trust or a climate for learning. In

addition, school climate is directly related to academic achievement.

School climate reflects students, school personnel and parents social, emotional and

ethical as well as academic experiences of school life. If teacher is able to create emotional

climate whether through competition for by providing safe and sound climate the learning is

more authentic.

Activity#7

Discuss the school emotional climate with at least three teachers in your vicinity in
the light of above mentioned ten dimensions.

3.7 Strategies for Creating Positive Emotional Climate

24
 Creating cultures and climates of safety is essential to the delivery of instruction in the

classroom. What are the different strategies that help the teachers, administrators and students to

create a climate of safety? The answer to this question is not simple as the concept of climate for

learning varies from teacher to teacher and the school to school. The literature revealed that there

are number of components that are directly connected with the school and classroom climate.

These components and strategies to overcome the problems in creating positive emotional

climate are discussed in the following lines.

1. Assess the school's emotional climate

No doubt school climate is considered as safe and sound in every community, but even then

there is a need to assess the school emotional climate. It is essential that school administrators,

parents, and community leaders not assume that they know school climates as do those

individuals especially students who are most directly affected by the educational experience on a

daily basis. Without a thorough assessment of climate process, school officials and leaders may

never have the opportunity to find out what they did not know.

2. Emphasize listening

Pupils must listen respectfully to adults and to their peers, and teachers, administrators,

and other adults must listen respectfully to their students and to each other. Grownups often

expect that students listen to adults in authority. However, adults forget that respectful listening

is a two-way street. A school with a culture of two-way listening will encourage and empower

students to have the courage to break the ingrained code of silence. Listening also must be

expanded beyond academic concerns. Communications between teachers and students also

should include listening to feelings, especially those of hurt and pain. In addition, it is important

to listen to behaviors. Many students, including some who consider violence an appropriate way

25
to solve problems, have a difficult time finding the words to rational the hurt or fear that they

may feel. Not knowing how to express their problems and feelings may prompt these students to

take action.

3. Action Against silence

Silence leaves hurt unexposed and unacknowledged. Silence may encourage a young

person to move along a path to violence.

4. Development of Confidence for Sharing

A school climate in which students connect to each other and to adults is one that

promotes a safe and secure educational environment. A student who finds the 'courage to tell a

caring adult about a friend in pain may save a life.

5. Stop bullying

Bullying is a continuum of abuse, ranging from verbal taunts to physical threats to

dangerous acts. Bullying is not playful behavior. In bullying, one student assumes power by

word or deed over another in a mean-spirited and/or harmful manner. In a school with a culture

of safety and connection, both the bully and the student who is the victim of the bullying are

attended to in a respectful manner. Schools with climates of safety and respect are establishing

foundations for pro-social behavior. These climates teach conflict resolution, peer mediation,

active listening and other non-violent ways to solve problems. Teacher can stop violence by

stopping bulling.

6. Involving students in planning, creating and maintaining Climate

26
 Creating a safe school climate is a process that should involve all members of the school

community, including teachers, students, parents, counselors, administrators, health staff,

security professionals and support personnel. Climates of safety should be collaborative ones.

Helping students to engage in positive, productive activities or work in their local community

can diminish isolation and enhance connection and safety.

8. Create mechanisms sustaining safe school climate

A mechanism for developing and sustaining safe school climates should serve as a

vehicle for planning and monitoring the climate and culture of the school. This mechanism may

involve administrators, teachers, counselors, students, school law enforcement and security staff,

and other personnel.

9. Awareness about physical environments

Building structure, facility safety plans, lighting, space and architecture (among other

physical attributes of educational institutions) all can contribute to whether a school environment

feels, or is in fact, safe or unsafe. In large schools, school administrators may wish to explore

changes in the physical characteristics of the school that would permit the assignment of teachers

and students to smaller, mutually intersecting and supportive groupings within the broader

educational community.

Schools that have succeeded in creating safe school climates have done so because of

their recognition that such climates of safety actually are based on sound educational

expectations, which, in turn, keep students engaged and learning at high levels. Such schools

achieve their aims by realizing that safe school climates are not created overnight.

27
Implementation of the safe school climates process requires planning and dedicated work.

Participants in this process need adequate feedback and evaluative processes to maintain and

continually improve educational environments.

Activity#8

List some other strategies that help to maintain positive school climate.

3.8 Classroom Activities to Build Self-Esteem and a Feeling of Belonging

Self-esteem is the disposition to experience oneself as being competent to cope with the

basic challenges of life and of being worthy of happiness. It is confidence in the efficacy of our

mind, in our ability to think. By extension, it is confidence in our ability to learn, make

appropriate choices and decisions, and respond effectively to change. It is also the experience

that success, achievement, fulfillment happiness are right and natural for us. The survival-value

of such confidence is obvious; so is the danger when it is missing.

3.8.1 Identifying Self-Esteem

Self-esteem is considered worthy of the achievement enhancement. Whenever the self

esteem is high the students produced better results. The researchers are more interested in self-

esteem and the danger is the idea may become trivialized. And yet, of all the judgments we pass

in life, none is more important than the judgment we pass on ourselves. The issue of what self-

esteem is, what it depends on, and what are some of the most prevalent misconceptions about it

is essential to be discussed.

Self-esteem is an experience. It is a particular way of experiencing the self. It is a good

deal more than a mere feeling. It involves emotional, evaluative, and cognitive components. It

28
also entails certain action dispositions: to move toward life rather than away from it; to move

toward consciousness rather than away from it; to treat facts with respect rather than denial; to

operate self-responsibly rather than the opposite.

The six practices that are found to be essential for the developing self-esteem: the

practice of living consciously, of self-acceptance, of self-responsibility, of self-assertiveness, of

purposefulness, and of integrity.

1. The practice of living consciously: respect for facts; being present to what we are doing

while are doing it; seeking and being eagerly open to any information, knowledge, or

feedback that bears on our interests, values, goals, and projects; seeking to understand not

only the world external to self but also our inner world, so that we do not out of self-

blindness.

2. The practice of self-acceptance: the willingness to own, experience, and take

responsibility for our thoughts, feelings, and actions, without avoidance, denial, or

disowning and also without self-denial; giving oneself permission to think one’s

thoughts, experience one’s emotions, and look at one’s actions without necessarily liking,

endorsing, or condoning them; the virtue of realism applied to the self.

3. The practice of self-responsibility: realizing that we are the author of our choices and

actions; that each one of us is responsible for life and well-being and for the attainment of

our goals; that if we need the cooperation of other people to achieve our goals, we must

offer values in exchange.

4. The practice of self-assertiveness: being authentic in our dealings with others; treating

our values and persons with decent respect in social contexts; refusing to fake the reality

29
 of who we are or what we esteem in order to avoid disapproval; the willingness to stand

up for ourselves and our ideas in appropriate ways in appropriate contexts.

5. The practice of living purposefully: identifying our short-term and long-term goals or

purposes and the actions needed to attain them (formulating an action-plan); organizing

behavior in the service of those goals; monitoring action to be sure we stay on track; and

paying attention to outcome so as to recognize if and when we need to go back.

6. The practice of personal integrity: living with congruence between what we know,

what we profess, and what we do; telling the truth, honoring our commitments,

exemplifying in action the values we profess to admire.

In short we can say that individuals can be inspired, stimulated, or coached to live more

consciously, practice greater self-acceptance, operate more self-responsibly, function more self-

assertively, live more purposefully, and bring a higher level of personal integrity into their life

but the task of generating and sustaining these practices falls on each of us alone. No one, not our

parents, nor our friends, nor our psychotherapist, nor our support group can give us self-esteem.

If and when we fully grasp this, that is an act of “waking up.”

In future world, children will be taught the basic dynamics of self-esteem and the power of living

consciously and self-responsibly. They will be taught what self-esteem is, why it is important,

and what it depends on. The purpose of school is to prepare young people for the challenges of

adult life. They will need this understanding to be adaptive to an information age in which self-

esteem has acquired such urgency. In the language of business, low self-esteem and

underdeveloped mindfulness puts one at a competitive disadvantage. However, neither teachers

in general nor teachers of self-esteem in particular can do their jobs properly or communicate the

30
importance of their work until they themselves understand the intimate linkage that exists

between the six practices described above, self-esteem, and appropriate adaptation to reality.

3.8.2 Strategies to Improve Self Esteem in the Classroom

Self esteem is an important aspect of a student's life and performance. It is about how a

student feels about himself or herself. It has been documented through research that self esteem

is positively correlated to a student's performance. There is an inherent need in every child to be

appreciated by those around them and also to feel proud of them in a healthy way.

It is important for teachers to recognize this need and make sure that they implement strategies

and measures to inculcate a healthy level of self esteem in their students. Make sure that every

child gets ample attention and praise in order to feel motivated to perform better.

Expectations are another crucial part of the classroom environment. Every child has capabilities

that are unique and it is important to understand this when evaluating them. Make sure to give

ample opportunities. Take care to include every child in the activities planned and also provide

opportunities to engage the child's attention. Every child will have certain things they feel good

about doing and if find that function is no easy, need to work at drawing the child out.

Maintain a portfolio of student activities. Encourage the child to participate in simple events and

have little activities where everyone feels like a winner. Building a positive self image is crucial

to building self esteem in a child.

Have activities right from the beginning of the day, an interesting one would be to have the

student's state one good fact about themselves during roll call. This could be something like

saying great hair, good writer or always smiles instead of "present''.

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When a child has done something wrong or has misbehaved make sure to address the matter in

private rather than publicly bringing it to the notice of the whole class. Handling kids carefully is

extremely important as it can leave serious scars on their self esteem.

Activity#9

Enlist some more strategies to develop the self-esteem of the individuals in the classroom.

3.9 Summary

Learning is one of the important factors of human life, according to psychologists learning

related to mental functions of human and animals’ cognitive systems. It demands conducive

learning environment, as learning is a continuous process may occur in any situation but

researcher have highlighted that the conducive learning environment work as a catalyst for the

learning. It is teachers and the educational administrators that are responsible for the provision of

learning environment that best fits the students’ needs. There are different types of learning

environments, for example active and passive, now teacher is responsible to create the desired

kind of learning environment to achieve the desired learning outcomes. The learning

environment of the classroom directly linked with the learning outcomes to be achieved. There

are many components that contribute towards the learning environment and have their own

importance, physical environment of the classroom and the emotional climate of the classroom

may be considered more important. Physical environment include the setting the furniture, light

and fresh air etc, whereas emotional climate has its roots in the behavior management strategies

used by the teachers. Schools that have succeeded in creating safe school climates have done so

because of their recognition that such climates of safety actually are based on sound educational

expectations, which, in turn, keep students engaged and learning at high levels. Such schools

achieve their aims by realizing that safe school climates are not created overnight. On the other

32
hand self-esteem is an experience. It is a particular way of experiencing the self, and is directly

related with the academic achievement. Therefore it is teachers’ responsibility to create the

learning environment of the classroom.

3.10 Self Assessment Questions

Q.No.1 Define learning environment? Analyze major components and tasks for creating a
safe and connected school climate.

Q.No.2 Why is an appropriate learning environment necessary? How does learning

environment help in the advancement in learning? Give examples with your
answer.

Q.No.3 Learning is affected by learning environment. Discuss with reference to

the functions and importance of classroom learning environment.

Q.No.4 Learning environment should not be viewed only as physical environment; it

includes emotional climate, learning activities, and individual differences. Discuss
with reference to the effects of classroom learning environment on self esteem of
the learners.

Q.No.5 What do you understand by the term self-esteem? Would you consider self-
esteem can be built by providing effective learning environment in the classroom?
How?

Q.No.6 Why we need to create effective learning environment?

Q.No.7 Critically examine the significance of the learning environment for learning?

Q.No.8 Discuss the benefits of effective learning environment. Give examples to

elaborate your answer.

Q.No.9 Discuss the active and passive learning environments. Describe the
characteristics of the effective learning environment.

Q.No.10 Which elements need to be considered in learning environment with respect to

individual differences of the learners? How can we provide an effective learning
environment to the individuals in a classroom?

Q.No.11 To what extent schools are responsible to build up the self-esteem of the young
learners? Is there any relationship of school environment with self esteem?
Discuss.

33
3.11 REFERENCES

 Dr Joe kiff
 Roger Hiemstra (creating environment for effective adult learning )
 Lioyed p.rieber (department of instructional technology the university of Georgia USA)
 Kazdin, A.E. (Editor). William Revelle Department of Psychology
NorthwesternUniversity
Evanston, Illinios
 Scholastic.com
 Classroom Compass Volume 1, Number 1 Spring 1994
 Investigating Teachers' Use of the Physical Setting in Instructional Design Jeffery A.
Lackney, R.A., Ph.D. & Paul J. Jacobs, Ph.D.
 Csee(centre for social and emotional education)
 Emotional Climate: Social Structure and Emotional Dynamics Joseph de Rivera
Department of Psychology Clark University Worcester, MA 01610, USA
 The U.S. Department of Education.
 Creating Conducive Classroom Climate Edit Article | Posted: Nov 10, 2007
 Nathaniel Branden, PhD The Art of Living Consciously” (Simon & Schuster, 1997) By
Nicole Daniel Article Word Count: 317

Note: Complete References will be added after review

34
Unit No.4

Developing Classroom Rules and Routines

Written By

Dr. Nasir Mahmood

Reviewed By

Dr. Muhammad Tanveer Afzal

1
 Table of Contents

4.1 Introduction

4.2 Objectives

4.3 Classroom Rules and Routines

4.4 General Principles for developing classroom rules

4.5 The importance of establishing routines

4.6 Strategies to Promote Student Use of Rules and Routines

4.7 Role of casual teachers

4.8 The importance of a set of rules or code of conduct

4.9 Some ideas to help you organize your routines

4.10 Summary

4.11 Self Assessment Questions

4.12 Suggested Readings

2
4.1 Introduction

Everyone says that there are too many rules and regulations, and people should have the

freedom to do what they want, but they are there for a reason! It is believed that if people

are not controlled and rules and regulations are not there, then people will either by

accident or on purpose will do things that are wrong so that they and other people around

them suffer. Rules and regulations are there to make people behavior in a respect and

well controlled manner. Good classroom management techniques aid the understanding

of students to know exactly what is expected of them and how they should conduct

themselves during a class lesson task. Irrespective of their level of studies, school

children needs to know classroom rules and regulations that moderate their conduct

during class lessons. Such rules and procedures should be made clear and explicit to them

in order for the effort of teachers at building classroom discipline to be effective and

achieve the desired objectives

The ability of teachers to organize classrooms and manage the behavior of their

students is critical to achieving positive educational outcomes. Although sound behavior

management does not guarantee effective instruction, it establishes the environmental

context that makes good instruction possible. Reciprocally, highly effective instruction

reduces, but does not eliminate, classroom behavior problems (Emmer & Stough, 2001).

According to Oliver & Reschly (2007), effective classroom management requires a

comprehensive approach that includes the following
 Structuring the school and classroom environment
 Actively supervising student engagement
 Implementing classroom rules and routines

3
  Enacting procedures that encourage appropriate behavior
 Using behavior reduction strategies
 Collecting and using data to monitor student behavior, and modifying
classroom management procedures as needed.

Rules and procedures are fundamental in life. We follow rules and procedures in our
daily lives for things such as approaching a traffic light, starting a car and driving, and
making a letter. There are also rules and procedures in the classroom. These rules and
procedures ensure a positive atmosphere in the classroom. They contribute to a controlled
and learning environment for everyone.

4.2 Objectives

After studying this unit you should be able to:

1. Understand the concepts of rules and routines

2. Describe the general principles of developing classroom rules

3. Purpose of establishing the rules and routines in the classroom

4. Realize the importance of rules and routines in maintaining the discipline of

classroom

5. Apply the strategies to promote use of rules and routines in classroom

6. What is the importance of set of rules or code of conduct

7. Formulate the rules and routines for effective classroom behaviour

8. Understand the role of casual teacher in classroom

4.3 Classroom Rules and Routines

4.3.1 Rules
Defined rules and routines are important components of educational programming for all

students (Swanson, 2005). Rules and routines are two different strategies for establishing

4
behavioral boundaries and expectations. Routines can help support the development of

functional skills.

When designing rules it is important to determine what rules will be taught,

ensure that the rules are concrete and comprehensible, determine how the rules will be

taught and what structures and supports will facilitate understanding, and finally

determine how the rules will be enforced.

It is suggested that the list of guiding principles and behavioral descriptors should

follow a path either of induction or deduction using a process of brainstorming, with as

much student involvement as possible, depending on students’ age and maturity. With

younger children, whole-class brainstorming is appropriate (with considerable teacher

guidance and input), while secondary teacher can employ independent small-group

brainstorming (Arthur, Gordon & Butterfield, 2003).

Figure Example of Classroom Rules

Our Classroom Rules

 Follow directions
 Keep hands, feet and objects to yourself
 Listen to others and don’t interrupt
 Speak appropriately
 Move safely
 Use equipment with care
 Honor time limits
 Be open to new ideas
 Participate fully, take risks
 Respect everyone and everything around you
 Be helpful and responsible
 Take care of classroom and school property

4.2.2 Routines
Classroom routines are the key to maximizing instructional time, improving class
management and providing students with the consistency they crave. When designing

5
routines it is important to determine which activities or behaviors to target by teaching a
routine, perform a task analysis of the routine, determine how to teach the routine and
what structures and supports will support that instruction, and determine how inevitable
changes in routine will be addressed.
Providing individualized visual supports, such as picture representations or

written copies of the rules, can enhance instruction as well as provide students with an

accessible reference

courtesy of Mayer Johnson

Routines are especially useful in supporting the development of functional skills.

Activities related to independent living skills can easily be broken into individual steps

and taught as routines. For example, creating a routine with visual supports for the

toileting process helps minimize prompting and promotes independence.

6
 Courtesy of Mayer Johnson

4.2.3 Difference between Rules and Routines

Rules and routines are not the same. Each is a different strategy for establishing

behavioral boundaries and expectations. Rules are statements defining behavior

permissible in given situations or environments, whereas routines detail the steps required

in carrying out certain actions. For example, a rule in the home environment may be that

an individual, Waqar, can answer the telephone when it rings. A routine establishes the

steps involved when Waqar answers the phone (pick up the phone from the base, press

the "talk button," say "hello," wait for a response, etc.).

Rules are for undesirable behaviors that have set consequences while procedures

are expected classroom behaviors with no set consequences for a violation. Anytime a

student violates a rule in your classroom, you must act and a consequence must occur.

7
Activity 01
Before you read further, spend a couple of minutes thinking about various rules and
routines being observed around in your daily life in home, classroom, and school. Please
put down some of them you think are rules and routines. Now read the rules displayed in
a primary classroom, and compare with the rules you have enlisted

4.4 General Principles for Developing Classroom Rules

Although the there is a heightened awareness in our society that that there is something

amiss with how we are raising our children, the solutions about how our children learn

values is elusive at best.

As a teacher reflects on expectations for the classroom, four basic principles are offered

for consideration (Weinstein & Mignano, 2003).

Four Principles for Planning Classroom Rules

Principle of Rules Questions to Think About
1. Rules are
reasonable and
necessary.
What rules are appropriate for this grade level?
2. Rules are clear and
Is there a good reason for this expectation?
understandable.
Is the expectation too abstract for students to comprehend?
3. Rules are
To what extent do I want my students to participate in the
consistent with
decision-making process?
instructional goals
Will this expectation facilitate or hinder my students'
and what is known
learning?
about how people
What are the school rules?
learn.
Are particular behaviors required in the halls, during
4. Classroom rules
assemblies, in the cafeteria, etc.?
are consistent with
school rules.

Developing Rules and Routines: A Practical Approach for Secondary Schools

Pupils, teachers, support staff, managers and parent groups agree and establish

expectations regarding roles, rules, routines, rewards and relationships. In terms of each

school’s Positive Behaviour Management Policy this would include the expectations that

8
teachers have of pupils and also what pupils expect of teachers in classrooms. This is

seen as a good grounding for the promotion of positive behaviour in relation to learning

and teaching. Rules, routines, rewards and consequences (for both +ve and -ve behavior)

should be established at the start of a new session when an agreed procedure (i.e. pre-

determined lesson plan) should be repeated at the beginning of each lesson for one week.

This process should also be revisited and re-established monthly and termly thereafter.

This will lead to an understanding for each pupil that there is a consistency in approach

across the school and a heightened awareness for staff of agreed levels of behavior for all

involved. It is to be expected that consultation would take place between teachers and

pupils in order for the pupils to have some sense of ownership within the process. Rules,

Routines, Rewards and Consequences posters should be displayed on walls in each

classroom to remind pupils of expectations. Teachers would be able to make reference to

the posters in order to remind pupils of agreements. Positive Behaviour posters should

also be placed on the walls in each classroom to help encourage the same. In this way

routines for procedures and behavior should be normalized across all classes.

Rules and routines could be adapted to suit different working environments.

Regarding routines, staff would be expected to have procedures for entering and exiting

pupils from classrooms, taking registers, applying rules consistently, pupils raising hands

for help/to speak, distribution of resources, seating plans etc. The revisiting of routines

and procedures at the beginning of each month and also at the beginning of each term

(after holidays when pupils tend to have forgotten specific details) reminds and

encourages young people and teachers of Positive Behavior systems. The ‘revisiting’

9
sessions would take the form of a miniature version of the work done at the beginning of

the session in August.

How to Establish Classroom Rules with the help of Students

We all know what our classroom would be like with no rules. Complete chaos. Utter

mayhem. An environment that is not conducive to learning. It is obvious that there should

be classroom rules; however, these should not be set forth entirely by the teacher. There’s

no better way to establish classroom rules than to do it with your students’ collaboration.

This way they will have to obey rules that they've come up with, and you've agreed to.

Still, establishing class rules requires a contract between teacher and students, and

reaching this agreement is a process all on its own.

Let's take it step by step:

1. Review their goals

Ask students why they’ve enrolled in the course, or if they were enrolled by parents, why

they want to learn English. Adults will most likely tell you they need English for better

job opportunities. Lots of teens think about their future studies or employment

opportunities as well. And don't be surprised if you hear very young learners say they

want to learn English simply because they want to learn it.

Review their goals. Do they want to be able to read a book in English by the end of the

year? Understand native speakers better? Write job application letters? Chat with friends

in other countries? Whatever their reason is for wanting to learn English, and no matter

what their goals are, tell them that it is essential that all of you as a group establish a

10
contract together, to create the best learning environment, one that will help them reach

their learning goals.

2. Brainstorm possible disruptive behavior

Ask your students to come up with things that might disrupt the class, anything that will

make the class stray from its goals. For example, if students want to improve their

listening comprehension or learn to think in English, it will be highly disruptive to hear

students speaking their native language. Little ones might say that they don’t want any

shouting, yelling, or hitting in class. Some students may say that they shouldn’t interrupt

someone when he or she’s speaking.

Here are some more classic examples of disruptive behavior; if your students forget any

of these, you may want to mention them yourself:

 Name calling, insults or put downs

 Bullying

 No respect for other students and their personal belongings

 No respect for the teacher

 Reluctance to share

 Unwillingness to participate in an activity

 Not following directions

 Cheating

 Not completing tasks, assignments, homework

 Untidiness, littering

11
Never underestimate your students. They know full well the types of behavior that are

disruptive in a classroom. As they come up with these ideas, make a list on the board.

3. How to avoid disruptive behavior

Tackle each of the point mentioned one at a time, and ask your students what the rule

should be so that this does not happen in class. For speaking their native language, they'll

say that it is forbidden in class; they should try to speak English at all times. Your young

learners will be quick to say that no shouting, yelling, or hitting is allowed in class. And

to avoid interruptions and make sure everyone has a chance to speak, your students will

suggest that they have to raise their hands.

Try to phrase each of the rules in an affirmative way, for example, in a way that tells

them what they should do and not what they shouldn’t do. Having your walls filled with

“No shouting”, “No eating in class”, in other words, no, no, no everywhere does not

contribute to creating a very positive learning environment either.

Here are some more examples of other possible classroom rules:

 Treat your classmates with respect

 Treat the teacher with respect

 Respect others’ personal belongings

 Participate actively

 Complete your assignments and tasks

 Follow the directions and rules for each game or activity

 Keep the classroom neat and tidy

12
 4. The consequences

Now, what happens when a student breaks one of the rules? They can also come up with

ideas, but they may need more guidance or suggestions from you. It is recommended that

you implement a system of rewards as well, not just consequences of not following the

rules. Some consequences may be logical: if a student throws paper or garbage on the

floor instead of in the garbage can, he or she will be responsible for making sure the

classroom is tidy before going home. You may choose to give them a warning first: the

first time someone insults or disrespects a classmate their name goes on the board; the

second time, they lose a privilege, like going outside to play; the third time, a call is made

to his or her parents.

However, rather than coming up with “punishment”, why not think of a positive

reinforcement of the rules? Like a star chart with stickers, prizes for collecting the most

good behavior stickers, etc...

5. The written contract

Now you have to put it all in writing, after all, verbal contracts won't hold water in a

classroom. Young learners can make a poster illustrating the rules, and then put it up

some place where it's clearly visible. Older students may write it themselves as a group

activity, and you may also put it up on the wall, or make copies for each to paste onto

their notebooks.

Keep in mind that classroom rules are important for students of all ages, even

adults. Don’t think that adult learners don’t need rules. They may not resort to name

13
calling, yelling, or other forms of immature behavior, but they may unwittingly disrupt

the class by interrupting, speaking in their native language, answering their cell phones,

etc…

You don’t have to treat them like children to teach them the importance of

following certain rules. So, to sum up, make sure each and every student is clear on the

rules, the consequences for breaking them, or the rewards for following them, and that

your contract is visible to all. Once you have accomplished this, everyone will be ready

to get to work.

Activity 02

Interview a head teacher of a nearby secondary school and enlist the difficulties in

implementation of the rules.

4.5 The Importance of Establishing Routines

The use of rules is a powerful, preventive component of classroom organization and

management plans. Rules establish the behavioural context of the classroom by

specifying what behaviours are expected of students, what behavours will be reinforced,

and the consequences for inappropriate behavior. If rules are stated or worded positively

to describe the expected behavior, rather than what not to do, problem behavior is more

easily prevented (Kerr & Nelson. 2002).

Educators have identified important guidelines for the construction of classroom rules
 Rules should be kept to a minimum to allow students to remember them

14
  Rules should contain language that is simple and appropriate to developmental

level of the students and classroom

 Rules should be positively stated

 Rule should be developed for various situations or contexts as needed (e.g.

physical education class, field trips).

In addition to establishing rules, effective teachers also incorporate routines into their

efforts to organize the classroom. Routines for turning in homework or engaging in small

groups activities allow the classroom to run effectively with fewer disruptions from

students, thus enabling the teacher to attend to other aspects of instruction. Highly

effective teachers teach rules and routines systematically-not only at the beginning but

also throughout the school year. They emphasize these rules and routines on occasions

when increased violations are likely to occur (e.g. before school breaks) or if warranted

by inappropriate behavior. This type of instructional approach to social behavior

neutralizes the reactive or extreme approaches to behavior management that ultimately

are ineffective (Colvin et al, 1993).

4.6 Strategies to Promote Student Use of Rules and Routines

After classroom rules and routines are established, strategies to acknowledge and

encourage students’ appropriate use of these rules and routines must be incorporated into

the classroom management plan. Arranging consequences in order to increase desired

behavior is a critical component of effective classroom organization and management. A

large number of behavioural strategies are effective (Brophy, 2006), including specific,

contingent praise; a token economy system, in which students earn rewards for behavior

15
(Higgins, Williams & Mc Laughlin, 2001); and behavior contracts. Like all behavioural

reinforcements however, these strategies are effective only if they provide initial

reinforcement in close temporal proximity to occurrences of the desired behavior, also,

they are more effective if they are linked to the classroom rule and expectations.

Highly effective teachers are able to implement such strategies appropriately to manage

class wide behavior, the behavior of targeted groups of students, and the behavior of

individual students as part of a comprehensive classroom-management plan. They also

understand that no single strategy will be effective for every student at all times and in all

contexts. Effective classroom management requires teachers to be adept at employing

multiple strategies and to be skilled at recognizing when current strategies are ineffective

and modification is necessary. Practice with feedback from a supervisor or mentor is

useful in developing these skills.

4.7 Role of Casual Teachers

Ongoing professional development in classroom management is essential for all teachers

but especially important for new teachers. Effectively managing the classroom is much

more difficult for new teachers, who may not have received sufficient training and who

may be assigned to classes with a large percentage of at-risk students. Overwhelmed by

the need and often unexpectedly disruptive behaviours of their student, these new teacher

often are more reactive and more likely to respond to a student’s inappropriate behavior

by removing the student from instruction.

One approach that addresses the issue of professional development of novice teachers,

which involves strong coordination between field experience and the teacher education

16
curriculum. In this model, novice teachers complete the theory with some experienced

teacher and then participate in classroom experience with experienced teacher. They have

the pragmatic opportunity to practice classroom management in actual classroom with

feedback and support. Such programs already have demonstrated their potential to

increase new teachers’ classroom and behavior management skills (Emmer & Stough,

2001: Siebert, 2005)

4.8 The importance of a set of rules or code of conduct

In schools the code of conduct is the standard of expected ethical behaivor for the

students’, teachers and the other related staff. It is about holding oneself to the highest

standards of ethical behavior. Typically Codes talk about expectations to obey the law,

conflicts of interest, preserving confidential information, bribery, corporate opportunities,

competition and fair dealing/unbiased attitude among other things.

The school managers and teachers have the duty to create an environment conducive to

ethical behaivor. This is sometimes called "tone at the top". A Code of Conduct is the

cornerstone of setting the proper tone at the top for the school culture.

There is a major difference between breaking school rules and breaking the law.

The purpose of any Code of Conduct is to set forth the school rules, standards of

behavior, rights and responsibilities of students, parents and staff, and appropriate

consequences. The Code of Conduct in itself is not the enemy, but an important ally. Be

aware when a Code of Conduct is misused or misapplied, or if due process procedures are

disregarded or skipped by school administrators, this is where the "railroading" starts.

Therefore, the rules and the code of conduct is necessary to create the conducive learning

environment, it’s a prime duty of the school administration to help the students learning,

17
so to eradicate the things that distract the students from learning. If there is no code

everyone may have his/her own justification for the behavior and lengthen the matter,

consequently consuming the time on non learning issues.

Activity 03

Every child has a right by law to a "free and public education" so discuss why this

tactic/code of conduct is necessary?

4.9 Some ideas to help you organize your routines

Different people organize their routines differently and the ways they organize their work

affect their learning. Some ideas related to better organization of the routines are

presented in the following lines.

Some people believe organizing routine will reduce creativity and spontaneity in the

home and school. On other hand some believe that school organization that fits pupils’

personality, natural habits and family's lifestyle will:

reduce stress,

create a more peaceful, joyful atmosphere,

allow to accomplish more, and

give more time for fun.

Here's some information about establishing routines that may help to organize home or

school.

Establish Routines

Establish a daily routine that helps to accomplish the major objectives you need to

accomplish each day. Having a home or school schedule will allow you to accomplish

these tasks quickly and easily, so you can relax and have fun without guilt.

18
Establish a Curfew

Curfews can sometimes be thrown to the wind during the summer months. But should try

to reestablish curfew rules and enforce them a few weeks prior to the beginning of a new

school year. Keep in mind your sleeping needs when determining a curfew, but be sure to

make exceptions for special events or activities.

Write Down the Schedule

Keeping organized means putting schedules in writing. Keep the calendar someplace

visible to all, where children will see it every day. Run through the school routine with

your child a few times before the start of the school year, explaining when he should get

up, have breakfast, have his teeth brushed, have his lunched packed, meet the bus, etc.

Review the calendar daily, making note of any last minute changes or daily appointments

or commitments. It's also a good idea to go over the after school schedule.

Set Clothes out the Night Before

Always remember to set clothes and shoes out and ready a night before. That will prevent

from running around the next morning looking for a certain shirt or socks etc that are

clean.

Provide Homework Guidance

Homework can be a grisly obstacle during the early years, and many parents complain

that their children just have too much homework to complete. Conquer homework

challenges by helping the child to keep track of his homework assignments and by

providing an environment that helps them to finish his/her school work responsibilities.

19
Buy a Day Planner

Advise the students to buy and use day planner. The planner should help him track

his/her homework assignments and projects, keep up-to-date on extra-curricular

activities, and remember family commitments and other responsibilities.

Activity 04

Conduct an interview of any teacher and highlight the best practices for organization of

routine and time management.

4.10 Summary
The establishment, teaching and consistent implementation of classroom rules and

procedures have been identified by research as fundamentally important in promotion of

positive behavior. Consistency in classroom organization, including seating arrangements

and equipment storage, can with teaching style and procedural arrangements also have

marked impact on establishing productive classroom ecology.

While advance organization is a complex process that requires careful planning,

especially for the beginning teacher, research evidence would suggest that the outcomes

in terms of establishing classroom order are well worth the effort. Research also suggests

that the development and implementation of clear organizational procedures as early as

possible in the school year are critical to establishing a productive climate. The

formulation and implementation of the class code and development of routines and

procedures are largely dependent on, and certainly reactive to, the quality of the

relationship built between teacher and students as group and individually. Regardless of

the students’ age, the rapport established will affect their willingness to cooperate. The

20
establishment and maintenance of effective rapport has its locus in the development of

quality communication skills.

Developing good rules and routines is only the first step. For rules and routines to

be effective, you must actively teach them and then review them on a regular basis. Time

spent on rules and routines in he first week of school will pay off in increased

instructional time throughout the year. However, make sure to balance the teaching of

rules and routines with learning activities that are meaningful and memorable.

4.11 Self Assessment Questions

1. Describe a classroom environment or setting in which you can learn at your best.

2. Working together in small groups, develop a set of rules for your classroom.

About five rules should be sufficient. For each rule think of ways to make the

rules more meaningful.

3. Brainstorm with your class fellows determine the specific class rules and rewards.

Write the final, established rules and rewards here.

Rules Rewards

4. Summarize the importance of code of conduct for the management of classroom

and school separately.

21
5. Elaborate the principles for the establishment of rules and routines for classroom

management.

4.12 Suggested Readings

Brophy, J. (2006). History of research in classroom management. In C. Evertson &
Weinstein (Eds). Handbook of classroom management:Research practice, and
contemporary issues (pp.17-43). Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.
Colvin, G., Kame’enui, E. J., & Sugai, G. (1993). Reconceptualizing behavior
management and school-wide discipline in general education. Education and
Treatment of Children, 16, 361-381.
Emmer, E.T. & Stough, L. M. (2001). Classroom management: A critical part of
educational psychology, with implications for teacher education. Educational
Psychologist, 36(2), 103-112.
Higgins, J., Williams, R., & McLaughlin, T. F. (2001). The effects of a token economy
employing instructional consequences for a third-grade student with learning
disabilities: A data-based case study. Educational and Treatment of Children, 24, 99-
106.
Kerr, M. M. & Nelson, C. M. (2002). Strategies for addressing behavior problems in the
classroom (5th ed.). Columbus, OH: Merrill Prentice Hall.
Oliver, R. M. & Reschly, D. J. (2007). Effective classroom management: Teacher
preparation and professional development. Washington: National Comprehensive
Center for Teacher Quality.
Siebert, C. J. (2005). Promoting preservice teachers’ success in classroom management
by leveraging a local union’s resources: A professional development school initiative.
Education, 125, 385-392.

22
UNIT 5

EFFECTIVE TEACHING THEORY AND PRACTICE

Written By:
Muhammad Tanveer Afzal
Reviewed By:
Mrs Munnaza Ambreen

1
 Contents

5.1 Introduction

5.2 Objectives of Study

5.3 Managing Behavior

5.3.1 Bad Behavior or Undesired Behavior

5.3.2 Behavior Management

5.3.3 Techniques of behavior management

5.4 Principles of Effective Teaching

5.5 Teaching Theory into Practice

5.5.1 Role of Rewards and Punishments in Putting Theory into Practice

5.6 William Glasser’s Choice Theory

5.7 Self Assessment Questions

5.8 Further Reading

2
5.1 Introduction
Effective teachers prepare their students at the start of every lesson to be in the right

frame of mind and ready to learn. They do this by helping students to 'warm up' in the same way

that athletes do, except in lessons the warm ups are mental rather than physical - these starter

activities also help settle students and give a clear signal the lesson has started. In this

preparation phase, effective teachers also explain the purpose of the learning, and help to get

students ready to learn by explaining the significance of the lesson. It is very important to let

students know how they can profit from what they're about to learn. After that the teacher needs

to present the information to be learned. There are many effective teaching techniques you can

use to present information: successful teachers build up, over time, a wide repertoire of

presentation techniques that take account of students' different learning styles, the nature of the

learning, and the need to motivate and engage all learners. These varying approaches show some

of the many individual differences between teachers. Every teacher has its own beliefs that

consciously or subconsciously influence his/her classroom behavior. Teachers could not occupy

one single stereotyped form of management. There are sudden or violent fluctuations or manners

that effect the classroom management. In normal circumstances and busy classrooms teachers

may have to react to several events, each in a quite different tone, within a very short space of

time. The fact that the teacher has, for example, reacted in an authoritarian way to someone who

has misbehaved, does not mean that every subsequent event should evoke a similar response.

Various standpoints on class management have been endorsed or rejected by different analysts

and practitioners. As the effective teaching is based on the experience of the teacher where

he/she learn how to translate the teaching theory into practice, so it demand a extensive

involvement of the novice teachers into practicum or practice teaching, supervised teaching and
3
the concept of mentoring may help in this regard. The prospective teachers learn the theory in

their course work and almost all the teachers training programs have the component of teaching

practice that helps them to put the theory into practice. As we have discussed that the teacher

starts a lesson with the warm up session, introduce the topic and involve the students in to active

learning etc, an experienced teacher bridge these components in such a way that the students

enjoy the learning. In this unit you will study the principles of effective teaching that may help to

improve the classroom situations and control, management of the undesired behavior is also very

important component that has been discussed in this unit. How to put the teaching theory into

practice will help the novice teacher make teaching learning process effective and William

Glasser’s choice theory have also been discussed in this unit.

5.2 Objectives of Study

After studying this unit, the students will be able to:

 Apply the principles of effective teaching in the actual classroom setting.

 Manage the undesired behavior of the students for creating conducive learning
environment.

 Practice the teaching theory to enhance the students’ achievement.

 Apply the William Glasser’s choice theory for creating positive learning environment.

5.3 Managing Behavior

Behavior management plays a significant role in the teaching learning process. Most of

the time situation arises where teacher have to manage the behavior that is distracting the class

from the actual objective or the behaviors that are undesired and wasting the time. Many teachers

tackle the situation on the basis of their experience and some time a teacher could not understand

the situation and shows aggressiveness or remained too passive that consequently affects the

4
students learning. Therefore, it is necessary for the teachers and the administrators to understand

the behavior identify and cope it at the right time. This particular section will help us to cope the

undesired behavior exhibited by the students during the class sessions.

Behavior is the range of actions and mannerism made by organisms, systems, or artificial entities

in coincidence with their environment, which includes the other systems or organisms around as

well as the physical environment. It is the response to the system or organism to various stimuli

or inputs, whether internal or external, conscious or subconscious, overt or covert, and voluntary

or involuntary.

The biologically the behavior is believed to be controlled primarily by the endocrine system and

the nervous system. Biologists believed that complication in the behavior of a human or any

other organism is correlated to the complexity of its nervous system. Generally, organisms with

more complex nervous systems have a greater capacity to learn new responses and thus adjust

their behavior.

Behaviors can be either inborn or learned; however, recent developments in biological sciences

indicated the possibility that human behavior may be influenced by the microbe population

within a human body.

Behavior can be explained as any action of an organism that changes its relationship to its

environment. Behavior provides outputs from the organism to the environment. Different

discipline defines behavior in different perspective. Let us learn some important definitions of

the behavior before coming towards the methods of behavior management.

5
According to psychologists human behavior can be common, unusual, acceptable, or

unacceptable. Humans assess the acceptability of behavior using social norms and adjust

behavior by means of social control.

In sociology, behavior is considered as having no meaning, being not directed at other people

and thus is the most basic human action, although it can play a part in diagnosis of disorders such

as the autism spectrum disorders. Animal behavior is studied in comparative psychology,

ethnology, behavioral ecology and sociobiology.

According to moral values, human behavior may also depend upon the common, usual, unusual,

acceptable or unacceptable behavior of others.

Behavior became an important construct in early 20th century psychology with the advent of the

paradigm known consequently as "behaviorism." Behaviorism was a reaction against "faculty"

psychology which supposed to see into or understand the mind without the benefit of scientific

testing. Behaviorism insisted on working only with what can be seen or manipulated and in the

early views of John B. Watson, a founder of the field; nothing was inferred as to the nature of the

entity that produced the behavior. Subsequent modifications of Watson's perspective and that of

"classical conditioning” led to the rise of operant conditioning or "radical behaviorism," a theory

advocated by B.F. Skinner, which took over the academic establishment up through the 1950s

and was synonymous with "behaviorism" for many.

5.3.1 Bad Behavior or Undesired Behavior

Bad behavior is a relative term parents and teachers normally use it but most of the times the

psychologists use the term undesired behavior. We define the term bad behavior in views of

teachers, parents and pupils view point as:

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In view of teacher a bad behavior is “showing lack of respect, lack of manners, bad language,

disrespecting property as well as people without thinking of the impact on others”. In view of

parents it is generally having no consideration for those around you. And students view the bad

behavior as not listening to the teachers or parents and not following the rules.

Every individual has his own opinion of what constitutes bad behaviour. If you are uncertain of

what constitutes bad behaviour in your school, check the school behaviour policy to confirm

acceptable and not acceptable. The term undesired behavior is closely related with bad behavior,

teachers’ actions are to develop the behaviors aligned with the environment and that not seems

odd one. When an individual’s response is not in accordance with to the instruction provided by

the teacher or instructor then that type of behavior is termed as undesired behavior. The best

way of dealing with, or more importantly preventing, poor behaviour is to understand why it is

happening in the first place. These key factors are thought to influence behaviour: diet,

environment, relationships and teaching. After identification of the causes the teacher may apply

the strategy to cope the poor behavior. Applying the appropriate strategy to tackle the undesired

behavior in simple words is known as behavior management.

5.3.2 Behavior Management

Behavior management is similar to behavior amendment. It is near to behavior therapy. Behavior

modification focus on changing behavior of the individual, while in behavior management the

focus is on maintaining order or to normalize the response of the individual. Behavior

management skills have immense importance for teachers in the educational system. Behavior

management include all of the actions and conscious inactions to enhance the probability people,

7
individually and in groups, choose behaviors which are personally fulfilling, productive, and

socially acceptable and are in accordance with the environment.

There is a great deal of research related to "behavior change" and "behavior management".

Skinner and Rogers have given two distinctly different approaches for addressing behavior.

Skinner's approach says that anyone can control behavior by first identifying what the individual

finds rewarding. Once the rewards of an individual are known, then those rewards can be

selected that the manager is willing to give in exchange for good behavior. Skinner calls this

"Positive Reinforcement Psychology". Rogers proposes that in order to effectively address

behavior problems, individual must be influenced to want to behave appropriately. This is done

by teaching the individual the difference between right and wrong including why he or she

should do what is right. Rogers believes that the individual must have an internal awareness of

right and wrong.

We as a teacher cannot rely upon any single concept but can use appropriate method as per

situation.

5.3.3 Techniques of behavior management

Many of the principles and techniques used are the same as behavior modification yet delivered

in a less intensively and consistent fashion. Usually, behavior management is applied at the

group level by a classroom teacher as a form of behavioral engineering to produce high rates of

student work completion and minimize classroom disturbance. In addition, greater focus has

been placed on building self control.

According to Brophy (1986) contemporary behavior modification approaches involve students

more actively in planning and shaping their own behavior through participation in the
8
negotiation of contracts with their teachers and through exposure to training designed to help

them to monitor and evaluate their behavior more actively, to learn techniques of self-control and

problem solving, and to set goals and reinforce themselves for meeting these goals. Involvement

is an important tool to manage the behavior of the students.

In general behavior management strategies have been very effective in reducing classroom

disturbance. In addition, recent efforts have focused on incorporating principles of functional

assessment into the process.

Over the years, behavioral management principles such as reinforcement, modeling and even the

use of punishment have been explored in the building of prosocial behavior. This area is

sometimes referred to as "Behavioral Development". Midlarsky (1973) used a combination of

modeling and reinforcement to build selfless behavior. Two studies exist in which modeling by

itself did not increase prosocial behavior; however, modeling is much more effective than

instruction giving (such as "preaching"). The role of rewards has been implicated in the building

of self-control and empathy. Cooperation seems particularly susceptible to rewards. Sharing is

another prosocial behavior influenced by reinforcement. Reinforcement is particularly effective

at least early in the learning series if context conditions are similar. Evidence exists to show

some generalization. Recent research indicates that behavioral “interventions” produce the most

valuable results when “applied” during early childhood and “early adolescence."

The role of punishment is controversial in forming prosocial behavior. The socialization process

continues by peers with reinforcement and punishment playing major roles. Peers are more likely

to punish cross-gender play and reinforce play specific to gender.

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There are a number of techniques teachers use to manage student behaviour, a productive class is

the result of the complex interaction of many factors. Here are some practical strategies and

resources to assist teachers with classroom behaviour.

 Provide adequate and relevant learning resources which offer students choice and the

motivation to participate

 Involve students in practical and interesting activities so that they may not get involved in

irrelevant activities

 Ensure activities are purposeful and interesting with clear goals that students perceive to

be worthwhile.

 Negotiate a shared understanding, expectation and acceptance of responsibilities and

rights within the classroom, e.g. collaboratively develop a code of conduct, and provide

choice and decision-making opportunities for students.

 Encourage student self-evaluation of progress and achievement on learning tasks.

 Ensure students understand the consequences of choices and of their behaviors.

There are some behavior management tips given by educationists presented following.

1. Simple and clear in delivering Message

Teachers need to deliver the messages, needs to be simple, clear and non-negotiable; in practice

it is easy to get involved in a lengthy argument or confrontation. Focus on moving in, and

conveying rules as discreetly as possible and then moving out quickly this may help to improve

the classroom situation.

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Avoid waiting around for the student to change their behavior immediately; they may need some

time and space to make a better choice. Engage another student in a positive conversation or

move across the room to answer a question and only check back whether the matter has resolved.

No one likes receiving sanctions and the longer the interaction the more chance of a defensive

reaction. Get in, deliver the message and get out with dignity; quickly, efficiently and without

lingering.

2. Countdown

A good technique for getting the attention of the whole class is to use a 'countdown' from 5 or 10

to allow students the time to finish their conversations (or work) and listen to the next

instruction. Explain to the class that you are using countdown to give them fair warning that they

need to listen and that it is far more polite than calling for immediate silence. For example we

can devise the strategy as given below.

'Five, You should be finishing the sentence that you are writing

Four All pens and pencils down now

Three, Check that all the papers are arranged

Two, Bind or staple the papers

One, Handover the answer sheet to the relevant person

Some students may join in the countdown with you at first, some will not be quiet by the time

you get to zero at first but persevere, use praise and rewards to reinforce its importance and it can

become an extremely efficient tool for those times when you need everyone's attention. You may

11
already have a technique for getting everyone's attention, e.g. hands up. The countdown

technique is more effective as it is time related and does not rely on students seeing you.

3. Presence of a Teacher

The presence of a teacher is the greatest contribution to managing behaviour around the school

site. The students will grow used to the interventions in social areas and the teacher presence will

slowly have an impact on students’ behaviour. The relationships you develop will be

strengthened, with opportunities for less formal conversation presenting them daily.

4. Assigning work to the students

At primary level students' mutual trust is encouraged through sharing and delegating jobs in the

classroom. Well organized teachers will have students handing out resources, clearing and

cleaning the room, preparing areas for different activities, drawing blinds etc. The students learn

how to share responsibility with others and accept responsibility for themselves.

The tasks and responsibilities that you are able to share may seem mundane and trivial but by

doing this an ethos of shared responsibility can be given a secure foundation.

5. Dealing with secondary behaviors

The behaviors that appear during the process of intervention are known as secondary behaviors.

When teacher has exhausted all of your positive reinforcement, redirection techniques, warnings

and sanctions and need to leave the room, the secondary behaviors are the chair being thrown

back, or door being slammed, or the infuriating smile that slowly cracks across his face. He/she

may want to divert the conversation away from the original behaviour or encourage an

12
confrontation in the corridor. Resist the temptation to address the secondary behaviors in the

moment. Instead record them and deal with them later on.

The fact that the student has left the room means that he has followed your instructions; the

dramatic trail of disruption that he has left in his wake can be dealt with when he is calm. Your

calm and considered response will be closely observed by the rest of the class and they will be

impressed by your confidence even in those emotionally fuelled moments. He/She may slowly

begin to realize that his usual pattern of behaviour will not work with you.

6. Classroom Arrangement

With the growth of the interactive whiteboard and use of computer screens for teaching, many

classrooms are reverting to students in rows with the teacher's desk at the front and in the corner.

The classroom was arranged for students to see the blackboard, now technology has replaced

chalk but the difficulties of inflexible classroom configurations remain.

When designing the layout of your room you also need to consider the management of

behaviour. With students in rows and the teacher sitting behind their desk there are many hiding

places for students to escape to. If you cannot get to students quickly and easily then the

classroom becomes an arena where conversations about behaviour are broadcast for everyone to

hear. Confrontations become more frequent, delivery of praise less subtle and as the teacher

retreats behind the desk the physical divide can easily develop into a psychological one.

As a reaction to the overuse of the blackboard much work was done to encourage teachers to use

more dynamic classroom configurations. Desks in rows with the teacher's desk at the front makes

the management of behaviour harder, stifles gentle human interaction and forces most

13
conversations to be broadcast publicly. They may be able to see the screen but are they engaging

with it or with you?

Activity 01

Visit a school near you and conduct the interviews of the teachers for the management of

undesired behavior. Write the report for best practices used by the teachers.

5.4 Principles of Effective Teaching

Effective teaching can be defined as teaching that successfully achieves the objectives of

teaching learning process. In other words the effective teacher is the one who enables the

students to reach to the desired learning outcomes. Dunkin 1992 as cited in Hunt, 2009 defined

effective teachers in these words:

‘Teacher effectiveness is a matter of the degree to which a teacher achieves the desired effects

upon students. It is an extent to which the teacher possesses the requisite knowledge and skills,

and teacher performance as the way a teacher behaves in the process of teaching.( P. 1)’

In essence, there are two simple elements to effective teaching:

_ The teacher must have a clear idea of what learning is to be fostered.

_ A learning experience is set up and delivered that achieves this.

Kyriacou (2009) gave a dynamic perspective of effective teaching and said that over the

years, thinking about effective teaching has been approached in a number of different ways.

Until the 1960s, research on effective teaching was largely dominated by attempts to identify

attributes of teachers, such as personality traits, sex, age, knowledge and training, which might

have a bearing on their effectiveness. As long ago as 1931, for example, Cattell asked 254
14
people, including directors of education, teacher trainers, schoolteachers and pupils, to write

down the most important qualities of the good teacher. Overall, the five most frequently reported

were personality and will; intelligence; sympathy and tact; open-mindedness and a sense of

humor.

Kyriacou (2009) elaborated that in present effective teaching is commonly taken as a

complex phenomenon encompassing many types of interacting variables that are Context

Variables, Process Variables and Product Variables:

Context variables include all the characteristics related to the learning activity, which may have

some impact upon the success of the learning activity.

Process variables refer to what does actually go on in the classroom, these variables include

teacher’s enthusiasm; clarity of explanations; use of praise and criticism; management strategies;

organization of the lesson; suitability of learning tasks; feedback pupils receive; students

involvement in the lesson and so on.

Product variables refer to all those educational outcomes that are desired by teachers including ;

increased knowledge and skills; increased interest in the subject or topic; increased motivation;

increased academic self-confidence and self-esteem; increased autonomy and increased social

development.

Effective teachers have some unique characteristics:

_ Clarity of the teacher’s explanations and directions

_ Establishing a task-oriented classroom climate

_ Making use of a variety of learning activities

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_ Establishing and maintaining momentum and pace for the lesson

_ Encouraging pupil participation and getting all pupils involved.

_ Monitoring pupils’ progress and attending quickly to pupils’ needs.

_ Delivering a well-structured and well-organized lesson.

_ Providing pupils with positive and constructive feedback.

_ Ensuring coverage of the educational objectives

_ Making good use of questioning techniques

Bruphy has given major principles of effective teaching as described below:

 Establishing a supportive classroom climate

Research findings advocate that student learn best within a cohesive, congenial and caring

learning environment. For effective teaching it is necessary to provide a supportive classroom

climate. In order to mould the classroom into a cohesive and supportive learning community,

teachers require displaying personal attributes like: a cheerful disposition, friendliness, emotional

maturity, sincerity, and caring about students as individuals as well as learners. The teacher

should exhibit concern, care and affection for students and display that S/he is attentive to their

interests, needs and emotions. In this type of classroom climate, students would have the

freedom to ask questions without any embarrassment, to contribute to lectures without any fear

of their ideas being ridiculed, and to collaborate with their colleagues on many of their learning

activities.

 Maximizing Opportunities to Learn

There are much more things worth learning than the time available for teaching them,

therefore, it is essential that limited classroom time must be used efficiently. Effective teachers
16
are those who allocate most of the time to learning activities as compared to non-academic

pastimes tasks that serve little or no learning purpose. Their students spend much more time to

curriculum related activities than the students of those teachers who are less focused on

instructional goals. Thus effective teacher conveys a sense of the purposefulness of activities and

the importance of getting the most out of the available time.

 Establishing learning orientations

Students learning can be made effective, if teachers provide an initial structure to elucidate

intended outcomes and signal desired learning strategies. Advance organizers adjust students to

what they will learn before the instruction begins. They describe the general nature of the activity

and give students a structure within which to focus. Such knowledge of the nature of the activity

and the structure of its content helps students to focus on the main ideas and order their thoughts

effectively. Therefore, before beginning instruction, the effective teachers ensure that students

know what they will be learning and why it is important for them to learn it.

 Presenting coherent content

To facilitate meaningful learning, content needs to be explained clearly and developed with

emphasis on its structure and connections. Information is easier to learn to the extent that it is

coherent–the sequence of ideas or events makes sense and the relationships among them are

obvious. Content is most likely to be organized coherently when it is selected in a principled

way, guided by ideas about what students should learn from studying the topic. When making

presentations, providing explanations or giving demonstrations, effective teachers project

17
enthusiasm for the content and organize and sequence it so as to maximize its clarity and

coherence.

 Providing Thoughtful discourse:

Thoughtful discourse features sustained examination of a small number of related topics, in

which students are invited to develop explanations, make predictions, debate alternative

approaches to problems. The effective teacher emphasizes students to justify their arguments,

rather than accepting them indiscriminately. In addition to providing feedback, the teacher

encourages students to explain or elaborate on their answers or to comment on peers’ answers.

Frequently, discourse that begins in a question-and-answer format evolves into an exchange of

views in which students respond to one another as well as to the teacher.

 Encouraging Practice and application Activities:

Practice is one of the most important yet least appreciated aspects of learning in classrooms.

Little or no practice may be needed for simple behaviors such as pronouncing words, but practice

becomes more important as learning becomes complex.

Successful practice involves polishing skills that are already established at rudimentary levels in

order to make them smoother, more efficient and more automatic, and not trying to establish

such skills through trial and error.

 Scaffolding students’ task Engagement:

Research on learning tasks suggests that activities and assignments should be sufficiently varied

and interesting to motivate student engagement, sufficiently new or challenging to constitute

18
meaningful learning experiences rather than needless repetition, and yet sufficiently easy to

allow students to achieve high rates of success if they invest reasonable time and effort.

Besides being well chosen, activities need to be effectively presented, monitored and followed

up if they are to have their full impact. This means preparing students for an activity in advance,

providing guidance and feedback during the activity, and leading the class in post-activity

reflection afterwards.

 Strategy teaching

The teacher models and instructs students in learning and self-regulation strategies. Many

students do not develop effective learning and problem solving strategies on their own but can

acquire them through modelling and explicit instruction from their teachers. Poor readers, for

example, can be taught reading comprehension strategies such as keeping the purpose of an

assignment in mind when reading; activating relevant background knowledge; identifying major

points in attending to the outline and flow of content; monitoring understanding by generating

and trying to answer questions about the content; or drawing and testing inferences by making

interpretations, predictions and conclusions.

 Co-operative learning:

Research indicates that there is often much to be gained by arranging for students to

collaborate in pairs or small groups as they work on activities and assignments. Co-operative

learning promotes affective and social benefits such as increased student interest in and valuing

of subject matter, and increases in positive attitudes and social interactions among students. Co-

operative learning can be used with activities ranging from drill and practice to learning facts and

concepts, discussion and problem solving. It is perhaps most valuable as a way of engaging

students in meaningful learning with authentic tasks in a social setting.

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  Goal-oriented assessment:

Effective teachers use assessment for evaluating students’ progress in learning and for

planning curriculum improvements, not just for generating grades. Good assessment includes

data from many sources besides paper-and-pencil tests, and it addresses the full range of goals or

intended outcomes (not only knowledge but also higher-order thinking skills and content-related

values and dispositions). Standardized, norm-referenced tests might comprise part of the

assessment programme (these tests are useful to the extent that they measure intended outcomes

of the curriculum and attention is paid to students’ performance on each individual item, not just

total scores). However, standardized tests should ordinarily be supplemented with publisher-

supplied curriculum embedded tests (when these appear useful) and with teacher made tests that

focus on learning goals that are emphasized in instruction.

 Achievement expectations:

Teachers’ expectations concerning what their students are capable of accomplishing (with

teacher help) tend to shape both what teachers attempt to elicit from their students and what the

students come to expect from themselves. Thus, teachers should form and project expectations

that are as positive as they can be while still remaining realistic. Such expectations should

represent genuine beliefs about what can be achieved and therefore should be taken seriously as

goals towards which to work in instructing students. It is helpful if teachers set goals for the class

and for individuals in terms of floors (minimally acceptable standards), not ceilings. Then they

can let group progress rates, rather than limits adopted arbitrarily in advance, determine how far

the class can go within the time available. They can keep their expectations for individual

students current by monitoring their progress closely.

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 Activity 2

Enlist at least five principles of effective teaching; discuss with any fellow student that how

these principles help to make the learning environment attractive for the students.

5.5 Teaching Theory into Practice

Teachers’ expectations about the students’ achievement and the teachers’ theoretical knowledge

along with the experience help to apply the appropriate instructional strategies to optimize the students’

achievements. The selection of the instructional strategies varies from teacher to teacher and it is the way

teacher translate the theory into practice. Instructional strategies are powerful tools that are directly

related to teacher expectations and student achievement. Many schools can increase both teacher

expectations and student achievement by putting theory into practice. There are many pedagogical tools

that help to translate the theory into practice.

 Enabling teachers to offer varied learning experiences by open up learning opportunities.

 Providing environment to teachers to put research based best practices into a meaningful

context for learning.

 Helping teachers to understand and use assessment as a critical tool to drive instruction

 Adding new instructional strategies to teachers' “toolboxes”—introducing or reinforcing

techniques to help teachers focus on essentials of curriculum.

 Meeting curriculum requirements in a meaningful way for achieving student success

 Presenting historical knowledge as both contested and contestable through the use of

multiple sources;

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  Engaging learners in dialogue with both the text and among themselves,

 Calling on learners to infer and reinterpret the content in the light their own experiences,

 Challenging learners to move beyond their own theories about the past, reconcile their

own and others’ histories, and think critically about the world around them,

 Creating a democratic atmosphere in the classroom,

For managing behavior in the class we have to develop rules and implementation of these

rules is actually the concern for putting theory into practice. It is argued that it was worthwhile

for teachers to spend some time explaining, what rules they believed in, but also asking children

to suggest adjustments or new rules of their own. Subsequently, other proponents have suggested

that teachers should discuss rule-related problems to see who ‘owns’ it, whether it was the

teacher, the children, or a shared responsibility.

Teachers usually impose rules on children; the idea of negotiating rules with them is not as

widespread as one might believe. Yet in much of school and indeed most of adult life, we have to

take responsibility for discipline ourselves in the light of society’s established order without

some super ordinate telling us what to do every few minutes? Most people agree that self-

discipline is important and that children in school should master it but this belief is not always

translated into practices that would secure it.

There is a view proposed by Glasser (1969), in his book Schools without Failure, that class

management problems are made easier if children can understand, Why certain rules apply or are

consulted about the sort of behavior that is desirable in a classroom?

This raises the issue about what is open to negotiation bullying, theft, damage to property

and people, for example, the means of prevention, perhaps but surely not the issues themselves.

22
Ensuring children’s well being and law-abiding behavior is a legal requirement on teachers, for

they must exercise the “Duty of care”, as it is called. While implementing this, you might face

different situations where care for one may hurt the rights of the other students, then the teachers

beliefs and self understanding compel him/her to develop his/her own rules to maintain the

classroom discipline. Occasionally it may be worth creating the time for discussion of what is

happening in the classroom, especially at the beginning of the year, or if there appear to be

problems. This ritual are known as ‘Circle Time’ in Primary Schools, when children sit round

and discuss the process of teaching and learning with their teacher. From time to time, it may be

a valuable lubricant in a secondary class, though not if it becomes an over-indulgence or begins

to predominate.

Another teacher in the same school also began by saying that a laboratory could be a

dangerous place but he engaged the children’s interest by giving them a blank piece of paper

first, and saying, develop the rules that save you from any kind of accident in the laboratory, like

“No running or pushing”, “Handle equipment carefully”, “Be careful with flames or acids” were

anticipated by the class so that when he gave out copies of the actual rules they were pleased at

their success. Matters like “Wearing goggles”, which no one had suggested were then discussed.

One important fundamental question about negotiation is not merely, what is or what should

be negotiable but how children can understand the need for rules such as wearing proper clothing

on a field trip, staying away from dangerous places and not taking risks.

This does not negotiate away teacher’s legal responsibilities; it actually makes them more

meaningful. Adolescents need to face up to matters such as self-discipline and respect for others

because these are necessary in families and communities, as well as in schools. Teachers in the

23
end must take responsibility for rules even if they sometimes endorse sensible proposals from

children.

Rules can be put into practice in several ways. For example:

 General explanation “Respect others.”

 Specific prescription “Raise your hand when you want to say something.”

 Rule with explanation “I don’t want anyone pushing and shoving near that sink.”

Because someone’s going to spill water on the floor and slippery floors cause accidents.’

 General question “How can we make sure everyone gets a fair chance to do well in their

exams next summer?”

 Negotiation “I have allowed you to talk to each other while you are doing your projects

but it is getting far too noisy so let’s just discuss for a minute what we can do about it.”

 Self-monitoring” “You will have to make a lot of decisions yourself when you are older

so let’s see how well you can manage your own work, without me having to tell you

what to do all the time.” Personal relationships between teacher and children can be

shaped in many locations and contexts. Consider just some examples of these, both

positive and negative in their effect.

 Academic Explaining patiently to a child who does not understand a new concept, making

a sarcastic remark to someone who does not understand a new concept.

 Social Chatting to Children as they enter classroom about what they did at the weekend.

 Expectation Looking for positive qualities and achievements in children. Having low

expectations or always focusing on the negative side of children work or behavior.

 Home/school/ Talking positively with parents and members of children’s communities.

24
  Individual Taking a personal interest in children as individuals. Seeing class entirely as a

group without individual identities.

Teacher can use any of the combination of the strategies explained in the above examples to

manage the classroom learning environment that is conducive to learning.

Activity 3

Develop a set of Rules to manage the discipline in the classroom, write them on a chart and
display it in a classroom of a nearby school. After one month visit the school again and
discuss with teacher the implementation problems faced by him/her.

5.5.1 Role of Rewards and Punishments in Putting Theory into Practice

Since teachers must act as a responsible parent does, society has to give them certain powers to

exercise control or discharge the “Duty of care” which the law requires. Forms of punishment in

particular in a school must be approved by the school administration. Punishment may play an

important role in establishment of the discipline but we as a teacher must consider that the

punishment

This is to avoid, for example, children being kept in detention after school if this meant that they

would miss their bus home to a remote rural area or to a dangerous part of a city. Punishments

are in fact governed by the law, which decrees that they must be “Reasonable” defined by one

judge as:

• Moderate

• Not dictated by bad motives

• Such as is usual in the school

• Such as the parent of the child might expect it to receive if it had done wrong.

25
 Corporal punishment is ban in Pakistan, it does not apply to forms of corporal punishment,

such as hitting with a ruler or stick, slipper or the hand but also to a “Clip round the ear”, which

in any case was a potentially dangerous punishment. Rewards are one of two principal kinds:

 extrinsic getting a star, a badge, a trophy, a prize, a privilege, something external often

visible, bestowed on behalf of the school or by the teacher.

 intrinsic satisfying one’s curiosity, a glow of pride from a job well done, something

coming more from within the individual.

Positive and punishments are always negative yet a reward out of all proportion to whatever

deed earned it or minor punishment that was fair and timely and in retrospect appreciated by the

recipient as having had a positive effect can soon reverse these simple labels. Similarly, it might

be assumed that extrinsic rewards are crude bribes and that intrinsic rewards are the only things

worth striving for, but some people need external recognition so that they can set their own

standards for themselves. What is often much more important is the effect of rewards and

punishments on the children concerned whether the punishment was unfair, something greatly

resented by children or whether they had earned the reward for their own efforts. Most rewards

and punishments are unspectacular, often short-lived and taken for granted. This does not mean

that they are of no importance. The two incidents below only occupied a few seconds but they

demonstrate that even a fleeting exchange can have a significant influence.

According to (Assor et al., 2005) motivational and behavioral problems occur for the simple

reason that classrooms have rules, requests, requirements and agendas that are sometimes at odds

with students preferences and natural inclinations. Under such conditions, students

understandably complain, resists and express negative effect. In turn, teachers frequently respond

with counter-directives and efforts to suppress these criticisms

26
 Reeve and Halusic (2009) described that teachers can put motivational principles from

self-determination theory into practice by considering the students perspective, displaying

patience to allow time for learning, nurture inner motivational resources, providing explanatory

rationales, rely on non controlling language and acknowledge and accept expressions of

negative effect.

Activity 4

Enlist the other methods of managing behavior that can replace the corporal punishment

5.6 William Glasser’s Choice Theory

Choice Theory, developed by William Glasser, MD., gives an explanation of motivation that is

obviously different from what is commonly known. A central aspect of this is the belief that we

are internally, not externally motivated. While many other theories suggest that external events

cause or motivate one to behave in certain ways, Choice Theory argues that outside or external

events never motivate or make us to do anything. Rather what drives the behavior is internally

developed notion of what is valuable or most important and satisfying to us.

Another important concept in Choice Theory is the belief that we always have some choice

regarding how to behave. This does not mean at all that we have unlimited choices or that

external information is totally irrelevant or useless to choose how to behave. It means that we

have more control on our behavior than most of the people might think and that we ourselves are

responsible for the choices we make regarding our behavior.

27
Choice theory suggests that as humans we constantly compare our perception of the world with

how we would like it to be, our current Quality World picture. Consciously or not, we always

determine if our current behavior is the best available choice to take us to the desired direction.

Basic Needs as the Determinant of Behavior

Choice Theory is based on the assumption that all behavior represents the individual's constant

attempt to satisfy one or more of five basic needs. In other words, no behavior is caused by any

situation or person outside of the individual.

All individuals are driven by genetically transmitted needs that serve as instructions for

attempting to live their lives. The needs are equally important, and all must be reasonably

satisfied if individuals are to fulfill their biological destiny. These basic needs are:

the need to survive,

the need to belong,

the need to gain power,

the need to be free, and

the need to have fun.

The individual has no choice but to feel pain when a need is frustrated and pleasure when it is

satisfied. When any need goes unsatisfied, there is a continual urge to behave. This urge is as

much a part of human genetic instructions as is eye color. Instructions related to survival - such

as hunger, thirst, and sexual desire - are relatively distinct. Individuals quickly learn that the

particular discomfort is attached to this need, and it is plain what they must do to satisfy the

survival instructions. The non-survival, or psychological, needs are challenging because it is

often less clear what an individual must do to satisfy them. Psychological needs, like biological

needs, have their source in the genes, even though they are much less tangible and the behaviors

28
that fulfill them are more complex than the physical behaviors used to fulfill the survival needs.

Glasser (1984) holds that we are essentially biological beings, and the fact that we follow some

of our genetic instructions psychologically rather than physically makes neither the instructions

less urgent nor the source less biological. The ways in which we fulfill psychological needs can

be summarized as follows:

1. We fulfill the need to belong by loving, sharing, and cooperating with others.

2. We fulfill the need for power by achieving, accomplishing, and being recognized and

respected.

3. We fulfill the need for freedom by making choices in our lives.

4. We fulfill the need for fun by laughing and playing.

Even though individuals may not be fully aware of their basic needs, they learn that there are

some general circumstances that strongly relate to the way they feel. For example, people behave

lovingly with their parents because it feels good; they realize that when people pay attention to

their words or actions they feel powerful; by making choices they feel the importance of

freedom; and through laughter they learn about fun.

Even though human needs are essentially the same for everyone, the behaviors through which

individuals choose to satisfy those needs may be quite different. Beginning at birth, individuals

have unique experiences that feel either pleasurable or painful. Through these experiences,

individuals learn how to satisfy their needs. Because individuals have different experiences, the

things they learn to do to satisfy their needs will be different as well. Each individual has

29
memories of need-fulfilling behaviors specific to his or her unique life experiences. These

pleasurable memories constitute the individual's quality world and become the most important

part of the person's life. For most people, this quality world is composed of pictures (or, more

accurately, perceptions) representing what they have most enjoyed in life. These perceptions

become the standard for behavioral choices. Unlike the basic survival needs, which are the same

for everyone, the perceptions in each person's quality world are very specific and completely

individual. Individuals choose to behave in different ways to fulfill their needs because their

quality worlds are different. To be in effective control of one's life means integrating this

knowledge into the way one deals with others.

To satisfy the basic needs, a person must behave. This means acting, thinking, feeling, and

involving the body, all of which are components of the total behavior generated in the effort to

get what is wanted. Whenever there is a discrepancy between what one wants and what one has,

30
the internal behavioral system is activated. The motivation is always to behave, not only for

present needs but, after those are satisfied, for future needs. People innately reject being

controlled by others because they are capable of fulfilling only their own needs. Loss of control

to another is dysfunctional and runs counter to the fulfillment of needs.

To satisfy needs, people must be able to sense what is going on both around them and within

them, and then be able to act on that information. When we sense a discrepancy between what

we have and what we want, we behave by acting upon the world and upon ourselves as a part of

the world. If we examine this behavior, it may seem to be composed of four different behaviors,

but these are actually four components of what is always a total behavior. These four

components, which always occur synchronously, are as follows:

1. Doing (e.g., walking, talking)

2. Thinking (e.g., reasoning, fantasizing)

3. Feeling (e.g., angering, depressing)

4. Physiology (e.g., sweating, headaching)

The feeling component of behavior is typically the most obvious. However, the more a person

can recognize that feelings are just one component of total behavior, the more the person will be

in control of his or her life. Glasser (1984) explains that, as individuals learn Choice Theory,

they stop using nouns (like depression) that describe only the feeling component of total

behavior and begin to use verbs that more accurately describe total behavior. Thus, verbs like

depressing, anxietying, and headaching replace nouns like depression, anxiety, and headache.

The value in learning about total behavior is that it enables people to choose behaviors to satisfy

their needs more effectively. Glasser (1984) illustrates total behavior by relating how he might

deal with a frustrating situation - failure to pass an important examination:

31
In most situations, people are more tuned in to their feelings than their actions, thoughts, or

physiology. It is unlikely that an individual would mention all the components described in this

passage if asked how he or she was doing after failing an examination; most likely the person

would talk about the feeling component - being upset or depressed about the situation. When

people are asked to talk about a complex situation, they tend to describe the most obvious or

recognizable factor. Glasser (1984) says that most people are much more aware of one

component of behavior than of others and, hence, tend to view it as a discrete behavior, not as

part of a total behavior. By recognizing that the feeling component is just one of four that make

up total behavior, people can be more in control of their lives.

When people begin to think in terms of total behaviors, they can see that they choose these

behaviors and have the option to change them. The most direct way to change a total behavior is

to change the behavior's doing and thinking components. We have almost total control over the

doing component of behavior and some control over the thinking component; we have less

control over the feeling component and very little control over physiological phenomena.

Behavior in its totality ultimately gives us control over all components. When we change what

we are doing, we will notice that our thoughts, feelings, and physiological responses change as

well. Returning to Glasser's (1984) narrative, we see that he deals with the disappointment of the

failed exam by changing the doing and thinking components of behavior and, thus, the total

behavior:

 The Ten Axioms of Choice Theory

 The only person whose behavior we can control is our own.

 All we can give another person is information.

 All long-lasting psychological problems are relationship problems.

32
  The problem relationship is always part of our present life.

 What happened in the past has everything to do with what we are today, but we can only

satisfy our basic needs right now and plan to continue satisfying them in the future.

 We can only satisfy our needs by satisfying the pictures in our Quality World.

 All we do is behavior

 All behavior is total Behavior and is made up of four components: acting, thinking,

feeling and physiology.

 All Total Behavior is chosen, but we only have direct control over the acting and thinking

components. We can only control our feeling and physiology indirectly through how we

choose to act and think.

 All Total Behavior is designated by verbs and named by the part that is the most

recognizable.

5.7 Self Assessment Questions

 Define the undesired behavior, and enlist most commonly exhibited undesired behavior

by the students in the class.

 Discuss how teachers can overcome the undesired behavior of the students.

 Elaborate the problems faced by the less experienced teachers while putting theory into

practice.

 Elaborate the principles of effective teaching.

 Discuss the applicability of the William Glasser’s Choice Theory.

33
5.8 Further Reading

 Donna K. Crawford, Richard J. Bodine, Robert G. Hoglund. (1993). The School For
Quality Learning: Managing The School And Classroom The Deming Way. The
university of Michigan. Research Press http://www.choicetheory.com/ct.htm

 Good, T.; Brophy, J. (2000). Looking in classrooms, 8th ed. New York, Longman.

 Hunt, Barbara C. (2009). Teacher Effectiveness: A Review of the International Literature

and Its Relevance for Improving Education in Latin America. Washington, DC: PREAL.

 Kyriacou, C. (2009). Effective Teaching in Schools: Theory and Practice (Third Edition).
United Kingdom: Nelson Thornes Ltd
 Reeve, J. M. & Halusic, M. (2009). How K-12 teachers can put self-determination
theory principles into practice. Theory and Research in Education, vol. 7(2) 145–154
ISSN 1477-8785.

 William Glasser, M.D. (1998) The Quality School: Managing Students Without
Coercion. New York: Harper Perennial Publishers.

 Midlarsky, Elizabeth, Bryan, James H. and Brickman, Philip, 1973. Aversive Approval:
Interactive Effects of Modeling and Reinforcement on Altruistic Behavior. Child
Development, 44(2), 321-328.

34
Unit No: 6

Models of Behavioural Management

Written By:
Shaheen Ashraf Tahirkheli
Reviewed By:
Dr. Naveed Sultana

1
Unit No: 6 Models of Behavioural Management

Contents:
6.1……………..Introduction

6.2……………..The Behaviourist Theory

6.2.1…………... Theoretical Assumptions of Behaviourist Theory

6.2.2…………... Background of theory

6.2.3…………... Classical conditioning

6.2.4…………... Reinforcement

6.2.5………….. Punishment

6.2.6…………... Drawbacks

6.3…………….. Alfred Adler’s Individual Psychology

6.3.1………….. Striving for success or superiority

6.3.2………….. Striving for personal superiority

6.3.3………….. Subjective Perceptions

6.3.4………….. Style of Life

6.3.5………….. Creative Power

6.4……………. Behavioural Group Management Theory

2
6.1 Introduction:
Behavior management is a style of parent/child interactions that focuses on a positive and
pleasant approach. This approach will assist you in establishing interactions that will
promote desirable behavior. The methods presented are not something to be used
occasionally. For them to be fully effective, you must apply consistently across all areas
of your child’s life – continually. Even though implementation can be difficult at first,
eventually these techniques will become second nature to you.

Even if you’ve tried some of the techniques in the past, it is important to try them again;
they may have been less consistent last time you tried. They may be taking awhile to be
effective, but keep in mind the longer the behavior has been evident, the longer it will
take to change it. Behaviors can also change over time. New ones appear in the place of
old. Those skills you learned in the past might be more applicable to what you find
concerning today.

It is your job to focus on the behavior you’d like to increase or decrease, the more you
learn about behavior management techniques, the more tools you’ll gather to help shape
and promote the behavior you’d like to see more often.

Objectives
After the study of the students will be able to:

 Understand the nature of behavior

 Recognize the various aspects of behavior of different age level students
 Observe diversity of behavior
 Judge different attributes of individual psychology
 Know different aspects of group management
 Understand the behavior of students learning in group situation

6.2 The Behaviorist Theory

3
 The Behaviorist Theory stands among the major theoretical perspectives within the field of first
language acquisition. It began as a reaction against the introspective psychology of the late
19th and early 20thcentury and dominated the study of learning throughout the first half of the
twentieth century. Although its dominance was vague by the emergence of the Innate Theory in
the mid 20th century, still today much learning programmes firmly stand on the foundation laid
by the Behaviourist Theory.

6.2.1Theoretical Assumptions of Behaviourist Theory

The theoretical assumptions underlying the Behaviourist Theory are as follows:

 Language learning is a habit formation resembling the formation of other habits.

In other words, Language is learned in the way in which other habits are learned.
 Learning is nothing more than the acquisition of new behaviour or knowledge. It
takes place when experience or practice causes a change in a person's knowledge or
behaviour.
 Language learning is an external event, because it involves an observable change
in behaviour brought about by the stimuli coming from the environment. It does not
involve any unobservable change in mental knowledge. All behaviours can be explained
without the need to consider internal mental states or consciousness.
 Only human beings have the capacity for language learning. They acquire a
language as discrete units of habits, independently trained, not as an integrated system.
6.2.2 Background of the Theory
The behaviourist school of thought ran parallel with the psychoanalysis movement in
psychology in the 20th century. The Behaviourist Theory was first introduced in 1913 by
the American psychologist John B. Watson. Watson is credited by some with coining the
term "behaviourism". Watson’s view was largely influenced by the research of the
Russian physiologist Ivan P. Pavlov during the early 1900s. The most influential version
of this theory is put forward by B. F. Skinner in 1959. His version of Behaviourism is
best known as Radical Behaviourism.

Experiments by the behaviourists identify conditioning as a universal learning process.

Conditionings are primarily of two types, each yielding a different behavioural pattern:

6.2.3. Classical conditioning: This conditioning was first described by the Russian
physiologist IvanPavlov, in 1903 through his experiment on dogs. The general idea
of Pavlov’s experiment is this: Pavlov presented dogs with food to examine their salivary
response. He rang a bell just before serving the food. At first the dogs did not salivate

4
until the food is served. However, when the bell was rung at repeated feedings, the sound
of bell alone caused the dogs to salivate.

Thus in classical conditioning an unconditioned stimulus (food) is paired with a

conditioned stimulus (bell). When they repeatedly occur in pair, the conditioned stimulus
acquires the capacity to produce a conditioned response (salivation). Subsequently, the
conditioned stimulus alone can produce a conditioned response.

Subsequently, it was studied in infants by John B. Watson. Like Pavlov, he was originally
involved in animal research, but later became involved in the study of human behaviour.
Watson believed that humans are born with a few reflexes and the emotional reactions of
love and rage. All other behaviour is established through stimulus-response associations
through conditioning.

Watson demonstrated classical conditioning in an experiment involving a young child

(Albert) and a white rat. Originally, Albert was unafraid of the rat; but Watson created a
sudden loud noise whenever Albert touched the rat. Because Albert was frightened by the
loud noise, he soon became conditioned to fear and avoid the rat. The fear was
generalised to other small animals. Watson then extinguished the fear by presenting the
rat without the loud noise. Some accounts of the study suggest that the conditioned fear
was more powerful and permanent than it really was.

2. Instrumental or Operant Conditioning: Expanding on Watson’s basic stimulus-

response model, Skinner developed a more comprehensive view of conditioning, known
as operant conditioning.Skinner’s model was based on the premise that effective
language behaviour consists of producing responses (behaviours) to the
correct stimuli (situation). When a response is followed by a reinforcer (reward) then it
is conditioned to occur again. Thus operant conditioning was used by Skinner to describe
the effects of the consequences of a particular behaviour on the future occurrence of the
behaviour. Reinforcement and punishment are the core ideas of operant conditioning:
5
6.2.4 Reinforcement: A reinforcer is a stimulus (encouraging activity) that increases the
frequency/occurrence of a response it follows. The act of following a response with a
reinforcer is called reinforcement. Reinforcement (prize) can be classified into the
following types:
(i) Positive Reinforcement: Positive reinforcement is the encouragement of a desired
response (behaviour) by a pleasant stimulus. It increases the probability of the
reoccurrence of the same response to the same situation. For example: If the child
produces an alternative which is appropriate to the situation, the mother will reward
him/her with some sign of approval (such as smiles, hugs, or food). This approval or
reward will encourage him to repeat the same response to the same situation.
(ii) Negative Reinforcement: Negative reinforcement is the discouragement of an
undesired response (behaviour) by an unpleasant stimulus. It decreases the probability of
the reoccurrence of the same response to the same situation. For example: If the child
produces an utterance which is inappropriate to the situation, he/she will not be rewarded.
Consequently, the child will not repeat the same response to the same situation.
6.2.5 Punishment: Punishment is used to erase undesirable behaviours by presenting a
distressing stimulus when the behaviour occurs. Punishment can be classified into the
following types:
(i) Positive Punishment: An undesirable stimulus is received after a behaviour occurs.
For example, if the learner fails to follow the class then he will be given detention.
(ii) Negative Punishment: A desirable stimulus is lost or removed after a behaviour
occurs. For example, if the learner fails to follow the class rules then he will not be given
any recess hour.

Thus, it is quite visible that the Behaviourist Theory (as propounded by Skinner) is
represented as a “stimulus – response – reinforcement” chain. For better understanding,
this chain can be demonstrated in the following illustration:

The Behaviourist Theory explains two major aspects. It firstly explains how the child
produces speech. Itsecondly explains how he/she understands speech. Positive and
negative reinforcement contain various adult utterances which function as discriminating
6
stimuli for the production of the child’s responses (behaviours). When the child hears
these adult utterances he/she tries to imitate them to produce his/her speech. The child
earns the ability to understand a speech when he/she becomes able to produce an
utterance which is appropriate to the situation. Reinforcement can come from different
sources. The mother is the primary source of reinforcement because she has to take care
of the child almost all the time. The people around him/her can also provide
reinforcement.
6.2.6 Drawbacks
Although sound in many ways, the theory is not free from limitations. The shortcomings
of this theory are as follows:

Firstly, the Behaviourist Theory completely ignores the inborn aspect of human
knowledge.
Secondly, the theory puts over emphasis on the role of imitation and ignores completely
the creativity of the child, making him/her somewhat passive viewer than actor in the
process of language acquisition.
Thirdly, the Behaviorist Theory seems to be somewhat mechanical in nature, since the
child is considered a passive object.
Fourthly, it cannot develop the child’s problem solving skills. The child may find
himself/herself in a situation where the stimulus to the correct response does not occur. In
such cases the child won’t be able to respond.
Fifthly, it fails to explain how the child understands utterances he/she has never heard
before, or produces new and unique utterances.
Finally, the Behaviourist Theory cannot explain how the child proceeds in his/her
journey of language acquisition at such a young age.

Activity: Make an observational sheet of different behaviours of individuals

6.3 Alfred Adler’s Individual Psychology:

Alfred Adler was neither a terrorist nor a person driven mad by ambition. Indeed, his
individual psychology presents an optimistic view of people while resting heavily on the
notion of social interest, that is, a feeling of oneness with all humankind. In addition to
Adler’s more optimistic look at people, several other differences made the relationship
7
between Freud and Adler quite tenuous. First, Freud reduced all motivation to sex and
aggression, whereas Adler saw people as being motivated mostly by social influences
and by their striving for superiority or success; second, Freud assumed that people have
little or no choice in shaping their personality, whereas Adler believed that people are
largely responsible for who they are; third, Freud’s assumption that present behavior is
caused by past experiences was directly opposed to Adler’s notion that present behavior
is shaped by people’s view of the future; and fourth, in contrast to Freud, who placed
very heavy emphasis on unconscious components of behavior, Adler believed that
psychologically healthy people are usually aware of what they are doing and why they
are doing it. As we have seen, Adler was an original member of the small clique of
physicians who met in Freud’s home on Wednesday evenings to discuss psychological
topics. However, when theoretical and personal differences between Adler and Freud
emerged, Adler left the Freud circle and established an opposing theory, which became
known as individual psychology.
Although Alfred Adler has had a profound effect on such later theorists as Harry Stack
Sullivan, Karen Horney, Julian Rotter, Abraham H. Maslow, Carl Rogers, Albert Ellis,
Rollo May, and others (Mosak & Maniacci, 1999), his name is less well known than that
of either Freud or Carl Jung. At least three reasons account for this. First, Adler did not
establish a tightly run organization to perpetuate his theories. Second, he was not a
particularly gifted writer, and most of his books were compiled by a series of editors
using Adler’s scattered lectures. Third, many of his views were incorporated into the
works of such later theorists as Maslow, Rogers, and Ellis and thus are no longer
associated with Adler’s name. Although his writings revealed great insight into the depth
and complexities of human personality, Adler evolved a basically simple and
parsimonious theory. To Adler, people are born with weak, inferior bodies—a condition
that leads to feelings of inferiority and a consequent dependence on other people.
Therefore, a feeling of unity with others (social interest) is inherent in people and the
ultimate standard for psychological health. More specifically, the main tenets of Adlerian
theory can be stated in outline form. The following is adapted from a list that represents
the final statement of individual psychology (Adler, 1964).
1. The one dynamic force behind people’s behavior is the striving for success
or superiority.
2. People’s subjective perceptions shape their behavior and personality.
3. Personality is unified and self-consistent.
4. The value of all human activity must be seen from the viewpoint of social
interest.
5. The self-consistent personality structure develops into a person’s style of life.
6. Style of life is molded by people’s creative power.
8
6.3.1 Striving for Success or Superiority
The first tenet of Adlerian theory is: The one dynamic force behind people’s behavior
is the striving for success or superiority. Adler reduced all motivation to a single drive—
the striving for success or superiority. Adler’s own childhood was marked by physical
deficiencies and strong feelings of competitiveness with his older brother. Individual
psychology holds that everyone begins life with physical deficiencies that activate
feelings of inferiority—feelings that motivate a person to strive for either superiority or
success. Psychologically unhealthy individuals strive for personal superiority, whereas
psychologically healthy people seek success for all humanity. Early in his career, Adler
believed that aggression was the dynamic power behind all motivation, but he soon
became dissatisfied with this term. After rejecting as a single motivational force, Adler
used the term masculine protest, which implied will to power or a domination of others.
However, he soon abandoned masculine protest as a universal drive while continuing to
give it a limited role in his theory of abnormal development. Next, Adler called the single
dynamic force striving for superiority. In his final theory, however, he limited striving for
superiority to those people who strive for personal superiority over others and introduced
the term striving for success to describe actions of people who are motivated by highly
developed social interest (Adler, 1956). Regardless of the motivation for striving, each
individual is guided by a final goal.
6.3.2 Striving for Personal Superiority
Some people strive for superiority with little or no concern for others. Their goals are
personal ones, and their strivings are motivated largely by exaggerated feelings of
personal inferiority, or the presence of an inferiority complex. Murderers, thieves, and
con artists are obvious examples of people who strive for personal gain. Some people
create clever disguises for their personal striving and may consciously or unconsciously
hide their self-centeredness behind the cloak of social concern. A college teacher, for
example, may appear to have a great interest in his students because he establishes a
personal relationship with many of them. By conspicuously displaying much sympathy
and concern, he encourages vulnerable students to talk to him about their personal
problems. This teacher possesses a private intelligence that allows him to believe that he
is the most accessible and dedicated teacher in his college. To a casual observer, he may
appear to be motivated by social interest, but his actions are largely self-serving and
motivated by overcompensation for his exaggerated feelings of personal superiority.
6.3.3 Subjective Perceptions
Adler’s second tenet is: People’s subjective perceptions shape their behavior and
personality.

9
People strive for superiority or success to compensate for feelings of inferiority, but the
manner in which they strive is not shaped by reality but by their subjective perceptions of
reality, that is, by their fictions, or expectations of the future.
Fictionalism
Our most important fiction is the goal of superiority or success, a goal we created early in
life and may not clearly understand. This subjective, fictional final goal guides our style
of life, gives unity to our personality. Adler’s ideas on factionalism originated with Hans
Vaihinger’s book The Philosophy of “As If” (1911/1925). Vaihinger believed that
fictions are ideas that have no real existence, yet they influence people as if they really
existed. One example of a fiction might be: “Men are superior to women.” Although this
notion is a fiction, many people, both men and women, act as if it were a reality. A
second example might be: “Humans have a free will that enables them to make choices.”
Again, many people act as if they and others have a free will and are thus responsible for
their choices. No one can prove that free will exists, yet this fiction guides the lives of
most of us. People are motivated not by what is true but by their subjective perceptions
of what is true. A third example of a fiction might be a belief in an omnipotent God who
rewards good and punishes evil. Such a belief guides the daily lives of millions of people
and helps shape many of their actions. Whether true or false, fictions have a powerful
influence on people’s lives.
Social Interest
The fourth of Adler’s tenets is: The value of all human activity must be seen from the
viewpoint of social interest. Social interest is Adler’s somewhat misleading translation of
his original German term. A better translation might be “social feeling” or“community
feeling,” but this term actually has a meaning that is not fully expressed by any English
word or phrase. Roughly, it means a feeling of oneness with all humanity; it implies
membership in the social community of all people. A person with well-developed
community feeling strives not for personal superiority but for perfection for all people in
an ideal community. Social interest can be defined as an attitude of relatedness with
humanity in general as well as an empathy for each member of the human community. It
manifests itself as cooperation with others for social advancement rather than for personal
gain (Adler, 1964).
6.3.4 Style of Life
Adler’s fifth tenet is: The self-consistent personality structure develops into a person’s
style of life.
Style of life is the term Adler used to refer to the flavor of a person’s life. It includes a
person’s goal, self-concept, feelings for others, and attitude toward the world. It is the

10
product of the interaction of heredity, environment, and a person’s creative power. Adler
(1956) used a musical analogy to elucidate style of life. The separate notes of a
composition are meaningless without the entire melody, but the melody takes on added
significance when we recognize the composer’s style or unique manner of expression. A
person’s style of life is fairly well established by age 4 or 5. After that time, all our
actions revolve around our unified style of life. Although the final goal is singular, style
of life need not be narrow or rigid. Psychologically unhealthy individuals often lead
rather inflexible lives that are marked by an inability to choose new ways of reacting to
their environment. In contrast, psychologically healthy people behave in diverse and
flexible ways with styles of life that are complex, enriched, and changing. Healthy people
see many ways of striving for success and continually seek to create new options for
themselves. Even though their final goal remains constant, the way in which they
perceive it continually changes. Thus, they can choose new options at any point in life.
People with a healthy, socially useful style of life express their social interest through
action. They actively struggle to solve what Adler regarded as the three major problems
of life—neighborly love, sexual love, and occupation—and they do so through
cooperation, personal courage, and a willingness to make a contribution to the welfare of
another. Adler (1956) believed that people with a socially useful style of life represent the
highest form of humanity in the evolutionary process and are likely to populate the world
of the future.

6.3.5 Creative Power

The final tenet of Adlerian theory is: Style of life is molded by people’s creative power.
Each person, Adler believed, is empowered with the freedom to create her or his own
style of life. Ultimately, all people are responsible for who they are and how they behave.
Their creative power places them in control of their own lives, is responsible for their
final goal, determines their method of striving for that goal, and contributes to the
development of social interest. In short, creative power makes each person a free
individual. Creative power is a dynamic concept implying movement, and this movement
is the most salient characteristic of life. All psychic life involve movement toward a
goal, movement with a direction (Adler, 1964). Adler (1956) acknowledged the
importance of heredity and environment in forming personality. Except for identical
twins, every child is born with a unique genetic makeup and soon comes to have social
experiences different from those of any other human. People, however, are much more
than a product of heredity and environment. They are creative beings who not only react
to their environment but also act on it and cause it to react to them. Each person uses

11
heredity and environment as the bricks and mortar to build personality, but the
architectural design reflects that person’s own style. Of primary importance is not what
people have been given, but how they put those materials to use. The building materials
of personality are secondary. We are our own architect and can build either a useful or a
useless style of life. We can choose to construct a gaudy façade or to expose the essence
of the structure. We are not compelled to grow in the direction of social interest,
inasmuch as we have no inner nature that forces us to be good. Conversely, we have no
inherently evil nature from which we must escape. We are who we are because of the use
we have made of our bricks and mortar. Adler (1929/1964) used an interesting analogy,
which he called “the law of the low doorway.” If you are trying to walk through a
doorway four feet high, you have two basic choices. First, you can use your creative
power to bend down as you approach the doorway, thereby successfully solving the
problem. This is the manner in which the psychologically healthy individual solves most
of life’s problems. Conversely, if you bump your head and fall back, you must still solve
the problem correctly or continue bumping your head. Neurotics often choose to bump
their head on the realities of life. When approaching the low doorway, you are neither
compelled to stoop nor forced to bump your head. You have a creative power that permits
you

Activity: Ask the students to create a favorable condition by role

playing

6.4 Behavioral Group Management Theory

As management research continued in the 20th century, questions began to come up regarding
the interactions and motivations of the individual within academic institutions. Management
principles developed during the classical period were simply not useful in dealing with many
management situations and could not explain the behavior of individuals. In short, classical
theory ignored employee motivation and behavior. As a result, the behavioral school was a
natural outgrowth of this revolutionary management experiment.

The behavioral group management theory is often called the human relations movement
because it addresses the human dimension. Behavioral theorists believed that a better
12
understanding of human behavior, such as motivation, conflict, expectations, and group
dynamics, improved productivity and learning.

The theorists who contributed to this school viewed learners as individuals, resources, and assets
to be developed and worked with — not as machines, as in the past. Several individuals and
experiments contributed to this theory.

Elton Mayo's contributions came as part of the Hawthorne studies, a series of experiments that
rigorously applied classical management theory only to reveal its shortcomings. The Hawthorne
experiments consisted of two studies conducted at the Hawthorne Works of the Western Electric
Company in Chicago from 1924 to 1932. The first study was conducted by a group of engineers
seeking to determine the relationship of lighting levels to worker productivity. Surprisingly
enough, they discovered that worker productivity increased as the lighting levels decreased —
that is, until the employees were unable to see what they were doing, after which performance
naturally declined.

A few years later, a second group of experiments began. Harvard researchers Mayo and F. J.
Roethlisberger supervised a group of five women in a bank wiring room. They gave the women
special privileges, such as the right to leave their workstations without permission, take rest
periods, enjoy free lunches, and have variations in pay levels and workdays. This experiment
also resulted in significantly increased rates of productivity.

In this case, Mayo and Roethlisberger concluded that the increase in productivity resulted from
the supervisory arrangement rather than the changes in lighting or other associated worker
benefits. Because the experimenters became the primary supervisors of the employees, the
intense interest they displayed for the workers was the basis for the increased motivation and
resulting productivity. Essentially, the experimenters became a part of the study and influenced
its outcome. This is the origin of the term Hawthorne effect, which describes the special attention
researchers give to a study's subjects and the impact that attention has on the study's findings.

The general conclusion from the Hawthorne studies was that human relations and the social
needs of workers are crucial aspects of business management. This principle of human
motivation helped revolutionize theories and practices of management.

Abraham Maslow, a practicing psychologist, developed one of the most widely

recognized need theories, a theory of motivation based upon a consideration of human
needs . His theory of human needs had three assumptions:

 Human needs are never completely satisfied.

 Human behavior is purposeful and is motivated by the need for satisfaction.

13
  Needs can be classified according to a hierarchical structure of importance, from the
lowest to highest.

Maslow broke down the needs hierarchy into five specific areas:

 Physiological needs. Maslow grouped all physical needs necessary for maintaining basic
human well-being, such as food and drink, into this category. After the need is satisfied,
however, it is no longer is a motivator.
 Safety needs. These needs include the need for basic security, stability, protection, and
freedom from fear. A normal state exists for an individual to have all these needs generally
satisfied. Otherwise, they become primary motivators.
 Belonging and love needs. After the physical and safety needs are satisfied and are no
longer motivators, the need for belonging and love emerges as a primary motivator. The
individual strives to establish meaningful relationships with significant others.
 Esteem needs. An individual must develop self-confidence and wants to achieve status,
reputation, fame, and glory.
 Self-actualization needs. Assuming that all the previous needs in the hierarchy are
satisfied, an individual feels a need to find himself.

Maslow's hierarchy of needs theory helped managers visualize employee motivation.

Douglas McGregor was heavily influenced by both the Hawthorne studies and Maslow. He
believed that two basic kinds of managers exist. One type, the Theory X manager, has a negative
view of employees and assumes that they are lazy, untrustworthy, and incapable of assuming
responsibility. On the other hand, the Theory Y manager assumes that employees are not only
trustworthy and capable of assuming responsibility, but also have high levels of motivation.
An important aspect of McGregor's idea was his belief that managers who hold either set of
assumptions can create self-fulfilling prophecies — that through their behavior, these managers
create situations where subordinates act in ways that confirm the manager's original expectations.

As a group, these theorists discovered that people worked for inner satisfaction and not
materialistic rewards, shifting the focus to the role of individuals in an organization's
performance.

The following are some practical strategies and resources to assist teachers with classroom
behaviour. Whilst there are a number of techniques teachers use to manage student behaviour, a
productive class is the result of the complex interaction of many factors. In the language of the
NSW Quality Teaching model this will include, but is by no means confined to: Engagaging
students, having clear and appropriate but High Expectations and setting Quality Criteria for the
tasks set.
14
Some suggestions from the element - Student's Self-regulation - in the model are:

 Ensure activities are purposeful and interesting with clear goals that students perceive to
be worthwhile.
 Provide adequate and relevant learning resources which offer students choice and the
motivation to participate.
 Negotiate a shared understanding, expectation and acceptance of responsibilities and
rights within the classroom, e.g. collaboratively develop a code of conduct, and provide
choice and decision-making opportunities for students.
 Encourage student self-evaluation of progress and achievement on learning tasks.
 Ensure students understand the consequences of choices and of their behaviours.

Self Assessment questions:

 Describe Behaviourist Theory as child habit changing theory.

 Pain Model of behavior is true representative of child’s behavior.
 How Behaviorists Theory helps in promoting good behavior.
 Describe Alfred Alder’s theory keeping in view that ‘man’ is a unit.
 Behavioral group management theory is a theory of human dimension, Explain.
 How behavior study helps the teacher to enhance his teaching ability.
 Describe various aspects of behavior management theories.

BIBILIOGRAPHY:

 Ayrault, Evelyn West. (1977) Growing Up Handicapped. New York: Seabury Press.
 Caraway, Mitch. (1993) "Dealing With Children With Special Needs," Northeast District
Inservice, Ohio State University Extension, Wooster.
 Turecki, Stanley, and Wernick, Sarah. (1994) The Emotional Problems of Normal
Children. New York: Bantam Doubleday Dell.
 Ervin, RA, Radford, PM, Bertsch, K, Piper, AL, Ehrhardt, KE & Poling, A (2001) A
descriptive analysis and critique of the empirical literature on school-based functional
assessment. School Psychology Review. 30, 193-210.

 O’Neill, Horner, Albin, Sprague & Storey (1997) Functional Assessment and Program
Development for Problem Behavior: A Practical Handbook.

15
Unit no. 7 Classroom strategies for Responding to Difficult Behavior

Contents
7.1………. Introduction

7.2………..Nature of difficult/problematic students

7.2.1………Root causes of behavior differences

7.3…………Principles of behavior correction

7.4………….Reward systems

7.4.1………..Sanctions and punishments

7.5………….Praise and incentive rewards system

7.6…………..Suggestions for individual and class reward systems

1
7.1 INTRODUCTION
Education is a process that brings a positive change in character, abilities and behavior of
a child. Behaviour, therefore, is the way an individual acts towards people, society or
objects. It can be either bad or good. It can be normal or abnormal according to society
norms. Society will always try to correct bad behaviour and try to bring abnormal
behaviour back to normal. Many children display inappropriate or problem behaviors in
the classroom which can make it difficult for them to learn, cause harm to the child or
others and isolate the child from his or her peers. Behavior is highly determined by the
function it serves within the immediate situation; however there are influences on
behavior, called environmental factors, which are not immediately visible in the
classroom situation. These factors may include problems at home, problems on the bus,
and so on. Other important influences include specific individual vulnerabilities of the
child. These vulnerabilities can lead to problematic reactions to situations that other
children handle with greater competence and composure. While the range of these
influences is practically endless, some common ones are worth mention. Child factors
that can influence a behavioral response in a given situation include temperament,
presence of a psychiatric disorder, developmental factors (most notably learning
disabilities), medical conditions, and medications. Social environment factors to consider
include teacher behavior or characteristics, home environment, peer environment, and the
family’s relationship with the school.

OBJECTIVES:
After the study of this chapter, the prospective teachers will be able to;
 Know the instinct of the nature of problematic child
 Help prospective teachers identify behavior problems
 Respond effectively against the behavior of problematic child.
 Plan reward system for problematic children.
 Develop the incentive system for problematic children.

7.2 Nature of difficult/problematic students

All children have behavior problems, some being harder to accept than others.
Some of these behaviors can cause children to be aggressive, hostile and difficult to
2
handle, which may emphasize their respective limitations. As parents we are our
children's first and foremost teacher. We need to establish our plan for accomplishing
rules and expectations.

When children react with aggression towards what was seemingly a simple request
the underlying principle may be one of frustration. If tasks they could accomplish
yesterday can't be done today, they become angry. If the tasks become more difficult or
more restrictions are applied, they may react with anger. When expectations are raised,
children may become fearful that they can't accomplish what is expected. The fear may
become overwhelming causing children to react to others in a negative manner. The type
of aggression exhibited is determined by the problems that are presented. Sometimes
subtle actions like not eating their food or bedwetting may be their response. Sometimes
more violent actions become a way of controlling the situation. It becomes clear that even
if the children can't communicate their frustration, they can act out the frustration and
achieve attention.

7.2.1 Root Causes of Behaviour Differences

The following are the root causes of behaviour differences:
1. individual differences
2. differences in family patterns
3. impairment/disabilities
4. environmental factors
5. psychological factors..
1. Individual Differences
Pupils change because of growth and development. This is likely to cause differences in
them. Key aspects of these differences include:
a) Sex differences
b) Intellectual differences
c) Physical differences
d) Personal and emotional differences.
e) Differences in family patterns
a) Sex Differences
Each of us is born a boy or a girl, and this in itself is a difference. However, the real
differences are anatomical and physiological, i.e., the organs of the body and physique.
These cause many differences in behaviour. While girls are regarded as soft and tender,
boys are regarded as strong and vigorous. This tends to influence the kind of activities
they indulge in when in school, and hence cause behaviour differences. Boys may tend to

3
choose physical activities, e.g., a four hundred metre race, while the girls do not.
However, the problem is that women are often regarded as the weaker sex, and
considered unable to perform as males in several fields. Such misconceptions and
attitudes sometimes influence women assuming pre-determined roles.

b) Intellectual Differences
You should be aware that there are intellectual differences among individuals. Some are
bright, others dull, while some are geniuses. You may have noticed that those with low
marks suffer from an inferiority complex. Others suffer from a superiority complex, and
think highly of themselves. For your pupils to be able to work in harmony, you will need
to guide and counsel both groups.
c) Physical Differences
People differ in:
- Physical appearance
- Facial features
- Growth and development rate
- Energy
- Posture
- Height, weight and volume.
You may have observed that physical differences make some people dull, others active,
more able, etc. Similarly with intelligence, those who are weaker may feel inferior and
vice versa. This inferiority may result in behaviour problems, e.g., isolation from peers.
d) Personal and Emotional Differences
You may have observed that pupils differ in interests, ability, aspirations, belief, attitudes
and other personality traits. If a pupil fails to develop his personality, he may fail to reach
his goals. Such failure usually leads to emotional outbursts; and a pupil may become
frustrated or desperate.
e) Differences in Family Patterns
Parents have traditionally been held responsible for their children’s behaviour or
character, until they reach adolescence. When youngsters misbehave, the natural
tendency is to blame it on parental mismanagement or family disintegration.
You should, however, note that your pupils' behaviour patterns can be influenced
by family patterns and practices

4
ACTIVITY: Visit some school and observe children of different age levels. Record your
observation and identify the nature of problematic children.

7.3 PRINCIPLES OF BEHAVIOUR CORRECTION

PRINCIPLE 1: Negative consequences sometimes change behavior, but they do not
change attitude.

In children who consider consequence structures, negative consequences such as time

out, sentence writing, restriction of privileges, verbal correction, and physical
punishment, as well as others, will effect at least temporary behavior change. Unless used
in combination with equally powerful positive reinforcement strategies, they will,
however, worsen the negative attitudes that underlie the misbehavior and increase the
likelihood of subsequent misbehavior. So these temporary changes should not be made
permanent by negative handling.

PRINCIPLE 2: Only positive reinforcement strategies produce long-term attitudinal

change.

As children grow older and into adulthood, positive behavior is not maintained through
the threat of negative consequences; it is maintained because the individual has an
internal attitude or value system, which discriminates between right and wrong behaviors.
In the long term, children behave properly because they want to, not because they are
forced to.

PRINCIPLE 3: Negative consequences do not improve the behavior of impulsive

children and frequently increase the frequency and intensity of misbehavior.

Impulsive children, by definition, do not consider the consequence structure prior to

initiation of the behavior. No matter how negative the consequence, it cannot influence
behavior unless it is considered prior to the behavior itself. In impulsive children, the
consideration of the consequences comes after the behavior, meaning that it has been
outside conscious cognitive control. When punished for behaviors that are outside their
control, they learn helplessness and respond emotionally with anger, resignation, and
eventually depression.

5
PRINCIPLE 4: Cognitive control of behavior can be learned through the use of
appropriate positive reinforcement systems.

Even very impulsive and behaviorally difficult children can learn greater behavioral
control through cognitive strategies. Time out works very well if used for brief periods
for the purpose of establishing emotional control and behavioral calm, and if the time-out
period is followed by cognitive discussion of the reasons for misbehavior with
appropriate positive alternatives. Where possible, the alternative positive behaviors
should be practiced and positively reinforced, even if the behavior occurs only with the
direct instigation of an adult. Cognitive cueing strategies, which rely on nonverbal cues
for self-control, are the most effective long term strategy for controlling impulsive
behavior, but their effective use requires much consistency and patience on the part of the
adults involved in the behavior management system.

PRINCIPLE 5: Positive reinforcement systems must be incremental in nature such that

the child can directly observe even small improvements in behavior.

Many children with significant behavioral problems are very discouraged regarding the
possibility that they can effect positive changes in their lives. Positive reinforcement
systems which have expectations set too high, such that it is difficult for the child to earn
rewards at the outset are a cause of further discouragement and have a negative effect on
esteem. Systems that have expectations too low however, where almost all children
involved in the program receive the same reward, devalue the accomplishments of the
child who makes very significant progress, and can be equally esteem defeating. Well-
designed positive reinforcement systems rely on incremental rewards where the range of
reinforcement varies from no reinforcement to mild reinforcement to moderate
reinforcement to intense reinforcement, so that the child can witness in a visible and
tangible way relative levels of progress.

PRINCIPLE 6: You must always reinforce the final compliance with adult authority no
matter how long it takes to get there.

Many children in management systems require numerous requests, or even commands,

before their behavior finally complies with adult expectation. The tendency is to not
provide positive reinforcement after many reminders, since adult patience is limited and
the adult expectation is that the child should do what he is told the first time.
Unfortunately, if no positive reinforcement is provided following the final compliance,
all that children learn is that there is no reason to comply. The imposition of negative
consequences following compliance only increases the likelihood that non-compliant
behavior will occur in the future.

6
Besides these principles, there are many other techniques which help to correct or modify
the problematic behavior of students.

1. Positive Reinforcement
This is applied where there is a need to promote desirable behaviour. You want to
encourage a student to keep tidy books. You observe the target behaviour, and reward it
with praise or a prize.
2. Extinction or Ignore Technique
This is applied when a student’s behaviour (usually self-defeating), is best eliminated.
The undesired behaviour is simply ignored rather than punished or reinforced. One
particular pupil in your class often attracts your attention by calling out ‘Sir, Sir,’ instead
of putting up his hand. Calling out to you is distracting, especially if all pupils do it at the
same time. You could ignore such a pupil, until he puts up his hand. Drawing the
student's attention to the strategy may increase its effectiveness, as will consistency in
application.
3. The Modelling Technique
You could use this technique to help your pupils adopt new behaviour. The pupil is made
to observe a role model (usually someone she admires or an authority) demonstrate
desirable behaviour, or condemn undesirable behaviour. A pupil in an upper class can, for
example, be a model for pupils in a lower one. By observing him/her, other pupils may
learn to do the same.
4. The Punishment Technique
This is used when it becomes necessary to apply an aversion stimulus to correct
undesirable behaviour. When you see the many techniques available for modifying
behaviour, you may realize that this technique has been over used. Schools have been
known to use good, honest work as ‘punishment,’ leading to stigmatization in students'
minds. Examples of this may include cutting grass or digging in the school garden.
5. Systematic Desensitization Technique
This technique is effective when dealing with anxiety and other fear-related problems.
The individual is given small doses of what is feared until a relaxed response is built up.
For example, a student who fears to speak in class may first practise speaking only with
the teacher. When she is comfortable with that, she may be given an opportunity to speak
with the teacher and two classmates. After that, she may try to become involved in a
small discussion group, and so on until her fear is mastered and she gains the confidence
to speak in class.
6. The Technique of Over-Correction

7
This technique is used when a mild punishment is administered for purposes of reducing
disruptive behaviour. As Achebe (cited in Nwoye, 1990) has explained, it requires the
culprit to restore the environment he has damaged to a better condition than existed
before his disruptive behaviour occurred. This is effective when a student writes on a
wall or carves on a school desk. Scrubbing, painting or sanding damaged property may
produce effective behavioural changes in the future.
7. The Time-out Technique
Time-out is used to control the occurrence of undesirable behaviour in pupils by the
withdrawal of privileges in the event of the occurrence of undesirable behaviour. A
student who disrupts classmates in the library, for example, will probably do so because
he is reinforced by doing so. The loss of library privileges, or sitting alone for a period of
time while others are together, may help to eliminate the problem behaviour.
8. The Technique of Negative Reinforcement
Negative reinforcement is used to encourage the occurrence of desirable behaviour by
removing obstacles against recurrence. Bed-wetting is often caused by late-night drinks.
Eliminating after dinner drinks, and perhaps instituting a wakening late at night for going
to the toilet, may help achieve a dry bed.
9. The Response Cost Technique
This technique is used to eliminate undesirable behaviour by making the culprit forfeit
something valuable. When a student fails to eat canteen food, he may lose access to
canteen privileges.
10. The Shaping Technique
Shaping develops desirable complex human behaviour. This is related to the above
example of systematic desensitization. Small successful steps are linked together to
produce major behaviour changes. A dirty student may first be taught to bathe daily, and
after a consistent behaviour change is made, hair combing may be addressed, laundry
care, etc.
11. Assertiveness Training
Assertiveness training is used to help pupils control excessive shyness, and other fear-
related problems, that impede their ability to live fully. Assertiveness training is a widely
used behavioural technique. It is based on a combination of modelling and operant
reinforcement approaches. Its purpose is to teach people how to stand up for themselves
without being aggressive.Exploitation depends on the compliant behaviour of the person
exploited. training can be carried out with individuals or in groups. It is relevant for a
wide range of interpersonal problems. You can use it to increase assertive skills and
reduce aggressiveness in favour of assertiveness.

8
ACYIVITY: Make a list of measures you think parents use to control the
behaviour of their children.. Discuss each measure with your colleagues.

7.4 REWARD SYSTEM

Praise and reward systems have their origin in behaviourist psychology which in
turn underpins many of the commercial packages on promoting good discipline that are
now available to schools. In brief, these packages suggest that schools can make a
difference to children's behaviour by setting out clear rules and specifying rewards and
sanctions for breaking the rules. The essence of these systems is a belief that children can
choose how to behave. By recognising and rewarding 'good' behaviour and punishing
'bad' behaviour it is believed that the good behaviour will be encouraged. Many
commentators argue that schools react only to 'bad' behaviour and do nothing to
recognise or reinforce the good behaviour of most young people most of the time. Critics
suggest that such an approach is too simplistic as it eliminates the context in which
behaviour occurs and places total responsibility on the individual for his or her behaviour.
Despite these criticisms, praise and reward systems are now in operation in many primary
and secondary schools in Scotland. Teachers and pupils seem to like them and they are
reported as having beneficial effects on pupil behaviour in general.

7.4.1Sanctions and Punishments

The consequences of breaking rules are clearly specified. Again this is most effective if
sanctions are worked out collaboratively with pupils and parents. An example of
sanctions for breaking classroom rules is given below. They begin with the less severe
and gradually increase in severity:

 verbal warning;
 pupil moved to another seat;
 punishment exercise;
9
  pupil moved to another classroom;
 detention;
 referred to a senior member of staff;
 excluded from class;

At some stage (perhaps if misbehaviour is persistent or serious - but not if there is an

isolated minor problem) parents are informed that their child has been given a
punishment for breaking classroom or school rules. This, in itself, should not be seen as a
sanction as that could lead to a situation in which the only time parents are personally
contacted by teachers is when there is a problem. An aspect of praise systems is that
positive contact with parents is encouraged.

7.5 Praise and Incentive Rewards System

The most novel aspect of these reward systems for teachers is recognizing good
behaviour. It seems to be much more accustomed to noticing and reacting to bad
behaviour than to acknowledging good behaviour. Research on teachers' classroom talk
has shown that teachers use praise very infrequently. Most of their talk concerns giving
instructions, explaining something or organizing their teaching material. Even where
individual teachers use praise and encourage their pupils there is very seldom a formal
system for recognizing pupils` efforts. In contrast there is a formal system for recognizing
bad behaviour.

Praise and reward systems involve the formal and public recognition of good
behaviour. Recognition is the reward. Again, the particular systems in use vary according
to the individual circumstances of each school. They typically involve a praise card or
homework diary in which the teacher stamps a mark or places a sticker to indicate good
behaviour or effort. Each stamp is worth a number of points and the accumulation of
these leads to a bronze, silver or gold award, presented at a year group or school
assembly for the most prestigious award. Schools design their own awards or certificates
and year groups in secondary schools or individual classes in primary schools can have
their own particular designs. These reward systems go a long way in bringing the
problematic students on track to get education. The recognition of their work helps
changing their behavior.

Parents are informed about the awards to their children and can be present at the
award giving ceremony. At a lower level there can be a positive referral to a senior
10
member of staff for good behaviour and effort. This makes quite a change for these staff
who are accustomed to seeing pupils for indiscipline rather than for good behaviour.
Schools using these systems report a general improvement in atmosphere, although they
are by no means a panacea for all discipline problems.

Praise and reward systems can help to establish a positive atmosphere in schools
by recognizing the good behaviour and effort of pupils. Most schools have systems for
dealing with bad behaviour and many have systems for recognising the sporting and
academic achievements of pupils. Until recently fewer schools had systems for
recognizing the good behaviour of pupils. Praise and reward systems have to be part of a
larger picture of a whole school ethos of positive relationships. In other words such
systems have to be congruent with the deep structures and values of the school, otherwise
they are doing no more than putting a Band-Aid on behaviour issues. Most schools who
have experience of these systems say that they help tackle low-level indiscipline and they
help pupils with deeper emotional and behavioural problems. However, additional
support and help is also needed for these pupils.

7.6 Suggestions for individual and class Reward system

Across a variety of model specifications, reward systems are found to have stable and consistent
positive impacts for student learning in reading. The effect holds across grades and across
network and non-network charter schools. Moreover, the success of incentive/reward systems
appears to hinge on a number of factors that are under the control of the school. These are:

1. Schools whose personnel are strongly aligned in the view that reward systems are effective
fare better than schools where the support is weak or where the adults are less aligned. Where
the adults align, several important conditions arise. The rules of the reward system are more
consistently applied, which in turn leads to a more uniform signal of expectations for students
both for behavior and for learning, which are well documented antecedents to achievement. At
the same time, having strong confidence in the effectiveness of a reward system is likely also to
improve its impacts by reinforcing the expectations of the adults who employ it with students.

2. Schools in which there is continuous or near-continuous assessment of student conduct

produce larger gains in reading than schools that have reward systems 3but tally up less
frequently. This finding is consistent with established wisdom about continuity in reinforcement
and reward: the more constantly behavior is reinforced, the faster and more enduring the
learning. So schools might benefit from a redesign of their systems to provide their students
more consistent and continuous feedback.

11
3. The effect of reward systems is over and above any gains in academic achievement that arise
when a charter school is a member of a larger network or CMO. The effects are roughly
equivalent, and are additive. However, considering the low costs of operating reward systems,
they provide a costeffective means to improved learning gains.

4. There are potential problems with selection bias in the schools that adopt reward systems, but
with the currently available data it is not possible to make a certain determination. Future
enhancements to the study will support deeper investigation into this question.

ACTIVITY: Visit some school and interview some teachers about problematic children. Ask
them how they handle them and how they set a reward system for problematic children.

Self Assessment Questions:

1. How would you identify the nature of problematic students in a primary class of primary.

2. Describe some principles to modify and correct the behavior of problematic children.

3. What is a reward system, how different reward systems work for the betterment of
problematic children?

4. Develop an incentive system for the class of nursery.

12
Bibiliography

Baldwin, John D. and Baldwin, Janice (1981) Behaviour Principles in Everyday Life.
Prentice Hall Inc. London

Behaviour Modification UNESCO February 2000

(Carnegie Council on Adolescent Development, 1995; Schmakel, 2008).

Charton, Tony and David, Kenneth (ed) (1989) Managing Misbehaviour. MacMillan
Educ. Ltd: Hong Kong

13
UNIT 8

Classroom Management Tracking

Written by:

Muhammad Idrees

Reviewed by:

Muhammad Tanveer Afzal

1
 Unit 8
Classroom Management Tracking
8.1 Introduction
Elements of classroom management vary from situation to situation. In understanding this
topic, it is clear that a common understanding for the term management might be useful.
For this purpose, management refers to issues of supervision, refereeing, facilitating, and
even academic discipline. The field of education is continuously changing as well as
research on areas such as classroom management. Teachers need to continuously learn
new strategies of classroom management, as well as review old techniques in order to
best serve an ever- changing population of students. Each year, classrooms are becoming
more diverse, the inclusion movement becoming stronger, and grouping such as tracking
becoming less common. The trend in the past couple of decades has been away from
rigid tracking. Without strong classroom management, it is very difficult for students to
thrive academically and socially in a non-stimulating environment. Taking the time to
improve upon one’s classroom management will result in positive outcomes for all
students.
Classroom management is the key component in any educational setting. If
students are in a safe environment, then learning can take place. This doesn’t necessarily
mean punishing behavior problems but rather a combination of setting the tone in a class,
preventing behavior problems with interesting and engaging curriculums and effectively
including all students in the classroom so that their needs are met.
Classroom management is the key to an environment where learning can take
place and students can feel safe participating. To create an environment that is conducive
to learning and involves all of the students, the most important part of classroom
management is not the behavior problems but creating a good rapport with the students,
encouraging them to succeed and setting high expectations for them. Teachers who have
effective classroom management strategies might all appear to have different skills on the
surface. But scratch the surface a little, and you will discover that they all share some
core attributes like patience, determination and consistency.
8.2 Objectives
The present unit is designed to discuss classroom management tracking. As all of us are
aware of the fact that teachers and students are two main stakeholders during classroom

2
instruction, therefore both of them have been discussed in detail. In this connection,
various problems faced by the teachers and their relevant needs have been highlighted. As
far as the students are concerned, they belong to various categories with respect to their
individual differences. One of the categories is of the problem children who create
discipline problems in the class and the teacher has to tackle these students as well during
instructional process. This unit also throws light on this problem. Lesson planning is an
effective tool in the hands of the teachers. A lesson plan written in an appropriate way
helps a lot to the teacher for effective teaching learning process and what is a lesson plan
and how it is developed is explained in this unit. Last but not the least; the current unit
also explains various tools for teaching and personal skills.
After studying this unit, the students will be able to:
 understand the concept of classroom management
 know the problems and needs of teachers
 comprehend the concept of effective lesson planning
 know how to work with difficult students
 explain various tools for teaching like discipline, instruction and motivation
 understand personal skills of teachers

8.3 Classroom Management

There are various definitions of what classroom management consists of. Brophy
(1996) defines classroom management as actions taken to create and maintain a learning
environment conducive to successful instruction, arranging the physical environment of
the classroom, establishing rules and procedures, maintaining attention to lessons and
engagement in academic activities. Burden (1995) defines classroom management as
actions and strategies teachers use to maintain order. Duke and Meckel (1980) refer to
classroom management as the procedures needed to establish and maintain an
environment in which instruction and learning can occur. Classroom rules, routines, and
order play an important part in classroom management. All three of these definitions may
vary in how they are worded, but they still emphasize the major themes of classroom
management. The ideas that they have in common are: maintaining order, positive
learning environment, and establishing rules and routines. Students in a classroom that
uses successful classroom management strategies are comfortable in their environment,
they know how the class is run, and they are stimulated in an academic and social
manner.

3
8.3.1 Principles of Classroom Management
There is a wealth of research available on the principles of classroom management. Each
classroom teacher has his or her individual style of instruction and management. Looking
at research and statistics can help educators take their personal management style and add
onto it, improving on what methods they use. Classroom management is crucial for many
reasons. First of all, learning is very difficult when there are constant distractions
occurring because of behavior issues. Being part of a class characterized by good
behavior could be beneficial because students are not exposed to disruptions and
distractions. Also, in well-behaved classes, teachers do not have to take time away from
teaching and student interaction to deal with discipline problems. In contrast, a noisy or
disruptive environment can lead to increase aggression and less helping behavior. (Bell,
Fisher & Loomis, 1978). Students who are in a classroom which is in constant disarray
also have problems getting the full amount of information being presented to them by
their teachers. One of the goals of good classroom management is to limit the
unnecessary distractions.
Classroom management also entails how students cope with the environment
around them. A positive classroom environment gives a student the opportunity to take
what background knowledge they have and figure out a solution to a situation without
being forced into it by the strict guidelines of the class, or by the obligatory dictation of
the teacher.
With special education, students are becoming more and more part of the
mainstream classroom. Classroom management today needs to be more adapting to the
needs of all students. What may work for most of the students in class may not work for
all. Teachers need to be aware of this fact and incorporate all students’ needs into the
classroom environment. The instructional level needs to be at a place where all of the
students in class are taking in the ideas and information that the teacher is presenting to
them. Only explaining the expectations and requirements to two-thirds of the students
does not give the rest of the students the opportunity to learn what is expected of them,
and how their classroom is run.
The definition of classroom management cannot be told in a few words. It is more
than just a few sentences on a piece of paper stating how students should act. Having an
environment that is conducive to learning is what every student deserves. How can we
expect students to learn and flourish as individuals if they are forced to follow rules that
they do not fully understand why they need to follow? How can students gain knowledge

4
of social skills and making decisions if they are given rules that are not enforced or are
not reasonable? Along with an environment that students can flourish in academically and
socially, they should feel physically comfortable. Having each student have a clear view
of the board or overhead allows everyone to get the information that the teacher is
presenting, as well as areas in the room where students can receive materials and/or
manipulative when needed. Using the strategies, research, and techniques discussed
earlier can help in achieving the goal of having a classroom with successful classroom
management. The missing link to make sure great management can occur is not simply
looking at the information provided, but putting it into action. Seeing how our students
react to the strategies and changing things when needed. Each classroom and student is
different, with many great ideas to offer to others. The goal and challenge as a teacher is
to bring those great ides to light.
According to specialists in the field of education, school and classroom
management aims at encouraging and establishing student self-control through a process
of promoting positive student achievement and behavior. Thus academic achievement,
teacher efficacy, and teacher and student behavior are directly linked with the concept of
school and classroom management. Research shows that a high incidence of classroom
disciplinary problems has a significant impact on the effectiveness of teaching and
learning. In this respect, it has been found that teachers facing such issues fail to plan and
design appropriate instructional tasks. They also tend to neglect variety in lesson plans
and rarely prompt students to discuss or evaluate the materials that they are learning. In
addition, student comprehension or seat work is not monitored on a regular basis. In
contrast, strong and consistent management and organizational skills have been identified
as leading to fewer classroom discipline problems
Classroom management focuses on three major components: content
management, conduct management, and covenant management. Each of these concepts is
defined and presented in the following lines.
(a) Content Management does not refer only to skills peculiar to teaching a particular
subject but rather to those skills that cut across subjects and activities (Froyen & Iverson,
1999).The core of instructional management is gaining and maintaining student
cooperation in learning activities. Related to content management, Kounin (as cited in
Froyen & Iverson, 1999) places a special emphasis on instructional management skills,
sequencing and integrating additional instructional activities, and dealing with
instruction-related discipline problems.

5
(b) Conduct Management is centered on one’s beliefs about the nature of people. By
integrating knowledge about human diversity (and individuality, at the same time) into a
particular instructional philosophy, teachers could manage their classrooms in a better and
more effective way. In planning classroom management, teachers should consider using
an assertive communication style and behavior. In addition, they should always know
what they want their students to do and involve them in the respective learning activities,
under the general conditions of clearly and explicitly stated school wide and classroom
rules.
According to Iverson and Froyen (1999), conduct management is essential to the
creation of a foundation for an orderly, task-oriented approach to teaching and learning,
thus leading to granting students greater independence and autonomy through
socialization. An effective conduct management plan should also refer to teacher control
and administration of consequences.
(c) Covenant management stresses the classroom group as a social system. Teacher and
student roles and expectations shape the classroom into an environment conducive to
learning. In other words, the culture of any given school is unique to that school.
However, it is directly influenced by the culture of the larger community whose
educational goals are to be met. A strong connection between school and community
must be constantly revised and modified according to the requirements of societal
dynamism. As schools become very diverse, teachers and students should become aware
of how to use diversity to strengthen the school/classroom social group.

Activity
In your opinion, which component of the classroom management discussed above is more
effective for better learning?
8.4 Assessing Problems and Needs of Teachers
Education is the backbone in the development of any nation. It is a fact that countries that
have an effective system of education also happen to be the leaders of the world, both
socially and economically. In short it is education, which can turn the population of any
country from a burden to human resource.
Pakistan is one of those very few countries where the system of education has
constantly eroded since independence. The situation at present is so worst that the
government has officially declared our system of education to be almost collapsing and is
employing all possible ways and means on emergency basis for the speedy uplift of our

6
educational system. Several studies have shown that with the passage of time the
problems being faced by both the teachers and students multiplied. During this period no
one paid any attention to them and instead wasted almost all the energies and resources
on improvement of buildings and changes in curriculum. One of the key indicators of the
above is the fact that since independence a lot of socially un-acceptable professions had
achieved social acceptance, whereas teachers have lost their social acceptance. Following
are some of the problems and needs faced by the present era teachers.
1. Respect in Society
The first and foremost factor in choosing a profession anywhere is the respect that it gives
to a person who joins it. As already mentioned above, teaching is constantly loosing its
respect. The situation is so bad today that qualified people opt for other professions and
majority of persons joining this profession are of quit a low caliber.
2. Financial Problems
The other most important factor, which in majority of the cases is as important as social
respect that a profession commands is the financial benefits which a person, derives from
it. The salary of our teacher is quite meager and is not enough to lead a decent life and
support a healthy family. Due to this, majority of teachers adopt a number of ways and
means to supplement their income. This not only diverts the attention of the teacher but
also brings a bad name to this once the most respected profession. If it is ensured that a
teacher gets enough financial benefits with which he can lead a decent life, he will then
be in a position to invest all his energies in doing justice to his profession.
3. Frequent Transfers between Schools
It has been observed that majority of the teachers are not only posted away from the
cities/villages they belong to but are also subjected to very frequent transfers. It is a
human nature that it takes time to accustom to any new environment. By posting teachers
away from their native cities/villages and then subjecting them to frequent transfers, they
never get accustomed to the schools and students, which greatly diminish their
productivity. This also has another angle i.e. the students too need time to get to know a
teacher and it is only when they understand each other they can communicate positively.
Frequent transfers also have a negative effect on the family life of teachers especially the
education of their children.
4. Unavailability of Accommodation
Accommodation is a major irritant in the sound family life of teachers. Due to absence of
official accommodation majority of the time of a teacher is spent in finding an

7
accommodation, which he can afford. It has been observed that when finally a teacher
finds an accommodation his next transfer is almost due. This keep the teacher greatly
disturbed, normally they are away from their families most of the time. According to
teachers, this is one of the major factors why the children of teachers on the average are
poor in their studies.
5. Transportation
Transportation is related to accommodation. It has been seen that in majority of the cases,
teachers reside at distance from the schools. Also they cannot afford decent transport due
to which they are reported to come late and leave as early as possible. Due to recent hike
in transportation costs it is reported that the cases of unreported absence from duty has
also become very common.
6. Training and Education Qualification
It is a fact that once teachers are inducted in our education system they are seldom
provided any training of substance. Due to lack of training they are not aware of
challenges of the future and hence are unable to prepare their students to play their due
role.
7. Political and Social Problems
Since independence, all the institutions of our society have become much politicized.
Teaching profession is no exception to this. Majority of the induction is on political
grounds. A teacher inducted through this system is not liable to merit but to the political
interest of the political force that has inducted the person and so commits all kinds of
blunders to favor them. The negative impact of politics is so great that who ever wants to
uphold merit is punished severely.
8. Teacher and Head Teacher Relations
The negative influence of politics in education is deep rooted. Due to this factor only
those persons who work for the political forces get to the top. Persons who reach to the
top using their political influences pay no attention to develop cordial relations with their
staff. Good relations of head teacher and his teachers are very important in improving the
overall performance of teachers.
9. Grouping in Schools
Our educational institutions are greatly infected with negative politics. The number of
groups within an educational institution is equivalent to the number of political parties in
our country. These groups fight among themselves the way our politicians fight on the

8
national scene due to which they are never able to play their positive role. This, in
majority of cases engulf the student community too, which makes things worst.
10. Over Crowded Classrooms
Due to lack of realistic investment in our educational institutions since independence, the
pressure on schools has increased many folds. On the average a single teacher teaches at
least sixty students in a classroom which was basically meant for thirty students. The
scene of multiple classes being taught in a single room by a single teacher is very
common in our primary schools. It should be kept in mind that it is here that students
require maximum personal attention. In our educational system mostly the teacher is
unable to recognize his student; the question of personal attention cannot even be
imagined.
11. Communication Problem
Our system of education lacks communication between teaching staff, parents, head
teachers, and the concerned higher authorities. Due to this they are unable to coordinate
and make consolidated efforts for the uplift of the educational system and end-up blaming
each other.
12. Medium of Instruction
Due to the existence of multi-medium of instruction as well as ever changing medium of
instruction confuses both the giver and the recipient. The absence of proper orientation
confuses the teachers so greatly that they lose interest in their profession. What can be
expected from a teacher who has lost his interest?
13. Inefficient and Insufficient Teachers
Majority of our teachers are inducted through political connections who lack ability to
teach. On top of this they are never provided training, which can transform them into
good teachers. These coupled with the fact that they are made to face an overcrowded
classroom, which even a qualified teacher cannot face, makes a nightmare of the whole
situation. In majority of our primary schools, a single teacher not only teaches multiple
classes under a tree or in a shabby room but also administers/ manages the school too. In
case the teacher goes on leave the school is closed till the teacher returns or another
teacher is posted.
14. Absence of Quality Teacher Training Programmes
Once a teacher is inducted he seldom goes through any training. In case a teacher is
fortunate enough to go for training it never ever is of any quality and hence there exists
no grooming facility for a teacher.

9
15. Absence of Proper Physical Facilities and Educational Instruments
In order to impart proper education a teacher requires a number of aids to achieve this
goal. These include a variety of audio visual aids also known as teaching kits etc. In the
absence of these aids a teacher fails to explain all the concepts theoretically and mostly
ends-up confusing the students.

Activity
Select a few schools near your residence. Interview some of the teachers teaching there
and try to know their needs and problems. Discuss your findings with your colleagues and
highlight the findings which are common with the findings of your colleagues.
8.5 Effective Lesson Planning
Good lesson planning is essential to the process of teaching and learning. A teacher, who
is trained, is well on his/her way to a successful instructional experience. The
development of interesting lessons takes a great deal of time and effort. All teachers use
lesson plans in one form or another. Some teachers merely organize the lesson of the day
in their heads. Others jot down a few bullet points about what they plan to do each day.
And still others write detailed instructions by using lesson plan templates or guides.
Depending on the experience level of the teacher or the complexity of the lesson, any one
of these three methods may work. However, creating a detailed written lesson plan can
help even the most experienced teacher to prepare and present a more effective lesson.
High quality written lesson plans can help you organize and communicate a strategy so
that students can reach a stated learning objective. These lesson plans are also important
when a substitute teacher teaches your class and are often required when you are being
observed or evaluated by the principal. It is also important to realize that the best planned
lesson is worthless if interesting delivery procedures, along with good classroom
management techniques, are not in evidence. A well-thought-out lesson plan will help
you to organize thoughts and instructional practices. This, in turn, will help you move
students toward achieving the goal or goals behind the lesson.
(a) Strategies for Effective Lesson Planning
A lesson plan is the instructor’s road map of what students need to learn and how it will
be done effectively during the class time. Before you plan your lesson, you will first need
to identify the learning objectives for the class meeting. Then, you can design appropriate
learning activities and develop strategies to obtain feedback on student learning. A
successful lesson plan addresses and integrates these three key components:

10
  Objectives for student learning
 Teaching/learning activities
 Strategies to check student understanding
Specifying concrete objectives for student learning will help you determine the kinds of
teaching and learning activities you will use in class, while those activities will define
how you will check whether the learning objectives have been accomplished.
(b) Steps for Developing a Lesson Plan
A lesson plan is a teacher's detailed description of the course of instruction for an
individual lesson. A daily lesson plan is developed by a teacher to guide class instruction.
Planning the material is much more difficult than delivering the lessons. Planning is when
you look at the curriculum standards and develop the content that matches those
standards. You also have to take into consideration the needs of the children you are
planning for. Luckily, textbooks that are adopted for your subject areas are typically
written with this in mind. All details should be written down to assist the smooth delivery
of the content. The extent of the detail will vary depending on the number of years of
experience that the teacher has and the number of times he/she has taught the lesson.
Obviously, an instructor with several years of experience may have plans that are much
less detailed than beginning teachers. There will be requirements mandated by the school
system that employs you regarding your responsibilities. Before developing a lesson plan
ask yourself three basic questions:
 What is the objective your students want to achieve?
 How are they going to achieve this?
 How will you know they've achieved the objective?
Then begin to think about each of the following categories which form the
organization of the plan. While planning, use the questions below to guide you
during each stage.

(c) Goals
Goals determine purpose, aim, and rationale for what you and your students wil l
engage in during class time. Use this section to express the intermediate lesson goals
that draw upon previous plans and activities and set the stage by preparing studen ts
for future activities and further knowledge acquisition. The goals are typically
written as broad educational or unit goals adhering to national curriculum standards.
In this section following questions are needed to be addressed:

11
  What are the broader objectives, aims, or goals of the unit plan/curriculum?
 What are our goals for this unit?
 What do we expect students to be able to do by the end of this unit?
(d)Objectives
This section focuses on what your students will do to acquire further knowledge and
skills. The objectives for the daily lesson plan are drawn from the broader aims of the
unit plan but are achieved over a well defined time period. In this section following
questions are needed to be addressed:
 What will students be able to do during this lesson?
 Under what conditions will students' performance be accomplished?
 What is the degree or criterion on the basis of which satisfactory attainment of
the objectives will be judged?
 How will students demonstrate that they have learned and understood the
objectives of the lesson?
(e)Pre-requisites
Pre-requisites can be useful when considering the readiness state of your students.
Pre-requisites allow you, and other teachers replicating your lesson plan, to factor in
necessary prep activities to make sure that students can meet the lesson objectives. In
this section following questions are needed to be addressed:
 What must students already be able to do before this lesson?
 What concepts have to be mastered in advance to accomplish the lesson
objectives?
(f)Materials
This section has two functions: it helps other teachers quickly determine
a) how much preparation time, resources, and management will be involved in
carrying out this plan and
b) what materials, books, equipment, and resources they will need to have ready. A
complete list of materials, including full citations of textbooks or story books used,
worksheets, and any other special considerations are most useful. In this section
following questions are needed to be addressed:
 What materials will be needed?
 What textbooks or story books are needed?
 What needs to be prepared in advance?

12
(g) Lesson Description
This section provides an opportunity for the author of the lesson plan to share some
thoughts, experience, and advice with other teachers. It also provides a general
overview of the lesson in terms of topic focus, activities, and purpose. In this section
following questions are needed to be addressed:
 What is unique about this lesson?
 How did your students like it?
 What level of learning is covered by this lesson plan? (Think of Bloom's
Taxonomy: knowledge, comprehension, application, analysis, synthesis, or
evaluation.)
(h) Lesson Procedure
This section provides a detailed, step-by-step description of how to replicate the
lesson and achieve lesson plan objectives. This is usually intended for the teacher and
provides suggestions on how to proceed with implementation of the lesson plan. It
also focuses on what the teacher should have students do during the lesson. This
section is basically divided into several components: an introduction, a main activity,
and closure. There are several elaborations on this. The format of this section could
be as bellow:
(i) Introduction
This section must address following questions:
 How will you introduce the ideas and objectives of this lesson?
 How will you get students' attention and motivate them in order to hold their
attention?
 How can you tie lesson objectives with student interests and past classroom
activities?
 What will be expected from students?
(j) Main Activity
This section must address following questions:
 What is the focus of the lesson?
 How would you describe the flow of the lesson to another teacher who will
replicate it?
 What does the teacher do to facilitate learning and manage the various
activities?

13
  What are some good and bad examples to illustrate what you are presenting to
students?
 How can this material be presented to ensure each student will benefit from
the learning experience?
(k) Closure/Conclusion:
This section must address following questions:
 What will you use to draw the ideas together for students at the end?
 How will you provide feedback to students to correct their misunderstandings
and reinforce their learning?
(l) Follow up Lessons/Activities
This section must address following questions:
 What activities might you suggest for enrichment and remediation?
 What lessons might follow as a result of this lesson?
(m)Assessment/Evaluation
This section focuses on ensuring that your students have arrived at their intended
destination. You will need to gather some evidence that they did. This usually is done
by gathering students' work and assessing this work using some kind of grading
rubric that is based on lesson objectives. You could also replicate some of the
activities practiced as part of the lesson, without providing the same level of
guidance as during the lesson. You could always quiz students on various concepts
and problems as well. This section must address following questions:
 How will you evaluate the objectives that were identified?
 Have students practiced what you are asking them to do for evaluation?
(n) Conclusion
To be effective, the lesson plan does not have to be an exhaustive document that describes
each and every possible classroom scenario. Nor does it have to anticipate each and every
student’s response or question. Instead, it should provide you with a general outline of
your teaching goals, learning objectives, and means to accomplish them. It is a reminder
of what you want to do and how you want to do it. A productive lesson is not one in
which everything goes exactly as planned, but one in which both students and instructor
learn from each other.

Activity
Develop a model lesson plan on any topic in the subject of your interest.

14
8.6 Working with Difficult Students
A certain class consists of a variety of students belonging to different categories. Some of
them may be intelligent whereas some of them may be dull, some of them may be
overconfident and some of them may be shy. There may be some students who fall in the
category of problem children who are always ready to create problems in the class. The
classroom management techniques help a teacher to tackle these types of students so that
their attention may be diverted to their studies.
The students with disruptive behavior are known as difficult students. Disruptive
behavior is defined as repeated, continuous, and/or multiple student behaviors that
hamper the ability of instructors to teach and students to learn. Behavioral disorders also
known as conduct disorders are one of the most common forms of psycho pathology
among children and young adults. Behavioral disorders become apparent when the
student displays a repetitive and impact persistent pattern of behavior that results in the
significant disruption in other students. Such disturbances may cause significant
impairments in academic, social, and or occupational functioning. Such a behavior pattern
is consistent throughout the individual’s life. Common examples of disruptive behaviors
include, but are not limited to:
 Eating in class
 Failing to respect the rights of other students to express their viewpoints
 Talking when the instructor or others are speaking
 Constant questions or interruptions which interfere with the instructor's
presentation
 Overt inattentiveness (e.g., sleeping or reading the paper in class)
 Creating excessive noise with papers, book bags, etc.
 Entering class late or leaving early
 Use of cell phones in the classroom
 Inordinate or inappropriate demands for time and attention
 Poor personal hygiene (e.g., noticeably offensive body odor)
More extreme examples of disruptive behavior include, but are not limited to:
 Use of profanity or pejorative language
 Intoxication
 Verbal abuse (e.g., taunting, badgering, intimidation)
 Harassment (e.g., use of "fighting words," stalking)

15
  Threats to harm oneself or others
 Physical violence (e.g., shoving, grabbing, assault, use of weapons)
 Initiation of aggressive behavior and reacting aggressively towards others.
 A display of bullying, threatening, or intimidating behavior.
 Deliberate destruction of other's property.
 Showing little empathy and concern for the feelings, wishes, and well being of
others.
 Showing callous behavior towards others and lack of feelings of guilt or remorse.
(a) General Strategies for Improvement
In order to overcome this type of behavior, the teachers may take following measures.
 Ask previous teachers about interactive techniques that have previously been
effective with the student in the past.
 Expose students with behavioral disorders to other students who demonstrate the
appropriate behaviors.
 Have pre-established consequences for misbehavior.
 Administer consequences immediately and then monitor proper behavior
frequently.
 In group activities, acknowledge the contributions of the student with a behavioral
disorder.
 Devise a contingency plan with the student in which inappropriate forms of
response are replaced by appropriate ones. .
 When appropriate, seek input from the student about their strengths, weaknesses
and goals.
 Enforce classroom rules consistently.
 Provide encouragement.
 Reward more than you punish, in order to build self-esteem.
 Praise immediately at all good behavior and performance.
 Change rewards if they are not effective for motivating behavioral change.
 Develop a schedule for applying positive reinforcement in all educational
environments.
 Monitor the student's self-esteem. Assist in modification, as needed.
 Do not expect students with behavioral disorders to have immediate success; work
for improvement on an overall basis.

16
  As a teacher, you should be patient, sensitive, a good listener, fair and consistent
in your treatment of students with behavioral disorders.
 Present a sense of high degree of possessiveness in the classroom environment.
 Use a wide variety of instructional equipment which can be displayed for the
students to look at and handle.
 Group participation in activities is highly desirable because it makes social
contacts possible.
 Monitor the student carefully to ensure that students without disabilities do not
dominate the activity or detract in any way from the successful performance of the
student with the behavioral disorder.
 Some aggressive students act as they do because of a subconscious desire for
attention, and it is possible to modify their behavior by giving them recognition.
 Have the individual with the behavioral disorder be in charge of an activity which
can often reduce the aggressiveness.
 Special efforts should be made to encourage and easily facilitate students with
behavioral disorders to interact.
 Show confidence in the student’s ability and set goals that realistically can be
achieved.
 Consultation with other specialists, including the special education teacher, school
psychologist, and others may prove helpful in devising effective strategies.
 Be fair and consistent, but temper your consistency with flexibility.
 Present a sense of positiveness in the learning environment.
 Remain calm, state the infraction of the rule, and avoid debating or arguing with
the student with a behavioral disorder.

Activity
There are some students in your class who always create disciplinary problems during
your instruction. Being a teacher, how would you tackle them?
8.7 Tools for Teaching
There are many tools with the teachers for effective teaching. A few of them are
discussed as under.
8.7.1 Discipline
Perhaps the single most important aspect of teaching is classroom management. You can't
successfully teach your students if they are not in control. .There is a number of ways that

17
a teacher can promote good discipline in the classroom. There are many reasons why
discipline can be a problem in your classroom. One of the reasons could be your teaching
style. If you aren't reaching every one of your students, they can become bored,
disinterested and restless. Every student has their own learning style and an area where
they excel. If you are reaching these students by using a variety of methods, they are
motivated and less likely to cause trouble. Following are some of the most common
discipline methods:
(a) Assertive Discipline- It was created by Lee Canter. Canter believes that if you "catch"
a student being good by recognizing them when they behave, they will work harder at
behaving. He also believes that there should be consistent consequences of breaking the
rules that are very clear. In a nutshell, the teacher comes up with no more than five rules
for the classroom. Each time a rule is broken, a consequence is given. If the misbehavior
continues, the consequences get more severe every time. At the same time, students are
rewarded for behaving properly. This can range from a field trip, pizza party, and a snack.
(b) Discipline With Dignity- This controversial discipline programme, created by
Richard L. Curwin and Allen N. Mendler, is based on the premise that students are treated
with dignity at all times. It is meant to build self-esteem and encourage responsible
behavior. This program is especially helpful in severe situations that frequently occur in
inner-city schools. Typically a contract is created by both the student and the teacher. The
contract includes prevention, "action dimension," and resolution. Your rules must make
sense and be fair. Prevention is done with preplanning to eliminate possible areas of
problems. Make sure students are aware of what is expected of them. The action consists
of record keeping and classroom management. Finally the resolution component is
dealing with the continual rule breaker. Discipline should not interfere with motivation.
Teach responsibility rather than obedience.
The controversy with this method is the length a teacher goes to protect student
dignity and the fact there is no punishment. Students frequently select their own
consequences. Teacher responses to severe discipline problems is unusual
Reality Therapy (RT)- This program was created by William Glasser. The emphasis of
this program is to help students connect behavior with consequence. This is done with
class meetings, clear rules, and contracts. This also includes Positive Approach to
Discipline (PAD), which is based on Reality Therapy.
(c) Transactional Analysis (TA) - This programme by Dr. Eric Berne, is based on the
premise that every human has a child, adult, and parent psyche. Students and teachers are

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encouraged to stay in the adult domain and avoid a parent/child relationship. Problems are
dealt with cooperation and goodwill. Like Discipline with Dignity, there is a strong focus
on self esteem and motivation.
(d) Teacher Effectiveness Training (TET) - This is another popular student discipline
strategy. The purpose of TET is to increase time on task. There are seven skills that are
taught in a TET classroom. The curriculum design is based on a four-step learning model,
SIPA.
Classroom discipline and management causes the most fear and consternation in
new teachers. However, classroom management is a skill that is not only learned but
practiced daily. Here are ten tips that can lead to successful classroom management and
discipline. These tips can help you cut down on discipline problems and leave you with
fewer interruptions and disruptions.
.1. It's Easier to Get Easier
Many teachers make the mistake of starting the school year with a poor discipline plan.
Students quickly assess the situation in each class and realize what they will be allowed to
get away with. Once you set a precedent of allowing a lot of disruptions, it can be very
hard to start better classroom management and discipline techniques. However, it is never
tough to get easier as the year goes on. While you don't have to follow the adage, "Never
smile until Christmas," it does have its merits.
2. Fairness is Key
Students have a distinct sense of what is and what is not fair. You must act fairly for all
students if you expect to be respected. If you do not treat all students equitably, you will
be labeled as unfair students will not be keen to follow your rules. Make sure that if your
best student does something wrong, they too get punished for it.
3. Deal with Disruptions with as Little Interruption as Possible
When you have classroom disruptions, it is imperative that you deal with them
immediately and with as little interruption of your class momentum as possible. If
students are talking amongst themselves and you are having a classroom discussion, ask
one of them a question to try to get them back on track. If you have to stop the flow of
your lesson to deal with disruptions, then you are robbing students who want to learn of
their precious in-class time.
4. Avoid Confrontations in Front of Students
Whenever there is a confrontation in class there is a winner and a loser. Obviously as the
teacher, you need to keep order and discipline in your class. However, it is much better to

19
deal with discipline issues privately than cause a student to 'lose face' in front of their
friends. It is not a good idea to make an example out of a disciplinary issue. Even though
other students might get the point, you might have lost any chance of actually teaching
that student anything in your class.
5. Stop Disruptions With a Little Humor
Sometimes all it takes is for everyone to have a good laugh to get things back on track in
a classroom. Many times, however, teachers confuse good humor with sarcasm. While
humor can quickly diffuse a situation, sarcasm may harm your relationship with the
students involved. Use your best judgment but realize that what some people think as
funny others find to be offensive.
6. Keep High Expectations in Your Class
Expect that your students will behave, not that they will disrupt. Reinforce this with the
way you speak to your students. When you begin the day, tell your students your
expectations. For example, you might say, "During this whole group session, I expect you
to raise your hands and be recognized before you start speaking. I also expect you to
respect each other's opinions and listen to what each person has to say."
7. Over plan
Free time is something teachers should avoid. By allowing students time just to talk each
day, you are setting a precedent about how you view academics and your subject. To
avoid this, over plan. Write additional activities into your lesson plans just in case your
main lessons run short. When you have too much to cover, you'll never run out of lessons
and you will avoid free time. You can also fill up any left over time with mini-lessons.
8. Be Consistent
One of the worst things you can do as a teacher is to not enforce your rules consistently.
If one day you ignore misbehaviors and the next day you jump on someone for the
smallest infraction, your students will quickly lose respect for you. Your students have
the right to expect you to basically be the same everyday. Moodiness is not allowed. Once
you lose your student's respect, you also lose their attention and their desire to please you.
9. Make Rules Understandable
You need to be selective in your class rules (no one can follow 180 rules consistently).
You also need to make them clear. Students should understand what is and what is not
acceptable. Further, you should make sure that the consequences for breaking your rules
are also clear and known beforehand.

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8.7.2 Instruction
In your day-to-day work, you might find that there are times when you need to provide a
client with documentation that walks them through a process or teaches them how to do
something they may be unfamiliar with. Here are six tips to help you create a
comprehensive yet coherent instruction manual.
1. Get Out of Your Own Head
When you begin to prepare instructions for processes you know inside and out, you will
need to consciously take a step back and approach the material from a new angle. Start at
square one by assuming the audience will have zero knowledge of the subject matter.
2. Know the Objective
Make sure you know exactly what your manual needs to cover in order to avoid
information overload or confusion that can come from too many details. This is especially
important when the process is complex or has a lot of different parts.
3. Outline It First
Before jumping in and creating steps, create a high-level outline of what the document
will cover, including main and subsections. This will help you make sure your process
makes sense and that each section of the manual is consistently structured.
4. Make It Easy to Understand
Lists are a great way to outline steps for doing something because they can help people
move item by item in the way you intend. It’s also a good idea to use a table of contents
and make your document searchable, if possible, to further support your step-by-step
approach.
5. Be Brief
It’s tempting to want to explain everything in fine detail since it’s material you know so
well, but stick with only what the recipient needs to know. Focus on using only as many
words as necessary to get your point across.
6. Use visual aids
Screenshots, diagrams and even videos are a great way to beef up your manual and make
it easier to understand. Keep the formatting of these supporting materials consistent and
to the point to avoid overwhelming the reader.
8.7.3 Motivation
Some students seem naturally enthusiastic about learning, but many need or expect their
instructors to inspire, challenge, and stimulate them. Effective learning in the classroom
depends on the teacher's ability to motivate students. Whatever level of motivation your

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students bring to the classroom will be transformed, for better or worse, by what happens
in that classroom.
Unfortunately, there is no single magical formula for motivating students. Many
factors affect a given student's motivation to work and to learn interest in the subject
matter, perception of its usefulness, general desire to achieve, self-confidence and self-
esteem, as well as patience and persistence (Bligh, 1971; Sass, 1989). And, of course, not
all students are motivated by the same values, needs, desires, or wants. Some of your
students will be motivated by the approval of others, some by overcoming challenges.
Researchers have begun to identify those aspects of the teaching situation that
enhance students' self-motivation (Lowman, 1984; Lucas, 1990; Weinert & Kluwe, 1987;
Bligh, 1971). To encourage students to become self-motivated independent learners,
instructors can do the following:
 Give frequent, early, positive feedback that supports students' beliefs that they can
do well.
 Ensure opportunities for students’ success by assigning tasks that are neither too
easy nor too difficult.
 Help students find personal meaning and value in the material.
 Create an atmosphere that is open and positive.
 Help students feel that they are valued members of a learning community.
Research has also shown that good everyday teaching practices can do more to
counter student apathy than special efforts to attack motivation directly (Ericksen, 1978).
Most students respond positively to a well-organized course taught by an enthusiastic
instructor who has a genuine interest in students and what they learn. Thus activities you
undertake to promote learning will also enhance students' motivation.
General Strategies for Enhancing Motivation
Here are a few strategies which may be useful for enhancing students’ motivation.
1. Capitalize on Students' Existing Needs
Students learn best when incentives for learning in a classroom satisfy their own motives
for enrolling in the course. Some of the needs your students may bring to the classroom
are the need to learn something in order to complete a particular task or activity, the need
to seek new experiences, the need to perfect skills, the need to overcome challenges, the
need to become competent, the need to succeed and do well, the need to feel involved and
to interact with other people. Satisfying such needs is rewarding in itself, and such
rewards sustain learning more effectively than do grades. Design assignments, in-class

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activities, and discussion questions to address these kinds of needs. (McMillan & Forsyth,
1991)
2. Make Students Active Participants in Learning
Students learn by doing, making, writing, designing, creating, solving. Passivity dampens
students' motivation and curiosity. Pose questions. Don't tell students something when
you can ask them. Encourage students to suggest approaches to a problem or to guess the
results of an experiment. Use small group work. (Lucas, 1990).
3. Ask Students to Analyze What Makes Their Classes More or Less "Motivating."
Sass (1989) asks his classes to recall two recent class periods, one in which they were
highly motivated and one in which their motivation was low. Each student makes a list of
specific aspects of the two classes that influenced his or her level of motivation, and
students then meet in small groups to reach consensus on characteristics that contributed
to high and low motivation. In over twenty courses, Sass reports, the following eight
characteristics emerge as major contributors to students’ motivation:
 Instructor's enthusiasm
 Relevance of the material
 Organization of the course
 Appropriate difficulty level of the material
 Active involvement of students
 Variety
 Rapport between teacher and students
 Use of appropriate, concrete, and understandable examples
4. Hold High but Realistic Expectations for Your Students
Research has shown that a teacher's expectations have a powerful effect on a student's
performance. If you act as though you expect your students to be motivated, hardworking,
and interested in the course, they are more likely to be so. Set realistic expectations for
students when you make assignments, give presentations, conduct discussions, and grade
examinations. "Realistic" in this context means that your standards are high enough to
motivate students to do their best work but not so high that students will inevitably be
frustrated in trying to meet those expectations. To develop the drive to achieve, students
need to believe that achievement is possible -which means that you need to provide early
opportunities for success. ( Bligh, 1971; Forsyth & McMillan, 1991, Lowman, 1984)

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5. Help Students Set Achievable Goals for Themselves
Failure to attain unrealistic goals can disappoint and frustrate students. Encourage
students to focus on their continued improvement, not just on their grade on any one test
or assignment. Help students evaluate their progress by encouraging them to critique their
own work, analyze their strengths, and work on their weaknesses. For example, consider
asking students to submit self-evaluation forms with one or two assignments. (Cashin,
1979; Forsyth & McMillan, 1991)
6. Tell Students What They Need to Do to Succeed in Your Course
Don't let your students struggle to figure out what is expected of them. Reassure students
that they can do well in your course, and tell them exactly what they must do to succeed.
Say something to the effect that "If you can handle the examples on these problem sheets,
you can pass the exam. People who have trouble with these examples can ask me for
extra help." Or instead of saying, "You're way behind," tell the student, "Here is one way
you could go about learning the material. How can I help you?" (Cashin, 1979; Tiberius,
1990).
7. Strengthen Students' Self-motivation
Avoid messages that reinforce your power as an instructor or that emphasizes extrinsic
rewards. Instead of saying, "I require," "you must," or "you should," stress "I think you
will find. . . “or "I will be interested in your reaction." (Lowman, 1990)
8. Avoid Creating Intense Competition Among Students
Competition produces anxiety, which can interfere with learning. Reduce students'
tendencies to compare themselves to one another. Bligh (1971) reports that students are
more attentive, display better comprehension, produce more work, and are more favorable
to the teaching method when they work cooperatively in groups rather than compete as
individuals. Refrain from public criticisms of students' performance and from comments
or activities that pit students against each other. (Eble, 1988; Forsyth & McMillan, 1991)
9. Be Enthusiastic About Your Subject
An instructor's enthusiasm is a crucial factor in student motivation. If you become bored
or apathetic, students will too. Typically, an instructor's enthusiasm comes from
confidence, excitement about the content and genuine pleasure in teaching. If you find
yourself uninterested in the material, think back to what attracted you to the field and
bring those aspects of the subject matter to life for your students. Or challenge yourself to
devise the most exciting way top resent the material, however dull the material itself may
seem to you.

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10. Work from Students' Strengths and Interests
Find out why students are enrolled in your course, how they feel about the subject matter,
and what their expectations are. Then try to devise examples, case studies, or assignments
that relate the course content to students' interests and experiences. For instance, a
chemistry professor might devote some lecture time to examining the contributions of
chemistry to resolving environmental problems. Explain how the content and objectives
of your course will help students achieve their educational, professional, or personal
goals. (Brock, 1976; Cashin, 1979; Lucas, 1990)
11. Vary Your Teaching Methods
Variety reawakens students' involvement in the course and their motivation. Break the
routine by incorporating a variety of teaching activities and methods in your course: role
playing, debates, brainstorming, discussion, demonstrations, case studies, audiovisual
presentations, guest speakers, or small group work. (Forsyth & McMillan, 1991)
12. Emphasize Mastery and Learning Rather Than Grades
Ames and Ames (1990) report on two secondary school math teachers. One teacher
graded every homework assignment and counted homework as 30 percent of a student's
final grade. The second teacher told students to spend a fixed amount of time on their
homework (thirty minutes a night) and to bring questions to class about problems they
could not complete. This teacher graded homework as satisfactory or unsatisfactory, gave
students the opportunity to redo their assignments, and counted homework as 10 percent
of the final grade. Although homework was a smaller part of the course grade, this second
teacher was more successful in motivating students to turn in their homework. In the first
class, some students gave up rather than risk low evaluations of their abilities. In the
second class, students were not risking their self-worth each time they did their
homework but rather were attempting to learn. Mistakes were viewed as acceptable and
something to learn from.
Researchers recommend de-emphasizing grading by eliminating complex systems
of credit points; they also advise against trying to use grades to control nonacademic
behavior (for example, lowering grades for missed classes) (Forsyth & McMillan, 1991;
Lowman 1990). Instead, assign ungraded written work; stress the personal satisfaction of
doing assignments, and help students measure their progress.
13. Give Students Feedback As Quickly As Possible
Return tests and papers promptly, and reward success publicly and immediately. Give
students some indication of how well they have done and how to improve. Rewards can

25
be as simple as saying a student's response was good, with an indication of why it was
good, or mentioning the names of contributors: "Cherry's point about pollution really
synthesized the ideas we had been discussing." (Cashin, 1979)
14. Reward Success
Both positive and negative comments influence motivation, but research consistently
indicates that students are more affected by positive feedback and success. Praise builds
students' self-confidence, competence, and self-esteem. Recognize sincere efforts even if
the product is less than stellar. If a student's performance is weak, let the student know
that you believe he or she can improve and succeed over time. (Cashin, 1979; Lucas,
1990)
15. Introduce Students to the Good Work Done by Their Peers
Share the ideas, knowledge, and accomplishments of individual students with the class as
a whole:
 Pass out a list of research topics chosen by students so they will know whether
others are writing papers of interest to them.
 Make available copies of the best papers and essay exams.
 Provide class time for students to read papers or assignments submitted by
classmates.
 Have students write a brief critique of a classmate's paper.
 Schedule a brief talk by a student who has experience or who is doing a research
paper on a topic relevant to your lecture.
16. Be Specific When Giving Negative Feedback
Negative feedback is very powerful and can lead to a negative class atmosphere.
Whenever you identify a student's weakness, make it clear that your comments relate to a
particular task or performance, not to the student as a person. Try to cushion negative
comments with a compliment about aspects of the task in which the student succeeded.
(Cashin, 1979)
17. Avoid Demeaning Comments
Many students in your class may be anxious about their performance and abilities. Be
sensitive to how you phrase your comments and avoid offhand remarks that might prick
their feelings of inadequacy.
18. Avoid Giving in to Students' Pleas for "the Answer" to Homework Problems
When you simply give struggling students the solution, you rob them of the chance to
think for themselves. Use a more productive approach ( Fiore, 1985):

26
  Ask the students for one possible approach to the problem.
 Gently brush aside students’ anxiety about not getting the answer by refocusing
their attention on the problem at hand.
 Ask the students to build on what they do know about the problem.
 Resist answering the question "is this right?" Suggest to the students a way to
check the answer for themselves.
 Praise the students for small, independent steps.
If you follow these steps, your students will learn that it is all right not to have an
instant answer. They will also learn to develop greater patience and to work at their own
pace. And by working through the problem, students will experience a sense of
achievement and confidence that will increase their motivation to learn.

Activity
Discipline and motivation are important factors for effective instruction. Being a teacher,
mention some of the other factors which are as important as these.
8.8 Effective Interpersonal Skills in Teaching
Effective personal and interpersonal skills underpin professional practice. They have a
number of dimensions including empathy, team working, creative thinking, the skill of
reflection and a sense of humour. All are underpinned by effective communication skills
in their widest sense. These include:
 effective questioning
 reflective listening
 non-verbal communication.
These skills should never be used in isolation. They form an essential part of the
dialogue that effective teachers develop with their learners to bring about positive
changes in behaviour and to deepen understanding.
1. Effective Questioning
Questioning has many dimensions. For example, teachers use it to:
 check what learners know
 assess their learning
 draw on personal experience
 promote development of practical skills
 encourage reflection on progress and the learning process.

27
2. Using Discussion
Active learning approaches stimulate discussion and deepen learning; this is particularly
effective when learners work in small groups. These subject-focused resources give an
overview of classroom practice but draw out some common principles.
To stimulate ideas, view the video clips and consider:
 What strategies for introducing discussion are evident?
 What benefits do you think the teacher was looking for?
 How did the learners respond?
 What role did the teacher play?
 What would you describe as good practice?
 What, if anything, do you think could have been done differently to support
learning?.
3. Managing Groups
Group work is particularly valuable when the aim of learning is to develop conceptual
understanding or strategies for solving more challenging problems. In these areas,
learners need to share alternative views, interpretations or approaches. In small groups
learners are able to check their understanding by explaining, or rehearsing, it in their own
words to at least one other person, who could give them instant feedback. It also provides
a ‘safe’ arena in which to ask questions.
You might use the resources as part of a teacher education or professional
development programme to address some of the challenges of group management:
 What can a teacher do to facilitate learning in groups?
 What can be gained from observing and listening to learners at work?
 What do you notice about planning and group management strategies?
 How did the learners benefit from working in groups?
 What, if anything, do you think could have been done differently, to support
learning?
 What can go wrong with group work? How could you prevent these problems
happening?
 If you are feeling unsure about managing groups, what skills do you most need to
develop?

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4. Effective Teacher -Personal Skills
Together with professional skills, effective teachers use their personal skills with the
students as these skills play an important role in students learning process, achievement,
and behaviour. Some of these skills are as under.
(a) Caring
Effective teachers care about their students in order to bring the best of each one to
encourage learning. According to Gurney (2007), learning has been considered as an
emotional exercise which will allow the students to get engaged as it appeals to be
emotionally. Besides, Eisner (2002) suggests that “teaching is a caring exercise” which
takes an important role in effective learning process. Showing care includes listening to
the students, not only when they are in the classroom, but also about their particular lives
and/or personal problems. The role of the effective teachers, in this situation, is to be
good listeners, paying attention to, and showing understanding through tenderness and
patience. According to Stronge et al. (2004) students perceive effectiveness when
teachers show kindness, gentleness and encouragement. Effective teachers demonstrate
genuine concern and empathy toward students through understanding the students´
concerns and questions. Stronge et al. (2004) stated that effective teachers listen to the
students’ arguments and help and/or indicates them how to resolve their problems, and
are willing to talk about their personal lives and experiences respecting the confidentiality
issues. Therefore, there is a more effective achievement when the teacher demonstrates
that cares about the students and knows them individually.
(b) Knowing the Students Individually
Caring teachers also know the students individually and give them individual attention
and develop productive relationships with their students. They treat their student with
respect and expect the same in return, enhancing the students learning progress. It is not
enough to know the students in their formal setting (in the classroom: their learning
strategies or learning style), but also, to know them in their informal setting (outside the
classroom: likes and dislikes, background, their motivation, aptitude and attitude to
learn). These have great effect on behaviour and performance in the classroom, and in
their learning process (Cruickshank & Haefele, 2001). In addition, according to Stronger
et al. (2004) caring goes beyond listening, understanding and knowing the students, it is
also being patient, kind, warm, sensitive, human with them. It is to be adaptable to
particular students’ situations, honest, trustworthy, encouraged, and having and showing

29
affection and love for them. Sizer (1999) stated that students cannot be taught well if we
do not know them.
(c) Teacher-Students Relationship
Effective teachers do not only have a teacher-student relationship in the classroom, but
also demonstrate interest in students´ lives beyond the classroom, using a wide variety of
strategies to interact with them outside the class, and the educational institution. This also
encourages students to perform their best in the classroom (Kohn, 1996). The election on
the type of social event can be easier if the teacher knows the students preferences.
Students really appreciate the teacher who attends social event with them, such as the
graduation, the end course dinner, a visit to a museum, a local event, a concert, etc.
According to Stronge et al. (2004) the social interactions between the teacher and students
encourage students leaning and achievement. Besides, this helps introvert or low self-
esteem learners to be better integrated in the group. This increases students´ participation
and motivation, which enhance a more favourable leaning environment, and challenge the
students to succeed. Wolk, (2002) stated that a strong relationships with the students
helps to decrease discipline problems. Therefore, a teacher who spends more time
interacting socially with the students, working directly with them, and demonstrates a
sense of fun and willingness to participate, in a friendly and personal manner, is
considered to be effective. Knowing the students and having a teaching-student
relationship with them creates a warm classroom and learning environment.
(d) Classroom Environment
Wang et al. (1997) found classroom climate to be one of the most important factors to
affect students’ achievement, although, on the contrary, it has been a strong predictor of
students’ aggression. However, having an optimal relationship with the students helps to
create a warm and safe classroom environment so that students can achieve their
potential, as they feel safe and confident to attempt new tasks and participate (Reynolds
& Muijs, 1999).
Activity
Teaching is a profession which needs skills like other professions. Some of the factors
regarding this are discussed under this topic. Mentions some of the other factors which
are not explained here.
8.9 Summary of the Unit
The current unit deals with the class room management and its related topics. A good
teacher has the inborn quality of managing a class efficiently which is the prerequisite for

30
effective teaching learning process. If a certain teacher is not aware of classroom
management techniques then certainly he will have to face many problems like discipline
problems, lack of motivation from students side etc. In this regard, it is the basic
responsibility of the society to know about the problems and needs of the teachers so that
they may be able to perform their duties with peaceful mind. In this unit various problems
faced by the teachers have been discussed. As far as the effective teaching is concerned,
the comprehensive lesson plans play the vital role. With the help of these plans, the
teachers are able to pre-plan how they will teach a particular topic so that the pre-defined
objectives may be achieved in a better way. It is a well known fact that all the students are
not at the same mental level. Moreover, there are individual differences which are always
present among the students. There are some students which are very obedient and hard
working, but on the other hand some students are problem creating students who don’t
study themselves nor let the other students to study. It is the responsibility of a good
teacher to adjust these students with other students so that they may be adjusted in the
class and work properly. The teaching learning process is a two way process including
both of the students and teachers. For effective teaching, the teachers may have some
relevant teaching tools like discipline, an attractive way of instruction and motivational
techniques. Discipline is the first basic necessity for teaching. If the class is not
disciplined, then certainly the students will not take any interest in their studies and
consequently there will be no effective learning. In the same way the teacher should be
capable of delivering his/her lesson in an interesting way by using some motivational
techniques. In addition to the above mentioned factors, the teachers should have some
personal skills as well, like an attractive personality, friendly environment in the class and
good social interaction with the students so that they may discuss their problems without
any fear and hesitation.
8.10 Self Assessment Questions
1. What do you mean by classroom management? What are the views of various experts
on this topic?
2. In your view, what are the main problems which are being faced by Pakistani teachers?
What measures do you suggest in overcoming these problems?
3. “Effective lesson planning is the core element in instruction”. Comment.
4. In every class there are some problem students. Being a teacher how would you tackle
these students along with the rest of the class?
5. What are different tools of teaching for effective instruction? Give your views.

31
 6. Briefly explain what do you mean by discipline, instruction and motivation?
7. Personal skills of teachers are very important for better teaching. In your opinion what
skills a teacher should have to become a successful instructor?

8.11 Bibliography

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A. Angelo (ed.), Classroom Research: Early Lessons from Success. New Directions for
Teaching and Learning, no. 46. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass,
Bligh, D. A. (1971). What's the Use of Lecturing? Devon, England: Teaching Services Centre,
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Bos, C., & Vaugh, S. (1998). Strategies For Teaching Students With Learning and Behavior
Problems. Boston, MA: Allyn and Bacon
Brock, S. C. (1976). Practitioners' Views on Teaching the Large Introductory College Course.
Manhattan: Center for Faculty Evaluation and Development, Kansas State University.
Brophy, J. (1996). Teaching Problem Students. Spring Street, New York, NY: The Gilford
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Burden, P. (1995). Classroom Management and Discipline. White Plains, NY: Longman
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Cashin, W. E. (1979). "Motivating Students." Idea Paper, no. 1. Manhattan: Center for Faculty
Evaluation and Development in Higher Education, Kansas State University.
Cruickshank, D. R., & Haefele, D. (2001). “Good teachers, plural”, Educational Headership,
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Daniel, J. W. 91988). "Survival Cards in Math." College Teaching,, 36(3), 110.
Eble, K. E. (1988). The Craft of Teaching. (2nd ed.) San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
Eisner, E.W. (2002), “The kind of schools we need”, Phi Delta Kappan, 83, 576-583.
Ericksen, S. C.(1978). "The Lecture." Memo to the Faculty, no. 60. Ann Arbor: Center for
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33
 UNIT 9

Problems in Classroom Management

For

Study Guide
BEd (Hons)

By

Dr. Muhammad Saeed

Associate Professor
Institute of Education & Research
University of the Punjab
Lahore
email: drsaeed1961@hotmail.com

Submitted at
Department of Secondary Teacher Education
Faculty of Education
Allama Iqbal Open University
Islamabad

December 2011
 2

Table of Contents

Sr. # Contents Page #

Introduction 3

9.1 Class Room Management (CRM) 4

9.2 Problems in Class Room Management 5

9.3 Elimination of Problems in Classroom Management 8

9.4 Preventing Classroom Discipline Problem 11

9.5 Disruptive Behavior and its Sources 14

9.5.1 Call out 14

9.5.2 Fighting 15

9.5.3 Cheating 15

9.5.4 Come in Late 15

9.5.5 Homework 15

9.5.6 Drugs Addictive 15

9.5.7 Psychological Problems 16

Activities 17

Self-Assessment Exercise 18

Suggested Readings 23

References 24
 3

Introduction
The unit on ‘Problems in Classroom Management’ is an important unit of BEd (Hons) four-
year course on ‘Classroom Management’. It has been designed to look into the global
practices in classroom management with a focus on problems and issues related to classroom
management in Pakistan.
The unit starts with the introduction of classroom management in view of the
definitions by different experts. It mainly highlights the works of Froyen and Iverson (1999),
Emmer, Evertson, and Worshan (2003), and Evertson and Weinstein (2006).
The main thrust of the unit is on ‘Issues and Problems in Classroom Management’.
Here firstly the concept of conflict and conflict management has been presented, and then the
key issues of classroom management such as positive behaviour support (PBS) and social
and emotional learning (SEL) are discussed. After then Do’s and Don’ts in context to
classroom management as stated by Kratchowill (2005) are presented. This part ends with
many general key issues and problems in classroom management.
One important theme is ‘Elimination of Problems in Classroom Management’. It
includes the different strategies need to make classroom management efficient and effective.
Here the views of different experts such as Bellard (2005), McCleary (2005), Brophy (2006),
Horne and Brown (2007) and Kratochwill (2011) are presented. .
The last major theme of the unit is ‘Disruptive Behaviour’ which focuses the
description of the main sources of disruptive behavior.

Objectives of the Unit

 To aware the students about the concept of classroom management.
 To describe the key issues and problems of classroom management.
 To highlight strategies to overcome classroom discipline problems.
 To describe the strategies to overcome classroom management problems
 To define, enlist and describe the sources of disruptive behavior.

9.1 Class Room Management (CRM)

Classroom management is a term specifically used by teachers to make sure that teaching
learning process in classroom is running smoothly in spite of disturbing behavior by
 4

students. The term also implies the avoidance of disruptive behavior (Wolfgang & Glickman,
1986).
Classroom management refers to the procedure, strategies and instructional
techniques teachers use to manage student behavior and learning activities (Emmer, Evertson
& Worshan, 2003). Classroom management is one of the most important aspects of teaching;
indeed experiencing and dealing problems in this area is very important to address.
Classroom is a complex and dynamic place where students develop different ways of doing
their work. When students interact, some of these differences can lead to conflict (Basit, et al.,
2010). It is a place where teaching learning discourse occurs. Stone (2005) states ‘every
classroom has its unique chemistry, and likewise, each teacher is a unique individual with
different expectations and needs’.
Classroom management is closely linked to issues of motivation, discipline and
respect. It refers to all things that a teacher does to organize students’ space, time, and
materials to foster their involvement and cooperation in all classroom activities and to
establish productive working environment (Ahmad, 2010).
Froyen and Iverson (1999) state that there are three major components of classroom
management: Content management, conduct management, and covenant management.
Content management does not refer to skills peculiar to teaching a particular subject rather
to those skills that cut across subject and activities.
Conduct management is centered on one’s beliefs about the nature of people by integrating
knowledge about human diversity into a particular instructional philosophy; teacher could
manage classrooms in a better, more effective way.
Covenant management focuses the classroom group as a social system. Teacher and student’s
roles and expectations shape the classroom into an environment conducive to learning.

9.2 Problems in Class Room Management

Classroom management carries a number of problems and issues. One of the key problems is
conflict management. The conflicts may emerge between student - student, and between
teacher - student. A conflict is basically a disagreement between two or more parties
concerning the activities used to achieve certain goals (Szilagyi, 1986). It is a state of affairs
in which people express differences in satisfying their needs and interests, and they
 5

experience interference in achieving them. A conflict is a struggle or contest between people

with opposing needs, ideas, beliefs, values, or goals. Conflict management involves acquiring
skills related to conflict resolution, self-awareness about conflict modes, conflict
communication skills, and establishing a structure for managing conflict (The Foundation
Coalition, 2003).
Teachers are mainly concerned with two kinds of classroom issues. First, preventing
discipline problems, and second, current discipline problems. To address these concerns,
researchers have established several systems. One of such systems is called ‘positive
behavior support (PBS) (Crone & Horner, 2003; Crone, Horner, & Hawken, 2004), and the
other is ‘social and emotional learning (SEL) which reflects the work of Weisberg and his
colleagues affiliated with the Collaborative for Academic, Social, and Emotional Learning
(CASEL). PBS programmes typically involve a school-wide structure of support for teachers
that adopt evidence that adopt evidence-based programmes (see Freiberg & Lapointe, 2006),
and small group and individualized programmes for more serious student discipline concerns
(Robinson & Griesemer, 2006). PBS is typically set up as a multi-level model of intervention.
It begins with: a) school-wise systems of support (called universal or primary intervention); b)
small group or more focused interventions (called selected or focused and more intense
services) for problematic or more disruptive behavior; and c) individualized interventions
(called indicated or tertiary intervention).
Literature highlights different core issues regarding classroom management problems.
1. Undermining the teacher’s authority
The teacher should avoid exercising his/her authority while dealing with students. The
student may be told in loneliness about his/her confrontational attitude and make effort to
resolve through mutual discussions and meetings. The students should be encouraged to ask
questions rather snub them.
2. Leaving class too frequently
Leaving class frequently by the teacher and/or students is one of the most frequent problem
and issue in our schools, colleges, and sometimes even in universities. The teacher should be
punctual and he/she should discourage his/her students to leave classes without any genuine
reason. Failing which results in students’ absenteeism and poor performance.
 6

3. Spacing out or sitting with back to teacher

If the practice of spacing out or sitting back to the teacher is very frequent, it will negatively
affect learning. If this problem is repeated, students need to know that their non-verbal
behavior is perceived as disinterest. The teacher might ask the student for the comfortable
seat in the class.
4. Poor hygiene
Poor hygiene, use of too much perfume, cigarette etc. create problem for many students in
the class as these affect the physical environment of the class. Clean water should be
available to the students. Likewise, adequate and comfortable bath facility should be
available in the school premises.
5. Verbal or physical threats
Some teachers target some students for some verbal and/or physical threats, which is an
illegal act. This should be avoided to promote students learning abilities to the maximum
possible extent.
6. Cell phone and food disruptions
In some cases, there is a problem in the class that many students don’t off their mobile
phones inspite of giving them repeated instructions. Similarly some students eat or drink food
or chew gum items very frequently in the class hours which disrupt the classroom teaching
learning process. The teacher should take serious notice and the institution must have a very
clear and strict policy in this regard.
7. Monopolizing discussions
This is a common but manageable problem. Many students are excited and talkative so it
might be good to give some class periods to settle in. The teacher needs to handle such
students skillfully.
8. Sleeping in the class
Sleeping in the class is usually considered as ‘rude’. It should not be tolerated. To avoid this
problem, the teacher should not give much home work; the amount of home work should be
appropriate. Some students don’t sleep at night due to some other problems which the teacher
should ask them in loneliness. Another strategy is to ask students to actively participate in
class activities.
 7

9. Refusal to speak/participate
Some of the students don’t speak or actively participate in the various activities. There may
be many possible reasons for this. For example, some may be terrified from teacher’s
behavior, and some may have health problem. Such students should be encouraged to speak.
More questions should be asked to such students.
10. Sharing /copying work
Some students don’t do work on their own, rather depends on others. Some, for example,
copy other’s work while some copy from internet. Sometimes, the parents or siblings dictate
or write on their own the work of the students. The teacher should take care of such practices
as these affect student learning. If the problem is at the end of parents, the teacher should
either contact or write them in a proper way. The teacher should clearly share the plagiarism
policy with the students. He/she should clearly warn students and their parents that in case of
much copying, student will be dropped or his/her grade may be affected.
11. Disrespectful behavior
The students should be respected as they also have their feelings. There are different ways for
this. For example, if a student did not perform well, he/she should be realized and one or
more meetings may be arranged to highlight that success brings happiness and failure results
in dissatisfaction. If a student performs well in any activity, he/she may be motivated or
encouraged by giving some appreciation or other rewards.
12. Lack/underutilization of resources
It happens many times that classroom lacks in learning resources, for example, suitable board,
multimedia, projector, prerequisites for classroom ventilation etc. The lack of resources or
underutilization of available resources also creates disinterest among the students in the class
and they remain away from their studies.

9.3 Elimination of Problems in Classroom Management

Bernal (2005) states that best classroom management is linked with viable plan, appropriate
methods and strategies, and adequate resources and management skills of the teacher. It is
generally perceived that classroom management in a broader perspective adds parents in the
process. The teacher should be proactive i.e. he/she should not wait until a situation reaches
the crisis point, rather thinks to improving the classroom teaching learning process right from
 8

the beginning. He/she should have contacts and discussions with the parents and other
teachers.
McCleary (2005) puts emphasis on the relationships in the classroom. Not only the
teacher should consider and evaluate the classroom relationships; the school is also to look
into the essential components of classroom management. There are a few tools or techniques
that guide teachers through this important reflection. First, every classroom has its unique
chemistry, and likewise each teacher is a unique individual with different expectations and
needs. The teacher should accordingly determine the nature of the relationships in the class.
Second, when you build strong relationship between yourself and your students, you create a
foundation that supports learning, student achievement, and positive social development.
Third, improving classroom environment should evolve rewarding and meaningful results.
Fourth, a teacher who allows negativism to pervade his/her classroom undermines any
successful relationship with students. A double standard exists when dealing with this topic.
Fifth, a strong classroom relationship is also built on consistency. Students, especially those
who may be more likely to cause classroom management challenges, react well to
consistency and predictability. One of the most important things here is that a teacher is to be
in the classroom as often as he/she can. Teachers, who miss their classes very often,
generally face classroom problems.
Effective classroom management generally answers to following four core questions.
1. Know what you want and what you don’t want.
2. Show and tell your students what you want.
3. When you get what you want, acknowledge it.
4. When you get something else, act quickly and appropriately.
Horne and Brown (2007) also realize the importance of managing relationships with
pupils in the classroom, besides relationships with the colleagues. They are of the view that a
good working environment in the classroom depends upon the rapport developed between the
pupils and their teacher. Learning is far more likely to flourish where a relationship is based
on mutual trust and respect rather than fear and dominance. To manage good relationship
with students, following principles should be observed.
1. Respect your students and treat them as an individual.
 9

2. Be genuine and caring for your students. Keep them in front instead undermining
their abilities.
3. Establish good rapport with your students. Start this process from the very beginning.
4. Act as an ideal teacher and human being before your students. The teacher should be
a role model for their students so he/she should be very careful all the time.
5. Set your classroom standards and share with your pupils at the beginning.
6. Act like a civilized person in the class. Never discourage any student rather
encourage them to exploit their abilities.
7. Have a sense of humor and use it in the classroom as and when needed.
8. Avoid unnecessary criticism.
9. Try to be impartial with all students irrespective of ability, socio-economic status,
race and color.
10. Listen to each student and give them equal opportunity in the class to share their
views. Don’t impose your instructions all the times.
11. Be consistent and keep your personality impressive and open to all.
Bellard (2005) diverts our attention towards classroom discipline. Exemplary teaching
and learning can take place only if a foundation of exemplary discipline strategies has been
established in the classroom. A teacher can employ different discipline strategies in the class.
First, to create a workable and stable democracy, individuals must have the emotional and
intellectual maturity to understand the responsibilities that democracy entails. They also need
the knowledge and skills that will permit them to make rational, moral choices that are in the
best interest of society as a whole and not just in their own interests. Second, teacher is the
authority. The teachers who exercise authority use all of the tools at their disposal to help
their students learn. They take responsibility for their class and are always prepared. In many
cases, well-prepared lesson that actively engage the students will cut down on many
discipline problems. Most students really do not want to learn and enjoy a class by
interrupting classroom learning in any way. Third, students prefer a teacher who is
demanding over caring. Maintaining high standards and discipline in the class will actually
foster self-esteem. Most students actually respect a teacher who is more demanding than
caring. Fourth, there is a need that all of the students’ parents should sign a discipline
contract with the school at the beginning of the class. Fifth, the teacher should share the
 10

classroom rules, expectations and consequences, and reinforce in the class. If he/she says this
will be a reward of best achievement or this will be punishment or penalty of this classroom
misbehavior, he/she must do it. Sixth, the teacher should gain popularity by having good
relationships with his/her head teacher, the senior and the junior colleagues.
Horne and Brown (2007) are of the view that management of pupils in the class needs
to be looked at in terms of the extent to which any particular form of organization allows the
teacher to interact positively and economically with the pupils. In other words, it is necessary
to organize time, resources, and activities in order to maximize learning. They suggest
following principles should be observed for effective classroom management.
1. Have clear indications that the classroom is a learning environment.
2. Know in advance the organizational structure of the lesson.
3. Make sure the physical layout of the room is appropriate.
4. Manage the arrival and departure of pupils skillfully.
5. Help pupils to know what behavior is expected.
6. Display pupil’s work and provide them necessary feedback.
7. Have as many kinds of display material as possible.
8. Maintain a working atmosphere in the class.
9. Respond to unexpected or inappropriate behavior.
10. Make sure resources are accessible to all pupils.
Kratochwill (2011) states that classroom management strategies are most effective if
they include:
 Organized instruction to optimize student learning
 Lessons in group management
 Development of student social skills and self-regulations
 Customized interventions to assist with specific student behavior problems
 A multi-tiered system of management

Effective classroom management must be aligned with instructional goals and

activities. Brophy (2006) noted that when teachers identify what good student behavior looks
like, they can work backwards from desired outcomes to determine which management
systems will be most effective. Examples of these behavior include arriving in class on time,
 11

taking own’s seat if specified, leaving front seats vacant for students having any disability,
being prepared for a lesson, paying keen interest in classroom activities, develop and
implement effective classroom assessment tools, encourage students to ask questions,
respond to students questions, giving feedback on assignments etc. Accepted behaviors may
vary for different classroom organizational systems (whole school, small group, or individual
tutoring). Classroom management strategies may need to be adapted to unique contexts and
environments that emerge in physical classrooms.

9.4 Preventing Classroom Discipline Problem

It is a common experience that once a teacher loses control of his classroom, it becomes
increasingly more difficult for him to regain the control. Research from Berliner (1988) and
Brophy and Good (1986) show that the time that teacher has to take to correct misbehavior
caused by poor classroom management skills results in a lower rate of academic engagement
in the classroom. From a student’s perspective, effective classroom management involves
clear communication of behavior and academic expectations, as well as a cooperative
learning environment (Allen, 1986).
Prevention of classroom management problems can be resolved by setting standards
for behavior in class, developing a process for notifying students of the standards, developing
a process to respond to violations of class standards as well as university standards, and
responding to violations in a consistent and fair manner.
Techniques to decrease inappropriate student behavior
First strategy to decrease the inappropriate behavior is to remove a student from the
classroom; it may leave positive effects on the teacher and the student. The teacher receives
relief from the inappropriate behavior, and the student receives relief from the aversive task.
Second, training on effective classroom management should give pre-service and developing
teachers adequate conceptualization of the critical content. For example, videotapes of
classroom situations may provide a medium for discussion and analysis of classroom
management applications (Emmer & Stough, 2001). Third strategy is a case method of
instruction. Case method of instruction is a strategy to enhance a teacher’s problem solving
and decision-making skills. By analyzing cases, teachers are able to apply their knowledge of
classroom organization and behavior management to real life situation. Professional
 12

development schools and supervised field experience/teaching practice are two ways that
pre-service and novice teachers gain pragmatic experience.
Schools individually should take a preventive approach and establish school wide
behavior support systems that link class wide, targeted group, and individualized behavior
plans to the school wide plan. In addition, schools should utilize staff with strong expertise to
provide collaborative consultation to teachers experiencing difficulty with classroom
management and student behavior. Strong administrative support is a critical factor in the
successful development and implementation of such efforts.
Dos in Classroom Management
Kratochwill (2011) describes classroom management in terms of Dos and Don’ts. He states
that primary level interventions are applied to all students in the school; about 80% of the
students may respond to this level. These interventions:
 Create interest in classroom lessons and materials
 Ensure that there is a match between student’s skills and classroom instructional
level
 Develop home-school partnership through which students’ learning and behavior
can be fostered and students needs can be met
 Teach students the skills (e.g. study skills, time management) they need to meet
classroom expectations
 Establish procedures for teaching expected positive behaviors
 Establish a system for monitoring students’ progress and record keeping

At secondary or selected prevention system, about 10 to 20% of students need additional

support. These include:
 Institute self-management programmes
 Institute conflict management programmes
 Institute mentoring programmes
 Institute daily check-in and check-out procedures
 Institute specialized social skill instruction
 Establish family involvement in all programmes
 13

At tertiary or individualized prevention system level, 5 to 7 % of the students will need

this kind of support. This includes:
 Establish a problem solving team that teacher and others can go for help
 Develop function-based interventions
Don’ts in Classroom Management
 Use vague rules
 Rules that you are unwilling to enforce
 Ignore student behavior and violate school or classroom rules
 Engage in ambiguous or inconsistent treatment of misbehavior
 Use harsh or embarrassing punishments
 Use corporal punishments
 Students’ suspension from school wherever possible
 Solve students’ serious problems alone without consulting other colleagues

9.5 Disruptive Behavior and its Sources

Undesirable classroom behaviors, such as wandering around the room, aggression, disturbing
another's property, disruptive noise, turning attention away from the teacher, inappropriate
verbalization and inappropriate tasks during a lesson is referred as disruptive behavior.
Disruptive classroom behavior hurts students and teachers. Kay (2000) an educational
consultant, defines disruptive classroom behavior as any inappropriate student behavior.
Students misbehave in an attempt to gain the recognition and acceptance they want.
Ingrersoll and Smith (2003) found that classroom organization and behavior
management competencies significantly influence the persistence of new teachers in teaching
careers. Disruptive classroom behavior is a significant reason why teachers leave the
profession. Browers and Tomic (2000) also found that new teachers typically express
concerns about lacking effective means to handle the significant disruptive behavior of
students. Teachers who have problems with behavior management and classroom discipline
are frequently ineffective in the classroom, and they often report high levels of stress and
symptoms of burnout (Berliner, 1986; Browers & Tomic, 2000; Espin & Yel, 1994). Kellam,
Ling, Merisca, Brown, and Ialongo (1998) found that disruptive behaviour is a particular
problem in classrooms of disadvantaged students.
 14

Following are the major sources of disruptive behavior of students.

9.5.1 Call out
Calling out is one of the more common problems teachers encounter in the classroom.
Fortunately, it also is one of the easiest problems to manage. A student's classroom
interruptions may take different forms -- from blurting out an answer without raising his hand,
to responding when another student has been called on, to making an unsolicited comment in
the middle of a lesson or discussion. Whatever form the interruption takes, students who call
out can get you and the class off track, as well as prevent other students from participating
fully in class activities. (http://www.educationworld.com/a_curr/shore/shore003.shtml)
9.5.2 Fighting
Sometimes students are found disputing verbally with other students which are veiled while
sometimes are more explicit. In aggressiveness student may approach the instructor or fellow
students frighteningly, or actually shove the individual, or worse, physically attack them.
9.5.3 Cheating
Cheating is becoming more and more of a problematic issue in education in many classrooms
around the world. The issue of cheating is far however from being solved: cell phones and
text messages have become an additional culprit for cheating on tests and it is uncertain how
future technology will continue to affect the cheating situation. Students cheat because of
many reasons, one of the most common reasons of the cheating may be that they don't feel
they can succeed on the test and as a result, they feel a need to cover up for whatever
weaknesses they may have.
( http://doritsasson.suite101.com/cheating-in-the-classroom-a21143)
9.5.4 Come in Late
When students come to class late, it can disrupt the flow of a lecture or discussion, distract
other students, impede learning, and generally erode class morale. Moreover, if left
unchecked, lateness can become chronic and spread throughout the class
(www.cmu.edu/teaching/solveproblem/strat-latetoclass/index.html)
9.5.5 Homework
Homework assignments are referred as the tasks which are assigned by the teachers to the
students to be completed outside the class. Students not doing their homework are the source
of disruptiveness in the classroom this Behavior is detrimental to the academic community
 15

and classroom management because it interferes with the learning process for other students
and inhibits the ability of instructors to teach most effectively.
9.5.6 Drugs Addiction
Drugs addiction cause behavior problems in students specially they become aggressive, don’t
obey rules argues with their elders an peers, they may hurt to others, lacking accountability
and blaming others, show inappropriate behaviors, be involved in theft, start fights, and lacks
respect for authority Violates rules regularly in this way these things create problems
specially in class room management and spoiled their other fellows.
9.5.7 Psychological Problems
A lingering pattern of disruptive behavior may indicate as mental health disorder. Possible
disorders indicated by such behavior include attention deficit hyperactivity disorder, also
known as ADHD, and oppositional defiant disorder. ADHD, characterized by an inability to
pay attention and impulsive behaviors, often causes behavioral problems in class. The
symptoms of ADHD clash with the expectations of the classroom environment. Children
with ADHD may talk out of turn, have difficulty staying seated and find it challenging to
maintain focus during instructional time.
Children with oppositional defiant disorder exhibit behaviors of negativity, defiance,
disobedience and hostility toward authority figures, according to the Mayo Clinic. These
symptoms may lead to problems in school, temper tantrums, aggressiveness toward peers and
other disruptive classroom behaviors (Aiger, 2010).

Activities
Activity 1:
Identify one specialized feature in each of the three types of classroom management –
content, conduct and covenant.
Activity 2:
PBS is a multi-level model of interaction. Write down two points in support to this statement.
Activity 3:
Identify two Dos’ and two Don’ts in context to classroom management not being indicated
by Kratochwill (2011).
 16

Activity 4:
Close your eyes and count the 12 major issues and problems of classroom management.
Activity 5:
Enlist the authors indicated under the sub-topic ‘Techniques to decrease inappropriate
students’ behavior’ and give one point in support to their work.
Activity 6:
Briefly explain the above four core questions of classroom management in your own words.
Activity 7:
Design a flow chart showing key words of all the above principles of maintaining good
relationships with students in the class.
Activity 8:
Identify five principles for effective classroom management not being directly highlighted by
Horne and Brown (2006), and Kratochwill (2011).
Activity 9:
Enlist the sources of disruptive behavior with their key description..
 17

Self-Assessment Exercise
Part-1: Multiple Choice Questions
Note: Encircle or tick mark (√) the correct/best answer in each of the following items.
The primary aim of classroom management is to:
A) Motivate students towards learning
B) Use different discipline strategies
C) Gain and maintain student cooperation to promote learning
D) Deals effectively with disruptive students
E) Use effective teaching learning strategies

Who divided classroom management into content, conduct and covenant management?
A) Froyen and Ivertson
B) Evertson and Weinstein
C) Crone and Honer
D) Crone, Horner and Hawken
E) Freiberg and Lapointe

Covenant management deals with:

A) Self efficacy of students
B) Community problems
C) Teacher’s control and administration
D) Maintain strong socio-cultural system
E) Enhancement of teacher’s professional skills

Classroom management is a/an:

A) Instructional activity
B) Single activity
C) Multi-faceted activity
D) Measure of learning achievement
E) Activity of resolving disruptive behaviour problems
 18

A conflict is a/an:
A) Agreement between two more parties
B) Agreement among more than two parties
C) Disagreement between two parties
D) Disagreement among more than two parties
E) Struggle between people’s ideas and beliefs

Under the broader framework of classroom management, school-wide structure refers to:
A) Instructional management
B) Positive behaviour support
C) Social and emotional learning
D) CASEL
E) Individualized instructions

Who has explained classroom management in terms of Do’s and Don’ts?

A) Froyen
B) Evertson
C) Freiberg
D) Kratochwill
E) Lapointe

Effective classroom management is associated with:

A) Feasible plan
B) Viable teaching strategies
C) Adequate resources
D) Teacher’s administrative and managerial skills
E) All above
 19

In the context of classroom management, McCleary puts emphasis on classroom:

A) Chemistry
B) Control
C) Environment
D) Atmosphere
E) Relationships

The expert who has done work on classroom discipline is:

A) Horne
B) Brown
C) Crone
D) Bellard
E) Brophy

Effective classroom management must be aligned with:

A) Instructional goals and activities
B) Classroom discipline
C) Students’ disruptive behavior
D) Accepted behaviors
E) Material resources

The key problem or issue of classroom management from teacher’s perspective may be:
A) Maximum utilization of available resources
B) Sleeping in the class
C) Copying too much by the students
D) Use of mobiles by the students
E) Poor hygienic conditions in the class
 20

Which should be taken as the last resort by the teacher?

A) Changing seat
B) Off-task paperwork
C) Time-outs
D) Detentions
E) Discipline referrals

An educational consultant defines disruptive classroom behavior as any inappropriate student

behavior.
A) Browers
B) Ingrersoll
C) Kay
D) Smith

A strategy to enhance a teacher’s problem solving and decision-making skills is:

A) Goals and detentions
B) Goals, interventions and rewards
C) Actions and consequences
D) Interventions and actions
E) Goals, actions and consequences

Key of MCQs for self-assessment

Ques. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15

Key C A D C E B D E E D A A E B B
 21

Part-II: Short Answer Questions

1. In what way discipline is an important component of classroom management?
2. Give two definitions of classroom management and derive one of its comprehensive
definitions as per your perception.
3. Distinguish between PBS and SEL.
4. Enlist any five key Do’s of classroom management in order of priority.
5. Enlist any five key Don’ts of classroom management in order of priority.
6. Suggest three techniques to decrease inappropriate disruptive behaviour of students.
7. Briefly describe the three components of classroom management stated by Froyen
and Iverson (1999).
8. What may be the three major sources of disruptive behavior of students in classroom?
9. Write down the causes of cheating?
10. How do the psychological problems of students create the management problems in
classroom?

Part-III: Essay type Questions

1. Discuss the key issues and problems of classroom management along with viable
remedial measures in the context of Pakistani schools.
2. Discuss in detail the sources of disruptive behavior.
3. Elaborate the effective techniques to decrease inappropriate student behavior in
classroom.
 22

Suggested Readings

Ahmad, M. (2010). Application of classroom management strategies in public and private

sector at school level in Pakistan. International Journal of Library and Information
Science, 2(9), 177-183.
Brophy, J. E. (2006). History of research on classroom management. In C. M. Evertson & C.
S. Weinstein (Eds.) Handbook of Classroom Management: Research, Practice and
Isuues (pp. 17-44) Mahwah, NJ Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
Horne, H. & Brown, S. (2007). Tips for school improvement. London; Routledge.
Kratochwill, T. (2011). Classroom management: Teachers modules. USA: American
Psychological Association, Washington, DC.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Classroom_management
 23

References

Ahmad, M. (2010). Application of classroom management strategies in public and private

sector at school level in Pakistan. International Journal of Library and Information
Science, 2(9), 177-183.
Aiger, A. (2010). What Is Disruptive Behavior in the Classroom? Retrieved December 14,
2011 from: http://www.livestrong.com/article/147291-what-is-disruptive-behavior-in-
the-classroom/
Allen, J. D. (1986). Classroom management: Student’s perspectives, goals and strategies.
American Education Research Journal, 23, 437-459.
Basit, A., Rahman, F., Jumani, N. B., Chishti, S.H., & Malik, S. (2010). An analysis of
conflict resolution strategies in Pakistani schools. International Journal of Academic
Research, 2(6), 212-218.
Bellard, K. (2005). Classroom discipline, in R. Stone (Ed.) Best Classroom Practices for
Reaching All Learners (pp. 41-44), Thousand Oaks: Corwin Press.
Berliner, D. C. (1986). In pursuit of expert pedagogue. Educational Researcher, 15(7), 5-13.
Bernal, J. (2005). Classroom management and finding success in your AP Spanish program,
in R. Stone (Ed.) Best Classroom Practices for Reaching All Learners (pp. 41-44),
Thousand Oaks: Corwin Press.
Brophy, J. E. (2006). History of research on classroom management. In C.M. Evertson& C.S.
Weinstein (Eds.) Handbook of Classroom Management: Research, Practice and
Isuues (pp. 17-44) Mahwah, NJ Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
Brophy, J. E., & Good, T. l. (1986). Teacher behaviour and student achievement. In M. C.
Wittrock (Ed.), Handbook of Research on Teaching (3rd ed., pp. 328-375). New York:
MacMillan.
Browers, A., & Tomic, W. (2000). A longitudinal study of teacher burnout and perceived
self-efficacy in classroom management, Teaching and Teacher Education, 16(2),
239-253.
Carnine, D. (1976). Effects of two teacher presentation rates on off-task behaviour,
answering correctly, and participation. Journal of Applied Behaviour Analysis, 9(2),
199-206.
 24

Crone, D. H. & Horner, R. H. (2003). Building positive behaviour support systems in schools:
Functional behaviour assessment. New York: Guilford.
Crone, D. H., Horner, R. H. & Hawken, L. S. (2004). Responding to behaviour problems in
schools: The behaviour education program. New York: Guilford.
Donovan, M. S. & Cross, C. T. (2002). Minority students in special and gifted education.
Washington, DC: National Academy Press.
Emmer, E. T. & Stough, L. M. (2001). Classroom management: A critical part of educational
psychology with implications for teacher education. Educational Psychologist, 36(2),
103-112.
Emmer, E. T., Evertson, C. M. & Worshan, M. E. (2003). Classroom management for
secondary school teachers (6th edition), Boston: Allyn and Bacon.
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teachers: relationship between teaching behaviours and ratings of effectiveness.
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C.M. Evertson & C.S. Weinstein (Eds.), Handbook of Classroom Management:
Research, Practice and Contemporary Issues (pp. 3-16). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence
Erlbaum Associates.
Freiberg, H. J. & Lapointe, J. M. (2006). Research-based programs for preventing and
solving discipline problems. In C. Evertson & C. S. Weinstein (Eds.) Handbook of
Classroom Management: Research, Practice and Contemporary Issues (pp. 735-786),
Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
Froyen, L. A., & Iverson, A. M. (1999). Schoolwide and classroom management: The
reflective educator-leader (3rd ed.). Upper Saddle River: NJ: Prentice-Hall. (Also
accessible at: http://www.intime.uni.edu/model/teacher/teac3summary.html)
Gootman, M. E. (2008). The caring teacher’s guide to discipline: Helping students learn
self-control, responsibility and respect, K-8.
Harrell, P., Leavell, A., van Tassell, F., & McKee, K. (2004). No teacher left behind: Results
of a five-years study of teacher attrition. Action in Teacher Education, 26, 47-59.
Horne, H. & Brown, S. (2007). Tips for school improvement. London; Routledge.
 25

Ingersoll, R. M., & Smith, T. M. (2003). The wrong solution to the teacher shortage.
Educational Leadership, 60(8), 30-33.
Kay , B. (2000). What to do With The Kid Who.
Kellam, S., Ling, S., Merisca, R., Brown, C. H., & Ialongo, N. (1998). The effect of the level
of aggression in the first grade classroom on the course and malleability of aggressive
behaviour into middle school. Development Psychopathalogy, 10 165-185.
Kratochwill, T. (2011). Classroom management: Teachers modules. USA: American
Psychological Association, Washington, DC.University of Wisconsin.
McCleary, J. (2005). Relationship and classroom management, R. Stone (Ed.) Best
Classroom Practices for Reaching All Learners (pp. 63-66), Thousand Oaks: Corwin
Press.
Mierzwik, D. (2005). Classroom record keeping: Tips for time-strapped teachers. Thousand
Oaks: Corwin Press.
Paine, S. C., Radicci, J., Roseilini, L. C. Deutchman, L. & Darch, C. B. (1983). Structuring
your classroom for academic success. Champaign, IL: Research Press.
Robinson, S. L., Griesemer,, S. M. R. (2006). Helping individual students with problem
behaviour. In C. Evertson & C. S. Weinstein (Eds.) Handbook of Classroom
Management: Research, Practice and Contemporary Issues (pp. 787-802), Mahwah,
NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
Stone, R. (2005). Best classroom management practices for reaching all learners. Thousand
Oaks: Corwin Press.
Sugai, G., & Horner, R. (2006). A promising approach to expanding and sustaining school-
wide positive behaviour support. School of Psychology Review, 35, 245-259.
Sutherland, K. S. Alder, N., & Gunter, P. L. (2003). The effect of varying rates of
opportunities to respond to academic requests on the behaviour of students with EBD.
Journal of Emotional and Behavioural Disorders, 11 239-248.
Szilagyi, A.D. Jr. (1986). Management and performance (3rd edition), London: Scott,
Foresman and Co.
The Foundation Coalition (2003). Understanding conflict and conflict management.
Retrieved July 12, 2010 from: www.foundationcoalition.org.
 26

University of Phoenix (2011). Classroom management and management of student conduct.

_____: APRIMA 1997-2011, Education Information for New and Future Teachers.
(Accessible at: http://adprima.com/managing.htm )
Wolfgang, C.H., & Glickman, C.D. (1986). Solving discipline problems. London: Allyn and
Bacon.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Classroom_management
1996-2011, Education World,
INC.http://www.educationworld.com/a_curr/shore/shore003.shtml
Cheating in the Classroom. http://doritsasson.suite101.com/cheating-in-the-classroom-
a21143
http://doritsasson.suite101.com/cheating-in-the-classroom-a21143
Students come to class late.www.cmu.edu/teaching/solveproblem/strat-latetoclass/index.html