TGT/PGT

PHYSICS
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Importent Facts, Formulas & Oneliners
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Useful for : TGT/PGT/LT-GRADE/NVS/KVS/DSSSB/GIC/GDC/Assistant Professor
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 INDEX
Fundamental Physical Constants ---------------------------------------------------------------- 4
Basic Mathematics used in Physics ---------------------------------------------------------- 5-10
General Physics (Mechanics) --------------------------------------------------- 11-125
• Units, Dimensions and Measurements ---------------------------------------------------------11
• Scalar and Vectors --------------------------------------------------------------------------------20
• Curl, Divergence, Gauss & Stokes' Theorem & their Application ---------------------27
• Motion in a Straight Line ------------------------------------------------------------------------32
• Motion in a Plane ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------39
• Newton's Law of Motion -------------------------------------------------------------------------50
• Friction ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------56
• Work, Energy and Power ------------------------------------------------------------------------60
• Rotational Motion ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------67
• Gravitation ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------76
• Elasticity, Elasticity Constants & their Interrelations ------------------------------------84
• Beam, Bending of Beams & Torsion of Cylindrical Bodies ------------------------------89
• Hydrostatics ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------91
• Hydrodynamics ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------95
• Surface Tension ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 100
• Special Theory of Relativity ------------------------------------------------------------------- 103
• Exam Oriented Objective Problems ----------------------------------------------------108-125
Heat & Thermodynamics --------------------------------------------------- 126-160
• Thermal Properties of Matter ----------------------------------------------------------------- 126
• Modes of Heat transfer (Conduction, Convection & Radiation)----------------------- 132
• Kinetic Theory of Gases ------------------------------------------------------------------------ 136
• Thermodynamics --------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 141
• Exam Oriented Objective Problems ----------------------------------------------------150-160
Ray optics ---------------------------------------------------------------------- 161-187
• Light ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ 161
• Reflection of Light ------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 161
• Mirror ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 162
• Refraction of Light------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 167
• Lens ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 170
• Prism and Scattering of Light ----------------------------------------------------------------- 175
• Human Eye ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 176
• Optical Instruments ----------------------------------------------------------------------------- 178
• Exam Oriented Objective Problems ----------------------------------------------------181-187
2

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Wave optics -------------------------------------------------------------------- 188-207
• Introduction --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 188
• Superposition of waves ------------------------------------------------------------------------- 190
• Coherence ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 191
• Interference of light ----------------------------------------------------------------------------- 192
• Diffraction of light ------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 196
• Polarisation & Polaroids------------------------------------------------------------------------ 197
• Exam Oriented Objective Problems ----------------------------------------------------201-207
Wave & Oscillations --------------------------------------------------------- 208-249
• Simple Harmonic Motions --------------------------------------------------------------------- 208
• Free, Forced, Damped Oscillations & Resonance ---------------------------------------- 214
• Travelling Waves --------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 223
• Standing Waves----------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 227
• Sound Waves and Doppler's Effect ---------------------------------------------------------- 232
• Exam Oriented Objective Problems ----------------------------------------------------241-249
Electricity & Magnetism ---------------------------------------------------- 250-335
• Electrostatics ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 250
• Capacitance & Capacitors --------------------------------------------------------------------- 261
• Current electricity & Heating effect of current ------------------------------------------- 268
• Magnetism and Matter-------------------------------------------------------------------------- 279
• Alternating Current ----------------------------------------------------------------------------- 285
• Magnetic effect of current & Magnetism --------------------------------------------------- 298
• Electromagnetic Induction --------------------------------------------------------------------- 311
• Electromagnetic waves -------------------------------------------------------------------------- 318
• Exam Oriented Objective Problems ----------------------------------------------------321-335
Modern Physics --------------------------------------------------------------- 336-367
• Atomic Physics ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ 336
• Nuclear Physics ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 342
• Electrons, Photons and X-Rays --------------------------------------------------------------- 348
• Exam Oriented Objective Problems ----------------------------------------------------358-367
Electronics --------------------------------------------------------------------- 368-390
• Introduction of Solids --------------------------------------------------------------------------- 368
• Energy Bands of solids -------------------------------------------------------------------------- 372
• Semiconductors ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 373
• PN Junction and Diodes ------------------------------------------------------------------------ 375
• Transistors ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 380
• Logic Gates & Truth Table ------------------------------------------------------------------- 382
• Exam Oriented Objective Problems --------------------------------------------------------- 390
Communications & Communications System -------------------------- 391-400
• Exam Oriented Objective Problems ----------------------------------------------------399-400
3

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 Fundamental Physical Constants
S.No. Physical Quantity Symbol Value Units
8
1. Speed of light c 3 × 10 m/s
–34
h 6.63 × 10 Js
2. Planck’s constant ℏ = h/2π 1.055 × 10–34 Js
hc 1242 eV-nm
3. Gravitation constant G 6.67 × 10–11 m3 kg–1 s–2
Acceleration due to gravity
4. g 9.81 ms-2
(at sea level)
5. Boltzmann constant k 1.38 × 10–23 J/K
Volume of Ideal gas (0°C
6. Temperature and 1 atm V 22.4 L mol-1
Pressure)
7. Universal gas constant R 8.314 J/(mol K)
Mechanical Equivalent of
8. J 4.184 J cal–1
Heat
9. Avogadro's number NA 6.023 × 1023 mol–1
10. Charge of electron e 1.602 × 10–19 C
11. Permeability of vacuum µ0 4π × 10–7 N/A2
12. Permeability of vacuum ∈0 8.85 × 10–12 F/m
1
13. Coulomb constant 4π∈0 9 × 109 N m2/C2
14. Faraday constant F 6485 C/mol
15. Mass of electron me 9.1 × 10–31 kg
16. Charge of electron e 1.6 × 10–19 C
17. Unified atomic mass unit 1u 1.661× 10–27 kg
18. Electron volt eV 1.6 × 10–19 J
19. Energy Equivalent of 1 u uc2 931.5 MeV
20. Mass of proton mp 1.6726 × 10–27 kg
–27
21. Mass of neutron mn 1.6749 × 10 kg
1.66 × 10–27 kg
22. Atomic mass unit u
931.49 MeV/c2
23. Stefan-Boltzmann constant σ 5.67 × 10–8 W/(m2 K4)
24. Rydberg constant R∞ 1.097× 107 m-1
25. Bohr magneton µB 9.27× 10–24 J/T
26. Bohr radius a0 0.529× 10–10 m
27. Standard atmosphere 1 atm 1.01325 ×105 Pa
28. Wien displacement constant b 2.9× 10–3 mK

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 Basic Mathematics Used in Physics
■ Quadratic Equation

−b ± b 2 − 4ac
• Roots of ax 2 + bx + c = 0 are x =
2a

b
• Sum of roots : x1 + x 2 = −
a

c
• Produce of roots x1x 2 =
a

■ Binomial theorem
n ( n -1) n ( n -1)( n - 2 )
• (1+ x ) = 1+ nx +
n
x2 + x 3 + .......
2! 3!

n ( n -1) n ( n -1)( n - 2 )
• (1- x ) = 1- nx +
n
x2 - x 3 + .......
2! 3!

If x << then (1+ x ) ≈ 1 + nx & (1 − x)n ≈ 1 − nx

n

■ Logarithm
m
• log mn = log m + log n • log = log m − log n
n

• log m n = n log m • ln m = log e m = 2.303log10 m

• log 2 = 0.3010 & ln2=0.693 • log 3 = 0.4771 & ln3=1.098

■ Componendo and dividendo theorem

p a p+q a +b
• If = then =
q b p−q a −b

■ Algebraic Expressions:
• (a + b)2 = a2 + b2 + 2ab • (a – b)2 = a2 + b2 – 2ab

• (a – b)3 = a3 – b3 – 3ab(a–b) • (a + b)3 = a3 + b3 + 3ab(a + b)

• a3 + b3 = (a + b) (a2 + b2 – ab) • a3 – b3 = (a – b)(a2 + b2 + ab)

• (a + b)(a – b) = a2 – b2

■ Arithmetic progression - AP
a, a + d, a + 2d, a + 3d, ........., a + (n-1)d here d = common difference

n
Sum of n terms = Sn =  2a + ( n -1) d 
2
5

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 n(n + 1)
Note: (i) 1 + 2 + 3 + 4 + 5..... + n =
2

n(n + 1) ( 2n + 1)
(ii) 12 + 22 + 32 + ..... + n 2 =
6

2
 n(n + 1) 
(iii) 13 + 23 + 33 + ..... + n 3 =  
 2 

■ Geometrical progression - GP
a, ar, ar2, ar3, ......... here, r = common ratio

Sum of n terms Sn =
(
a 1− rn ) Sum of ∞ terms S∞ =
a
1− r 1− r

■ Trigonometry

Perpendicular MP Base OM
tan θ = = cot θ = =

Y
Base OM Perpendicular MP

Hypotenuse OP Base OM
sec θ =
Base
=
OM
SP
cos θ = =
Hypotenuse OP

a b
sin θ = cos θ =
2 2
a +b a + b2
2
am
a 1
tan θ = cosec θ =
b sin θ

1 1
sec θ = cot θ =
cos θ tan θ
Te

sin (90º + θ) = cos θ sin (180º – θ) = sin θ sin (–θ) = – sin θ sin (90º – θ) = cos θ

cos (90º + θ) = – sin θ cos (180º – θ) = – cos θ cos (–θ) = cos θ cos (90º – θ) = sin θ

tan (90º + θ) = – cot θ tan (180º – θ) = – tan θ tan (–θ) = –tan θ tan (90º – θ) = cot θ

sin (180º + θ) = – sin θ sin (270º – θ) = – cos θ sin (270º + θ) = – cos θ sin (360º – θ) = – sin θ

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 cos (180º + θ) = – cos θ cos (270º – θ) = – sin θ cos (270º + θ) = sin θ cos (360º – θ) = cos θ

tan (180º + θ) = tan θ tan (270º – θ) = cot θ tan (270º + θ) = – cot θ tan (360º – θ) = – tan θ

θ → 0º 30º 45º 60 º 90º 120 º 135º 150 º 180 º 270 º 360 º

(0)  π   π   π   π   2 π   3π   5π  (π )  3π  (2 π )
               
6 4 3 2  3   4   6   2 
sin θ 0 1 1 3 1 3 1 1 0 −1 0
2 2 2 2 2 2
co s θ 1 3 1 1 0 1 1 3 −1 0 1
− − −
2 2 2 2 2 2
ta n θ 0 1 1 3 ∞ − 3 −1 1 0 ∞ 0
−
3 3

■ Trigonometric Identities-

• sin 2 θ + cos 2 θ = 1

Y
• 1 + tan 2 θ = sec 2 θ SP
• 1 + cot 2 θ = cosec 2 θ

tan A ± tan B
• tan ( A ± B ) =
1 ∓ tan A tan B
m
• sin2A = 2sinAcosA

• cos2A=cos2A–sin2A=1–2sin2A=2cos2A–1
a

2 tan A
• tan2A=
1 − tan 2 A
Te

■ Sine Rule

sin A sin B sin C

= =
a b c

■ Cosine Rule

b2 + c2 − a 2 c2 + a 2 − b 2 a 2 + b2 − c2
cosA = cos B = cos C =
2bc 2ca 2ab

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■ For small θ
sin θ ≈ θ, cos θ ≈ 1 tan θ ≈ θ,sin θ ≈ tan θ

■ Some Integration and Differentiation Formulae

Differentiation Integration
d
[Constant(k)] = 0 ∫ dx = x+ C
dx

d n
x = nx n −1 x n +1
∫x
n
dx = + C, n ≠ −1
dx n +1

d 1 1
dx
ln x =
x ∫ x dx = ln x + C
d
sin x = cos x ∫ cos x dx = sin x + C
dx

Y
d
cos x = − sin x ∫ sin x dx = − cos x + C
dx

d
tan x = sec 2 x
SP ∫ sec xdx = tanx+ C
2

dx

∫ cosec xdx = - cot x+ C

2
d
cot x = − cos ec2 x
dx
am

d
sec x = sec x tan x ∫ sec x tan x dx = sec x+ C
dx

d
cos ec x = − cos ec x cot x ∫ cosec x cot x dx = - cosec x+ C
Te

dx

∫e
x
d x x dx = e x + C
e =e
dx

d αx +β αx +β 1 αx +β
dx
e = αeαx +β ∫e dx =
α
e +C

d x 1 x
a = a x ln a ∫a
x
dx = a +C
dx ln a

d 1 dx x
dx
sin −1 x =
1− x2
∫ a −x
2
= sin -1   + C
a
2

d −1 dx
dx
cos −1 x =
1 − x2
∫ 1− x 2
= − cos −1 x + C

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 d 1 dx 1 x
dx
tan −1 x =
1+ x2 ∫a 2
= tan -1   + C
+ x2 a a

d −1 dx
dx
cot −1 x =
1+ x2 ∫ 1+ x 2
= − cot −1 x+ C

d 1 dx
dx
sec −1 x =
x x −12 ∫x x −12
= sec −1 x + C

d −1 dx
dx
co sec−1 x =
x x2 −1
∫x x −12
= −co sec −1 x + C

d
[k i f(x)] = k i f '(x) ∫ ln x dx = x ln x − x + C
dx

d
[f(x) ± g(x)] =f '(x) ± g '(x) ∫ tan x dx = − ln cos x + C
dx

Y
d
[f (x)g(x)] = f (x)g '(x) + g(x)f '(x) ∫ cot x dx = ln sin x + C
dx

d
f ( g ( x ) ) = f '(g(x)) i g '(x)
SP ∫ sec x dx = ln sec x + tan x + C
dx

d  f (x)  g(x)f '(x) − f (x)g '(x) ∫ cosec x dx = − ln cosec x + cot x + C

m
 =
dx  g(x)  [g(x)]2
a

■ Maxima & Minima of a function y = f(x)

dy d2 y
• For maximum value = 0 & 2 = − ve
Te

dx dx

dy d2 y
• For minimum value = 0 & 2 = + ve
dx dx

■ Average of a varying quantity

x2 x2
∫x1 y dx ∫x1 y dx
• If y = f ( x ) than < y >= y = =
x2 x 2 − x1
∫x1 dx
■ Formulae for determination of area
• Area of a square = (side)2

• Area of rectangle = length × breadth

1
• Area of a triangle = × base × height
2
9

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 1
• Area of a trapezoid = × ( distance between parallel sides ) × ( sum of parallel sides )
2

• Area enclosed by a circle = πr2 (r = radius)

• Surface area of a sphere = 4πr2 (r = radius)

• Area of a parallelogram = base × height

• Area of curved surface of cylinder = 2πrℓ ( r = radius and ℓ = length )

• Area of whole surface of cylinder = 2πr ( r + ℓ ) ( ℓ = length )

• Area of ellipse = πab (a & b are semi major and semi minor axis respectively)

• Surface area of a cube = 6 (side)2

( )
• Total surface area of a cone = πr 2 + πℓ where = πr r 2 + h 2 = lateral area

■ Formulae for determination of volume:

Y
SP
• Volume of a rectangular slab = length × breadth × height = abt
am

• Volume of a cube = (side)3

4 3
• Volume of a sphere = πr (r = radius)
3
Te

• Volume of a cylinder = = πr 2 ℓ (r = radius and ℓ is length)

1
• Volume of a cone = πr 3 h (r = radius and h is height)
3

■ KEY POINTS:
π
• To convert an angle from degree to radian, we have to multiply if by and to convert an angle
180º
π
from radian to degree, we have to multiple it by .
180º

dy dy
• By help of differentiation, if y is given, we can find and by help of integration, if is
dx dx
given, we can find y.

• The maximum and minimum values of function [A cosθ + B sinθ] are A 2 + B2 and A 2 − B2
respectively.

10

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01.
General Physics (Mechanics)
(1) Unit, Dimensions and Measurement
Physical Quantity-
• A quantity which can be measured directly or indirectly or can be explained and expressed in the form of laws of
physics are called physical quantity.
• A physical quantity is completely represented by its magnitude and unit.
• The magnitude of physical quantity and unit are inversely proportional to each other. Larger the unit smaller will
be the magnitude.
Types of physical Quantity -
• Ratio (Numerical value only)- When a physical quantity is a ratio of two similar quantities. It has no unit. For
example-
Density of Object
Relative density =
Density of Water
• Scalar- A physical quantity which has magnitude only and do not have any direction.
Example- Work, Energy, Length, Time.

Y
• Vector- A physical quantity which has magnitude and direction both.
Example- Displacement, Velocity, Acceleration etc.
• Units- Measurement of any physical quantity involves comparison with a certain basic, arbitrarily chosen,
SP
internationally accepted reference standard called unit.
System of units-
• A system of unit is a complete set of unit. It is used to measure all kinds of fundamental and derived quantities.
Some system of units are as follows-
Physical quantity CGS MKS FPS
m
Length cm meter foot
Mass gram kg pound
Time second second second
a

Fundamental and Derived Unit-

• Fundamental unit- The units of those physical quantities which can neither be derived from one another, nor
Te

they can be further resolved into more simpler units. Example:- Units of Mass, Length etc.
• Derived Unit- Those units of physical quantities which are derived from units of fundamental quantities are
Called Derived units. Example:- Units of Velocity, Acceleration, Force, Work etc.
S.I. Unit-
• The S.I. unit is the international system of units. This system contains seven fundamental units and two
supplementary fundamental units.
Fundamental quantities in S.I. System and their units-
Sr. No. Physical Quantity Name of unit Symbol of unit
1. Mass Kilogram kg
2. Length Meter m
3. Time Second s
4. Temperature Kelvin K
5. Luminous intensity Candela Cd
6. Electric Current Ampere A
7. Amount of Substance Mole Mol
Supplementary S.I Unit- (Dimensionless Unit)
Sr. No. Physical Quantity Name of unit Symbol of unit
1. Plane angle Radian rad
2. Solid angle Steradian Sr

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11
 Dimension of Physical Quantity-
• The powers to which fundamental quantities must be in order to express the given physical quantity is called its
dimension.
• It is used to express derived quantity in terms of fundamental quantities.
For example- Force = Mass× Acceleration
Mass × Velocity
=
Time
= Mass ×Length × Time–2
= [MLT–2]
S.I. Prefixes-
• The magnitudes of physical quantities vary over a wide range. The CGPM recommended standard prefixes for
magnitude too large or too small to be expressed more compactly for certain powers of 10.
Power of 10 Prefix Symbol Power of 10 Prefix Symbol
18 –1
10 exa E 10 deci d
1015 peta P 10–2 centi c
12 –3
10 tera T 10 mili m
109 giga G 10–6 mirco µ
6 –9
10 mega M 10 nano n
103 kilo K 10–12 pico p

Y
2 –15
10 hecto h 10 femto f
101 deca da 10–18 atto a
Units of Important Physical Quantities-
Physical Quantity
SPUnit Physical Quantity Unit
–2
Angular Acceleration Rad-s Frequency Hertz
Moment of inertia Kg-m2 Resistance Ohm
Self inductance Henry Surface tension Newton/m
am
Magnetic Flux Weber Universal Gas Constant Joule K–1 Mol–1
Pole Strength A-m Dipole-moment Coulomb-meter
Dynamic Viscosity Pascal sec or kg/ms Stefan Constant Watt m–2 K–4
Kinematic Viscosity m2/s Permittivity of free space (ε0) Coulomb2/N-m2
Reactance Ohm Permeability of free space (µ0) Weber/A-m
Te

Specific heat J/KgºC Planck's constant Joule-sec

Strength of magnetic field Tesla Entropy J/K
Astronomical distance Parsec Angular Speed Rad/sec
Dimensions of important Physical Quantities -
Physical Quantity Dimensions Physical Quantity Dimensions
1 1 –1
Momentum MLT Capacitance M–1L–2T4 A2
1 2 –2
Calorie MLT Modulus of rigidity M1L–1T–2
Latent heat capacity M0L2T–2 Magnetic permeability M1L1T–2 A–2
1 2 –2 –2
Self inductance MLT A Solar constant M1L0T–3
Coefficient of thermal conductivity M1L1T–3 θ–1 Magnetic flux M1L2T–2 A–1
Power M1L2T–3 Current density M0L–2T0 A1
Impulse M1L1T–1 Young's Modulus M1L–1T–2
–1 0 1 2
Hole mobility of a semiconductor M LA T Magnetic field intensity MT–2 A–1
Bulk modulus of elasticity M1L–1T–2 Magnetic induction M1T–2 A–1
0 1 0
Light year MLT Permittivity M–1L–3T4 A2
Thermal resistance M–1L–2T3 θ Electric field M1L1T–3 A–1
1 –1 –1
Coefficient of Viscosity ML T Resistance ML2T–3 A–2

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12
Physical quantities which are dimensionless-
Sr. No. Physical Quantity Dimensional Formula
1. Specific gravity
2. Strain
3. Angle (θ)
4. Avogadro's number (N)
5. Reynold's number (NR)
6. Refractive Index (µ)
[M0L0T0]
7. Mechanical equivalent of heat (J)
8. Dielectric Constant (K) or relative permittivity
9. Relative density
10. Trigonometric-ratios
11. Distance gradient
12. Relative permeability
Physical quantities which have same dimensional formula -
S.No. Physical Quantity Dimensional Formula
1. Speed or velocity
2. Velocity of light in Vacuum (c)
M0L1T–1
3. Distance travelled in nth second (Snth)

Y
4. Relative Velocity
5. Frequency (v)
6. Angular frequency
7.
8.
Angular velocity (ω)
Velocity Gradient
SP M0L0T–1

9. Work
10. Moment of force
m
11. Torque
12. Internal energy
M1L2T–2
13. Potential energy
14. Kinetic energy
a

15. Heat energy

16. Light energy
17. Coefficient of elasticity
Te

18. Pressure
19. Stress
20. Young's Modulus M1L–1T–2
21. Bulk Modulus
22. Modulus of rigidity
23. Energy density
24. Force
25. Weight
26 Thrust M1L1T–2
27. Energy gradient
28. Tension
29. Acceleration
30. Acceleration due to gravity [M0L1T–2]
31. Gravitational field intensity
32. Plank's Constant (h)
[M1L2T–1]
33. a Angular momentum
34. Mass [M1L0T0]
35. Momentum [M1L1T–1]

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13
 36. Impulse
37. Length
38. Radius of gyration (K) [M0L1T0]
39. Wavelength (λ)
40. Force constant
41. Surface tension M1L0T–2
42. Surface energy
43. Area M0L2T0
44. Volume M0L3T0
45. Density M1L–3T0
46. Universal gravitational constant (G) M–1L3T–2
47. Moment of Inertia M1L2T0
48. Angular acceleration M0L0T–2
49. Rate of flow M0L3T–1
50. Mass per unit length M1L–1T0
51. Rydberg constant (R) M0L–1T0
52. Coefficient of viscosity (η) M1L–1T–1
53. kinematic viscosity M0L2T–1

Y
54. Surface potential M0L2T–2
55. Specific Volume M–1L3T0
56 Power M1L2T–3
SP
Dimensional Analysis and Its Applications:-
• Dimensional analysis helps up in deducing certain relations among different physical quantities checking the
derivation accuracy and dimensional consistency or homogeneity of various mathematical expressions.
• Checking dimensional consistency of equations: According to principle of homogeneity, dimensions of each
term on both side of an equation must be same.
am
Example -
(i) Work done = force × displacement ;
[ML2T–2] = [MLT–2] × [M0LT0]
[ML2T–2] = [ML2T–2]
1
(ii) S= ut + at 2 ; Dimensionally,
2
Te

[S] = [ut] = [at2]

[M0LT0] = [M0LT–1] [M0L0T] = [M0LT–2] [M0L0T2]
[M0LT0] = [M0LT0] = [M0LT0]
• To convert a physical quantity from one to another system of units: Q1n1 = Q2n2; Where Q1 = unit in 1st
system, Q2 = units in 2nd system n1 and n2 be constant value in 1st and 2nd system.
Q1n1 Q 
∴ n2 = ⇒ n 2 = n1  1 
Q2  Q2 
Example -
Conversion of SI unit of force from Newton (MKS) into dyne (CGS),
Let n2 = x, Q2 = dyne (g cm s–2), n1 =1, Q1 = N(kg m/s–2)
Q 
Applying n2 =  1  n1
 Q2 
a b c 1 1 −2
M  L  T   kg   m  s 
∴ x = 1  1   1   1  or x = 1×     s 
 M 2   L 2   T2   g   cm   
1000 g  100 cm   1 s 
or x = 1 ×  × ×  ⇒ x = 105
 1 g   cm   s 
∴ 1 N = 105 dynes.

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14
• Deducing relation among the physical quantities: If we know the dependency of a physical quantity on the
other quantities then using dimensional analysis relation between them can be derived.
Example- Time period of simple pendulum depends on mass of bob (m), length (l) of string and acceleration due to
gravity (g).
∴ T ∝ ma lb gc ; T = k ma lb gc
Here k is a dimensionless constant.
[M0L0T] = [ML0T0]a [M0LT0]b [M0LT–2]c
[M0L0T] = [MaLb+cT–2c]
Comparing the powers, we get a = 0, b + c = 0 and –2c = 1
–1 1
∴ c= and b =
2 2
Substituting values of a, b and c in equation (i), T k m0 l1/2 g-1/2
l
∴ T=k (k = a constant cannot be determined using dimensions)
g
Limitations of dimensional analysis:
• Dimensional method can be used only if the dependency is of multiplication type. The formulae containing
exponential, trigonometric and logarithmic function can't be derived using this method. Formulae containing
1 2
more than one term which are added or subtracted like S= ut + at also can't be derived.
2
• We cannot determine the value of constants in a relation.

Y
• It gives no information whether a physical quantity is a scalar or a vector.
• In mechanics, the physical quantities depends on more than three quantities cannot be derived by dimensional

correctness of equation dimensionally.

SP
method as there will be less number (= 3) of equations than the unknowns (> 3). However still we can check the

• Physical quantities having identical dimensions may be of entirely different in nature.

Application of Dimensional Analysis -

1. To convert physical quantity from one system of units to another.
m
2. To check correctness of a given physical relation.
3. To derive a relationship between different physical quantities.
Accuracy and Precision -
a

• Accuracy- Accuracy is the term used to indicate the closeness of a measured value to its accurate value.
1
Accuracy ∝
Fractional or Relative error
Te

• Precision - Precision is the closeness of a measurement of two or more measurement to each other.
limit of precision = ± ½(least count of instrument)
1
Precision ∝
least count
Precision ∝ Fractional error/Relative error
Example-
• Suppose, A cadate of soldier want to shoot bull's eye and they have six bullets.

Conditions Conclusions

(i) Maximum bullets are far from target. Low Accuracy and Low Precision
(ii) The separation between bullets are also large.

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15
 (i) Bullets are for from target.
(ii) Bullets are very close to each other. Low Accuracy and High precision

High Accuracy and Low Precision

(i) Bullets are close to target.
(ii) Separation between bullets are large.

(i) Bullets are close to target.

(ii) Separation between bullets are low. High Accuracy and High Precision

Thus,

Y
x
Precise but
inaccurate data
SP
Significant figure -
• The figure which express the required degree of accuracy, is called significant figure.
• In significant figure digits carry a meaningful representation.
• Accuracy ∝ No. of Significant figure.
am
Rules for counting the no. of Significant figure in a measured quantity-
(i) All non-zero digits are significant.
Ex- 13.75 S.f = 4
(ii) All zeros between two non- zero digits are significant.
Ex- 100.05 km S.f = 5
(iii) All zeros to the rights of a non-zero digits but to the left of an understood decimal point are not significant.
Te

Ex- 86400 S.f = 3

But such zero are significant if they come from a measurement 86400 sec S.f = 5
(iv) All zero to the rights of a non-zero digits but to the left of the decimal point are significant.
Ex- 648700 S.f = 6
(v) All zeros to the rights of a decimal point are significant.
Ex- S.f
161 cm 3
161.0 cm 4
161.00 cm 5
(vi) All zeros to the right of a decimal point but to the left of a non-zero digit are not significant.
0.161 cm → S.f = 3
0.0161 cm → S.f = 3
(vii) The no. of significant figure does not depend on the system of units.
16.4 cm → 3
0.164 m → 3
0.000164 km → 3
(viii) The power of 10 are not counted as significant digit.
1.4×10–7 → 2
1.65×1014 → 3

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Rounding off a digit-
(i) If the no. lying to the right of cut off digit is less than 5, then the cut off digit is retained as such. However, if
it is more than 5, then the cut off digit is increased by 1.
x = 6.24 rounding in 2 significant x = 6.2
x = 5.328 rounding in 3 significant x = 5.33
(ii) If the digit to be dropped is 5 followed by digits other than zero then the preceding digit is increased by 1.
x = 14.252 x = 14.3 (upto 3)
(iii) If the digit to be dropped is 5 or 5 followed by zeros, then the preceding digit is unchanged if it is even.
x = 6.250 or x = 6.25
x = 6.2 (upto 2)
(iv) If the digit to be dropped is 5 or 5 followed by zeros then the preceding digits is raised by one if it is odd.
x = 6.350 or x = 6.35
x = 6.4 (rounding off two significant)
Error
• The difference between the measured value and the true value of a quantity is known as the error in the
measurement.
Error

Y
• When we know actual error in observation.
• Systematic error
SP• When we do not know the actual error in observation.
• Random error
• Upto 10%
Combination of Error-
(i) Absolute error - The difference between the true value and the measured value of a quantity is called an
m
absolute error.
x + x 2 + x 3 + ...... + x n
x= 1 = measured/mean value
n
a

Absolute error -
∆x1 = x – x1
∆x 2 = x – x 2
Te

∆x 3 = x – x 3
. .
. .
. .
∆x n = x – x n
Absolute error may be + ve or – ve.
(ii) Mean absolute error-
| ∆x1 | + | ∆x 2 | +.........+ | ∆x n |
∆x mean =
n
Final result can be written as–
x = x ± ∆x mean
(iii) Relative or Fractional error-
∆x mean ∆x mean
= =
xm x
∆x mean
%= × 100
x

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17
 Operation Formula (Z) Absolute error (∆Z)  ∆Z  ∆Z
Relative error   Percentage error × 100
 Z  Z
Sum A+B ∆A + ∆B ∆A + ∆B ∆A + ∆B
× 100
A+B A+B
Difference A–B ∆A + ∆B ∆A + ∆B ∆A + ∆B
× 100
A–B A–B
Multiplication A×B A∆B + B∆A ∆A ∆B  ∆A ∆B 
+  +  × 100
A B  A B 
Division A B∆A + A∆B ∆A ∆B  ∆A ∆B 
B2
+  +  × 100
B A B  A B 
Power An nAn–1∆A ∆A ∆A
n n ×100
A A
Root A
1
n 1 1 n –1 1 ∆A 1 ∆A
A ∆A ×100
n n A n A
Propagation of Error-
Case Propagation of Error
Z = ax ± b δz = a⋅δx
Z=x±y δz = [(δx)2 + (δy)2]½

Y
1
δz  δx   δy  
2 2 2

Z = cxy =   +   
SP
z  x   y  
1
δz  δx   δy  
2 2 2
x
Z=c =   +   
y z  x   y  
δz δx
Z = cxa =a
am
z x
1
δz  δx   δy  
2 2 2
a b
Z = cx y =  a  +  b  
z  x   y  
δz
Z = sin x = δx cot x
z
Te

δz
Z = cos x = δx tan x
z
δz δx
Z = tan x =
z sin x cos x
Measurement -
Pitch -
• The smallest value of length or any other units which can be read directly from a main scale accurately is called
pitch.
1 Unit
Pitch =
No. of division in unit
Least Count-
• The minimum measurement which can be taken accurately by the measuring instrument.
Value Measured
L.C =
No. of Division in that Measurement
Pitch
or L.C = (for vernier)
No. of V.S.D
There are basically two types of precision instrument used for measurement:-
(i) Vernier Calipers
(ii) Screw Gauge

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18
Vernier Calipers -

• A vernier scale is an auxiliary scale that slides along the main scale.
• The vernier scale is that in which a certain number, no. of division n on the vernier scale is equal in length to a
different number (usually one less) of main-scale divisions.
nV.S.D = (n – 1) M.S.D
Where n = number of divisions on the vernier scale
V.S.D = The length of one division on the vernier scale
and M.S.D = Length of the smallest main-scale division
1
• Least count = M.S.D. – V.S.D = M.S.D
n
• In the ordinary Vernier calipers, 1 M.S.D is 1 mm and 10 VSD coincide with 9 MSD

Y
9
1 VSD = MSD = 0.9 mm
10
Least Count of Vernier 1 M.S.D – 1 V.S.D
= 1 mm –0.9 mm
= 0.1 mm
SP
Types of zero error–
No zero Error Positive Zero Error Negative Zero Error
Correction None Negative Positive
m
Correction formula None – Coinciding division × + Coinciding division ×
L.C. of V.S. L.C. of V. S.
a
Te

Corrected reading Observed reading + correction

Actual reading Main scale reading + V.S. reading ± zero correction
Screw Gauge-

• A Screw Gauge allows a measurement of the size of a body. It is one of the most accurate mechanical devices
in common use.
• It consists of a main scale and a thimble
Pitch
• Least Count =
No. of Divisions on Circular Scale
• L.C of Screw Gauge = 0.001 mm

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19
Method of Measurement
Step- I : Find the whole number of mm in the barrel
Step - II: Find the reading of barrel and multiply by 0.01
Step III: Add the value in Step- I and Step -II
Types of zero Error :–
No zero Error Positive zero error Negative zero error
correction None Negative Positive
Correction Formula None +zero error ×L.C -zero error ×L.C

Actual reading Observed reading -excess reading ×zero error

Least Count of various measuring Instruments :-
Instrument Its least Count
mm Scale 1 mm
Vernier Calipers 0.1 mm
Screw Gauge 0.001 mm
Key points -

Y
• Trigonometric functions sin θ, cos θ, tan θ etc and their arrangements θ are dimensionless.
 dn y   y 
• Dimension of differential coefficients  n  =  n  .
SP
 dx   x 
• Dimension of integrals [∫ ydx] = [yx] we can not add or subtract two physical quantities of different dimensions.
• Independent quantity may be taken as fundamental quantities in a new system of units.
• Measure of a physical quantity = Numerical value of the physical quantity × Size of the unit
i.e Q = n × u
Thus, the numerical value (n) is inversely proportional to the size (u) of the unit.
am
1
n ∝ or nu = constant.
u
(2) Scalar and Vectors
Scalars:- Those physical quantity which require only magnitude but no direction for their complete
representation are called Scalars. Ex. Distance, Speed, Work, Mass, Energy, Power, Temperature etc.
Te

Vectors:- A physical quantity which requires magnitude and direction both, when it is expressed. Ex. Force,
Displacements, Momentum, Acceleration, Velocity, Impulse, Pressure, Gravity etc.
Types of Vectors:-
(i) Equal vectors:-
• Two vectors of equal magnitude and having same direction are called equal vector. fig (i)
(ii) Negative Vectors:-
• Two vectors of equal magnitude but having opposite direction are called negative vectors. Fig(ii)

(iii) Zero Vector or null Vector:-

• A vector whose magnitude is zero known as a zero or null vector. Its direction is not defined. It is denoted
by 0 . Velocity of stationary object and resultant of two equal and opposite vectors are the example of null
vector.
(iv) Unit vector:-
• A vector having unit magnitude is called a unit vector. A unit vector in the direction of vector A is given by
A
 =
A
• A unit vector is unit less and dimensionless vector and represents direction only.

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(v) Orthogonal Unit Vector:-
• The unit vectors along the direction of orthogonal axis i.e. x-axis, y-axis and z-axis are called orthogonal
unit vectors. They are represented by ˆi, ˆj and kˆ

(vi) Co-initial vector :-

• Vectors having a common initial points are called co-initial vectors.

(vii) Colinear Vector :-

• Vector having equal or unequal magnitudes but acting along the same or parallel lines are called colinear
vectors.

Y (b)

(viii) Co-planar vector:-

SP
• Vectors acting in the same plane are called coplanar vectors.
(ix) Localised Vectors-
• A vector whose initial point is fixed is called localised vectors.
(x) Non-Localized or free vector-
m
• A vector whose initial point is not fixed is called a non-localized or free vectors.
(xi) Position Vectors-
• A vector which gives position of an object with reference to the origin of a co-ordinate system is called
position vector. It is represented by symbol r.
a
Te

r = xiˆ + yjˆ
If r makes an angle θ with x-axis, then
x= rcos θ and y = rsin θ
( )
r = r cos θɵi + sin θˆj

(xii) Displacement Vector-

• The vector which tells how much and in which direction an object has changed its position in a given interval of
time is called a displacement vector.

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21
 r1 & r2 are position vector.
The displacement vector for AB is-
∆r = r 2 – r 1
Tensors-
A quantity that has different values in different direction is called Tensor.
Tensors can be classified according to following order-
• Zero-Order Tensors (Scalars): Among some of the quantities that have magnitude but not direction are
zero-order tensors e.g.: mass density, temperature, and pressure.
• First-Order Tensors (Vectors): Quantities that have both magnitude and direction e.g.: velocity, force.
The first-order tensor is symbolized with a boldface letter and by and arrow at the top part of the vector,
i.e.: 0 .
• Second-Order Tensors: Quantities that have magnitude and two directions, e.g. stress and strain. The
second-order and higher-order tensors are symbolized with a boldface letter.
Vector addition-
(i) Triangle law of vector addition -
When two vectors are represented as two sides of the triangle with the order of magnitude and direction then the
third side of the triangle represents the magnitude and direction of the resultant vector.

Y
SP
• R =A+B

(ii) Parallelogram law of vector addition-

If two vectors are represented by two adjacent sides of a parallelogram which are directed away from their
am
common point then their sum (i.e. resultant vector) is given by the diagonal of the parallelogram passing away
through that common point.
Te

AB + AD = AC = R or A + B = R
(a) Resultant of vectors A and B is given by -
R = A 2 + B2 + 2ABcos θ
(b) If the resultant vector R subtend an angle β with vector B and α with vector A, then
β sin θ A sin θ
tan α = & tan β =
A + Bcos θ B + A cos θ

θ θ
Case1- If A=B then R= 2Acos &α=
2 2
Case2- If θ = 0° then
Rmax = A+B
Case3- If θ = 180° then
Rmin = A-B
(iii) Law of polygon (Addition of more than two vectors)-
If some vectors are represented by sides of a polygon in same order, then their resultant vector is
represented by the closing side of polygon in the opposite order.

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 R = A + B+C+ D
OT = OP + PQ + QS + ST
Properties of vector Addition-
1. A+B= B+A
2. ( )
A+ B +C = A+ B+C ( ) (associative property)
3. A+0= A (additive identity)
4. A + (−A) = O (additive inverse)
5. A+B ≤ A + B
6. ( )
m A + B = mA + mB (distributive property)
Vector subtraction-
Subtraction of vector B from a vector A is defined as the addition of vector B (negative of vector B) to
vector A.

Y
( )
Thus, A − B = A + −B SP
Multiplication of a vector-
1. By a real no.-
When a vector A is multiplied by a + ve real no. λ gives a vector whose magnitude is changed by the factor
λ but the direction is the same as that of A
λA = λ A
Example (i) if λ > 0
m
= direction is same but magnitude is different.
a

Example (ii) If λ< 0 then

Te

= Magnitude and direction both are different.

2. By a scalar-
Let A be a vector and λ be a scalar then the product of it is called a multiplication of a vector by the scalar
λ i.e.
λa = λ a
When a vector is multiplied by a scalar quantity then the magnitude of the vector changes in accordance
with the magnitude of the scalar but the direction of the vector remains unchanged.
Rotation of a vector -
(i) If a vector is rotated through an angle θ, which is not an integral multiple of 2π the vector changes.
(ii) If the frame of reference is rotated or translated the given vector does not change, the components of a vector
may change.
The rectangular unit vector-
It is an important set of unit vectors and are those vectors having the direction of the positive x,y and z axis
of a three dimensional co-ordinate system and denoted respectively by i,j and k

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23
Rectangular component-
When a vector is resolved along two mutually perpendicular directions the components so obtained are
called rectangular components of a given vector.
Rectangular components of a vector in a plane-
A = Ax + Ay
A = A x ˆi + A y ˆj
If A makes an angle θ with x-axis then-
Ax = A cos θ Ay = A sin θ

Magnitude of vector -
Ay A 
A= A 2x + A 2y tan θ = ⇒ θ = tan –1  y 
Ax  Ax 
General vector in x-y plane-

Y
r = xiˆ + yjˆ
SP
If r makes an angle θ with x-axis, then
x= rcos θ and y = rsin θ
( )
r = r cos θɵi + sin θˆj
am
Example-
1. construct a vector of magnitude 6 units making an angle of 60° with x-axis-
solution- ( )
r = 6 cos 60º ˆi + sin 60º ˆj = 3iˆ + 3 3jˆ
2. construct an unit vector making an angle of 135° with x-axis-
solution- (
r = 1 cos135°ˆi + sin135°ˆj =
1 ɵ ˆ
)
−i + j ( )
Te

2
Direction cosine of vector-

Ax Ax
• Angle made with x-axis cos α = = =ℓ
A A x + A 2y + A z2
2

Ay Ay
• Angle made with y-axis cos β = = =m
A A + A 2y + A z2
2
x

Az Az
• Angle made with z-axis cos γ = = =n
A A x + A 2y + A 2z
2

Where, ℓ, m & n are called direction cosines.

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24
 A 2x + A 2y + A z2
• ℓ2 + m2 + n2 = cos2α + cos2β + cos2 γ = =1.
A 2x + A 2y + A z2
• sin2α + sin2β + sin2γ θ = 2
The Dot or Scalar product -
The dot or scalar product of two vector is defined as the product of the magnitudes of A and B and the
cosine of the angle θ between them.
A ⋅ B =| A || B | cos θ (0 ≤ θ ≤ π)
Note:-
• A⋅B is a scalar not a vector.
• A⋅B is +ve if θ is acute.
• A⋅B is –ve if θ is obtuse.
• A⋅B is zero if θ is right angle.

Properties of Dot product-

1. A ⋅ B = B. A (Commutative law)
2. ( )
A. B + C = A.B + A.C (Distributive law)

3. m ( A ⋅ B ) = ( mA ) B = A. ( mB ) = ( A.B ) m , where m is scalar

4. ˆi.iˆ = ˆj.jˆ = k.k
ˆ ˆ =1

Y
5. ˆi.jˆ = ˆj.kˆ = k.i
ˆˆ=0 SP
6. If A = A1ɵi + A 2 ɵj + A3 kɵ and B = B1ˆi + B2ˆj + B3kˆ , then
A.B = A1B1 + A 2 B2 + A3B3
A.A = A 2 = A12 + A 22 + A32
B ⋅ B = B2 = B12 + B22 + B32
m
A⋅B
7. cos θ =
| A || B |
Example of dot product-
• Work W = F.d = Fd cos θ where, F → force, d → displacement
a

• Power P = F.v = F.v cos θ Where, F → force, v → velocity

• Electric Flux φE = E.A = E A cos θ Where, E → Electric field A → Area
Te

• Magnetic flux φB = B.A = B A cos θ Where, B → magnetic field A → area

• Potential energy of dipole in uniform field U = −p.E Where, p → dipole moment, E → electric
field.
Cross Product (or vector product)-
The magnitude of cross or vector product of A and B i.e. A×B is defined as the product of the magnitude
of A and B and the sine of the angle θ between then,
A × B = A B sin θnˆ
where, n̂ is a vector perpendicular to A & B or their plane and its direction given by right hand thumb
rule.
Right hand thumb rule-
Curl the fingers of your right hand from A to B through the smaller angle between them. Then, the
direction of thumb represents A×B or n̂ .

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25
Properties of cross product-
1. A × B = −B × A (Anti Commutative law)
2. ( )
A × B× C = A × B + A × C (Distributive law)
3. ( ) ( ) (
m A × B = mA × B = A × B m , where m is scalar )
4. ɵi × ɵi = ɵj × ɵj = kɵ × k;
ɵ =0

5. ɵi × ɵj = k,
ˆ ˆj × kˆ = ˆi,kˆ × ˆi = ˆj
6. If A = A x ɵi + A y ɵj + A z kɵ and B = B x ˆi + B y ˆj + Bz kˆ , then

i j k
A × B = Ax Ay Az
Bx By Bz
7. The magnitude of A × B is the same as the area of a parallelogram with sides A and B.
8. If A × B = 0 Then A and B are parallel and θ = 0°
Examples of Cross product-
• Torque τ = r × F Where, r → position vector, F → force
• Angular momentum J = r × p Where, r → position vector, p → linear momentum
• Linear velocity V = ω× r Where, r → position vector, ω → angular velocity

Y
• Torque on dipole placed in electric field τ = p × E Where, p → dipole moment, E → Electric field
Triple product-
SP
Scalar Triple Product - It is the dot product of a vector with the cross product of two other vectors. If a, b, c are
three vectors, then, their scalar product is a. b × c . ( )
am
Symbolically it is also written as [a b c] = a. ( b × c )
Properties of Scalar Triple Product-
• The scalar triple product of three vectors is zero if any two of them are parallel, i.e., [a a b] = 0
• [(a + b) c d] = [a c d] + [b c d]
LHS = [(a + b) c d]
= (a + b) ⋅ (c × d)
Te

= a⋅ (c × d) + b⋅ (c × d)
= [a c d] + [b c d]
= RHS
• [ λa b c] = λ [a b c], where λ is a real number.
• The scalar triple product of three non-zero vectors is zero if and only if they are coplanar,
• Since the scalar product is commutative, therefore we have
• a ⋅ (b × c) = (b × c) ⋅ a
• b⋅ (c × a) = (c ×a) ⋅ b
• c⋅ (a × b) = (a × b) ⋅ c
Vector Triple Product - The vector triple product is the cross product of a vector with the cross-product of the
other two vectors.
Mathematically, it can be represented by a × b × c ( )
Properties of Vector Triple Product–
• Vector triple product is a vector quantity.

• Unit vector coplanar with a and b and perpendicular to c is ±

(a × b)× c
(a × b)× c
( ) (
• a × b×c ≠ a × b ×c )
2
•  a × b b× c c × a =  a b c

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26
 Reciprocal vectors-
The set of vectors a*, b*, c* are the reciprocal vectors of a, b, c respectively.
Properties of reciprocal vectors-
(i) a *a = 1 (ii) a * b = 0 (iii) a * c = 0
b*b =1 b *a = 0 b*c = 0
c *c = 1 c *a = 0 c*b = 0
b× c
Where, a* = 2 π
abc 
 
c×a
b* = 2π
abc 
 
a×b
c* = 2π
a b c 
 
Linearly Independent and dependent vector- Let A,B and C are set of vectors,
• If  ABC  = 0 then these set of vectors are linearly dependent and coplanar

• If  ABC  ≠ 0 then these set of vectors are linearly independent and non-coplanar

Y
• When a particle moved from (x1, y1, z1) to (x2, y2, z2) then its displacement vector-
SP
( ) (
r = r2 − r1 = x 2 ˆi + y 2ˆj + z 2 kˆ − x1ˆi + y1ˆj + z1kˆ )
= ( x 2 − x1 ) ˆi + ( y 2 − y1 ) ˆj + ( z 2 − z1 ) kɵ
Magnitude -
( x 2 − x1 )2 + ( y2 − y1 )2 + ( z 2 − z1 )2
m
r= r =

Key points-
• A Scalar is a zero rank tensor
a

• A vector is a first rank tensor.

• Electric current is not a vector as it does not obey the law of vector addition.
• A unit vector has no unit.
Te

• A scalar or a vector can never be divided by a vector

• To a vector only a vector of same type can be added and resultant is a vector of same type.

(3) Curl Divergence, Gauss, Stokes Theorem and their application

■ The Vector differential Operator Del-
∂ ˆ ∂ ˆ ∂ ˆ ˆ ∂ ˆ ∂ ˆ ∂
∇≡ i+ j+ k ≡ i + j + k
∂x ∂y ∂z ∂x ∂y ∂z
The operator ∇ is also known as nabla.
■ The Gradient-
• Let (x, y, z) be defined as differential at each point in a certain region of space (i.e φ defines a differential scalar
field). Then the ∇φ can be written as-
 ∂ ∂ ∂   ∂φ ∂φ ∂φ 
∇φ =  ˆi + ˆj + kˆ  φ =  ˆi + ˆj + kˆ 
 ∂x ∂y ∂ z   ∂x ∂y ∂z 
• ∇φ defines a vector field.
Note :- The component of ∇φ in the direction of a unit vector a is given by ∇φ.a and is called the directional
derivative of φ in the direction a. Physically, it is the rate of change of φ (x, y, z) in the direction a.

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27
■ The Divergence –
• Let V(x, y, z) = V1ˆi + V2ˆj + V3 kˆ can be defined as differential at each point (x, y, z) in a certain region of space
(i.e V defines a differential vector field). Then the divergence of V i.e ∇.V can be written as -
 ∂ ∂ ∂ 
 ∂x ∂x ∂x 
(
∇ ⋅ V =  ˆi + ˆj + kˆ  ⋅ V1ˆi + V2 ˆj + V3 kˆ )
 ∂V ∂V ∂V 
∇⋅V =  1 + 2 + 3 
 ∂x ∂y ∂z 
Note- ∇⋅V ≠ V⋅∇
■ The Curl -
• If V(x, y, z) is a differential vector field then curl of V can be written as -
 ∂ ∂ ∂ 
 ∂x ∂y ∂z 
(
∇ × V =  ˆi + ˆj + kˆ  × V1ˆi + V2 ˆj + V3 kˆ )
ˆi ˆj kˆ
∂ ∂ ∂
=
∂x ∂y ∂z
V1 V2 V3

Y
Note :-
• ∇φ is vector so we can take divergence and curl of it.
Formula involving ∇ –
SP
• If A and B are differentiable vector functions and φ and ψ are differentiable scalar function of positions (x, y, z)
then-
1. ∇(φ + ψ) = ∇φ + ∇ψ
2. ∇⋅(A + B) = ∇⋅A + ∇⋅B
3. ∇×(A + B) = ∇×A + ∇×B
am
4. ∇⋅(φA) = (∇φ)⋅A + φ(∇⋅A)
5. ∇×(φA) = (∇φ)×A + φ(∇×A)
6. ∇⋅(A×B) = B⋅(∇×A) – A⋅(∇×B)
7. ∇×(A×B) = (B⋅∇)A – B(∇⋅A) – (A⋅∇)B + A(∇⋅B)
8. ∇ (A⋅B) = (B⋅∇)A + (A⋅∇) B + B×(∇×A) + A×(∇×B)
∂2φ ∂2φ ∂2φ
Te

9. ∇ ⋅ (∇φ) = ∇ 2 φ = + +
∂x 2 ∂y 2 ∂z 2
∂2 ∂2 ∂2
Where, ∇ 2 = + 2 + 2 is called the Laplacian operator
∂x 2
∂y ∂z
10. ∇ ×(∇φ) = 0 The curl of the gradient of φ is zero.
11. ∇⋅(∇×A) = 0 The divergence of curl of A is.
12. ∇×(∇×A) = ∇(∇⋅ A) – ∇2A
■ Integral Calculus-
(i) Line integral-
• The line integral expression is -
b
I = ∫ A ⋅ dℓ = 0
a

where, A = vector field

dℓ = infinitesimal displacement vectors
dℓ = dxiˆ + dyjˆ + dzkˆ
• The close line integral -
∫ Path A.dℓ

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28
• In general the line integral is path dependent.

• There are some special vector function for which the line integral is independent of path
I = I1 = I2 = I3
For example -
b
(a) I = ∫ A ⋅ dℓ = path independent (will depends on end points a and b,)
a

where, A = special vector function

(b) ∫ ∇T ⋅ dℓ = T(b) – T(a)

= independent of path

∫ ∇ T ⋅ dℓ = 0
Where, T is a function and ∇T is grad T
(ii) Surface (Double) integral -
The expression is of the form

Y
I= A ⋅ da
surface

where, A = vector function

SP
da = elementary area is called surface integral.
Case-1 When surface is parallel to fundamental plane (xy, yz, zx)
m
da = dydzî

da = dzdxjˆ
a

da = dxdyk̂
Te

Case-2 When surface is not parallel to fundamental plane

da = da n̂
φ = c (equation of surface)
∇φ
n̂ =
| ∇φ |
dxdy
da = nˆ → In xy -plane
kˆ ⋅ nˆ

dydz
da = nˆ → In yz -plane
ˆi ⋅ nˆ

dzdx
da = nˆ → In xz -plane
ˆj ⋅ nˆ

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29
 (iii) Volume Integral -
• The expression of the volume integral is -
I = ∫ TdV
Where, T = Scalar function
dV = infinitesimal volume element
dV = dxdydz → In Cartesian co-ordinate system
Fundamental theorem of Calculus-
• The integral of a derivative is equal to the value of the function at end point or boundary
d x b
∫ f ( t ) dt = f ( x ) ⇒ ∫ f ( x ) dx = F ( b ) - F ( a )
dx a a

Fundamental theorem of Gradient -

• The line integral of gradient is given by the value of the function at the boundaries (a and b)
b
∫a
∇T ⋅ dℓ = T(b) – T(a)

Where, dl = infinitesimal displacement vector in Cartesian co-ordinate.

The Fundamental theorem for Divergence (Green's Theorem, Gauss Divergence Theorem)
This theorem is applicable only for closed surfaces and this theorem is used to convert surface integral into
volume integral and vice verse.
∫∫ A ⋅ ds = ∫∫ A ⋅ nds
ˆ = ∫∫∫ (∇ ⋅ A)dv

Y
s s v
Where n̂ is the outward normal to s indicating the +ve direction of s.
Fundamental theorem of curl-
SP
• This theorem is applicable only for open surfaces and this theorem is used to convert surface integral into line
integral and vice versa.
• If S is an open, two sided surface bounded by a closed, non-intersecting curve C and A is vector function of
position with continuous derivatives then-
∫ A ⋅ dr = ∫∫ (∇ × A)nˆ ds = ∫∫ (∇ × A) ⋅ ds
am
c s s
Where C is traversed in the position (counter clockwise direction)
Co-ordinate System–
Co-ordinate system dl h1 h2 h3 u1 u2 u3
Cartesian dxiˆ + dyjˆ + dzkˆ 1 1 1 x y z
Spherical drrˆ + r dθθˆ + r sinθ dφφˆ 1 r r sin θ r θ φ
Te

Cylindrical ds sˆ + s dφφˆ + dzzˆ 1 S 1 s φ z

■ General Expression for Gradient, Divergence and Curl-
1 ∂ 1 ∂ 1 ∂ 
(i) Gradient - ∇φ =  uˆ 1 + uˆ 2 + uˆ 3  φ(u1u 2 u 3 )
 h 1 ∂u 1 h 2 ∂u 2 h 3 ∂u 3 
1  ∂ ∂ ∂ 
(ii) Divergence - ∇ ⋅ A =  (h 2 h 3A1 ) + (h1h 3A 2 ) + (h1h 2 A 3 ) 
h1h 2 h 3  ∂u1 ∂u 2 ∂u 3 
 h1uˆ 1 h 2 uˆ 2 h 3 uˆ 3 
 
1  ∂ ∂ ∂ 
(iii) Curl - ∇ × A =
h1h 2 h 3  ∂u1 ∂u 2 ∂u 3 
 
 h1A1 h 2 A 2 h 3 A 3 
Formula for Gradient in co-ordinate system -
 ∂ ∂ ∂ 
Cartesian - ∇φ =  xˆ + yˆ + zˆ  φ(x, y, z)
 ∂x ∂y ∂z 
∂ 1 ∂ ˆ 1 ∂ ˆ
Spherical - ∇φ =  ˆr + θ+ φ  φ(r, θ, φ)
 ∂r r ∂θ r sin θ ∂φ 

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30
 ∂ 1 ∂ ˆ ∂ 
Cylindrical - ∇φ =  sˆ + φ + zˆ  φ(s, φ, z)
 ∂ s s ∂φ ∂z 
∂ 1 ∂ ˆ
Polar - ∇φ =  rˆ + θ  φ(r, θ)
 ∂r r ∂θ 
Formula for divergence in co-ordinate system-
∂ ∂ ∂ 
Cartesian - ∇ ⋅ A =  A1 + A 2 + A 3 
 ∂x ∂y ∂z 
1 ∂ 2 ∂ ∂ 
Spherical - ∇ ⋅ A = 
r sinθ  ∂r
2 ( r sinθ A1 ) + ( r sin θ A 2 ) + ( r A 3 ) 
∂θ ∂φ 
1 ∂ ∂ ∂ 
Cylindrical - ∇ ⋅ A =  ( s A1 ) + A 2 + ( s A 3 ) 
s  ∂s ∂φ ∂z 
Formula for curl in co-ordinate system -
xˆ yˆ zˆ
∂ ∂ ∂
Cartesian - ∇ × A =
∂x ∂y ∂z
A1 A2 A3
r̂ rθˆ (rsinθ)φˆ

Y
1 ∂ ∂ ∂
Spherical - ∇ × A =
r sinθ ∂r
2
∂θ ∂φ
A1 rA 2
SP
rsinθA 3
sˆ sφˆ zˆ
1 ∂ ∂ ∂
Cylindrical - ∇ × A =
s ∂s ∂φ ∂z
m
A1 sA 2 A3
■ Key Points-
(i) ∇ is not a vector, it mimics the behaviour of an ordinary vector.
a

(ii) ∇ is a vector operator that acts upon:

• A scalar function T : ∇T (the gradient)
• A vector function V : ∇ ⋅V (the divergence)
Te

• A vector function V : ∇×V (the curl)

(iii) ∇ is not a vector that multiplies T.
(iv) Operator is meaningless without a function (scalar field, vector field). For eg. without a computer mobile pen
drive (operator) is useless.
(v) Function Outcome
∇φ Vector
∇⋅A Scalar
∇×A Vector
(vi) ∇⋅(∇φ) = Divergence of gradient
∇×(∇φ) = Curl of gradient
∇( ∇iA ) = Gradient of divergence
∇⋅( ∇ × A ) = 0 Divergence of curl
∇×( ∇ × A ) = Curl of curl
(vii) i, j and kˆ Constant unit vector and it is taken out from differential and integral sign.
ˆ ˆ
(viii) Surface integral represent flow of vector through the surface or flux.
(ix) In flux through a closed surface become zero then it is Solenoid vector.
∫ Â ⋅ ds = 0 then ∇ ⋅ Â = 0
(x) Volume integral represent amount of quantity in volume.

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31
(xi) If line integral of a field along closed loop is zero then it is irrotational vector field.
L⋅I = ∫ F ⋅dr = 0
So, ∇ × F = 0
(xii) For conservative field
∇ ×F = 0
and F = ∇φ, then
∇×(∇ φ) = 0 (always)
(xiii) Physically gradient represent normal vector to the surface.
n = ∇T
∇T
n̂ =
∇T
(xiv) The divergence measure how much the vector v spreads out (diverges) from point.
(xv) The curl is ∇×V is measure of how much the vector V curl around the point .
(xvi) General form of Laplacian -
1  ∂  h 2 h 3 ∂φ  ∂  h1h 3 ∂φ  ∂  h1h 2 ∂φ  
∇2φ =   +  +  
h1 h 2 h 3  ∂u1  h1 ∂u1  ∂u 2  h 2 ∂u 2  ∂u  h 3 ∂u 3  

Y
(4) Motion in a Straight Line
SP
■ Mechanics-: Mechanics is the branch of physics that deals with the condition of rest or motion of the material
object around us.
■ Rest: When a body does not change its position with respect to time, the body is said to be in rest.
Example: A bed lying in a room is in the state of rest, because it does not change its position with respect
to time.
am
■ Motion : When a body changes its position with respect to its surrounding, it is said to be in motion.
Example: A train moving on rails
Rest and motion as relative terms - Rest and motion are relative states. It means an object which is at rest
in one frame of reference can be in motion in another frame of reference.
■ Types of Motion –
On the basis of direction:-
Te

1. One dimensional Motion- if only one out of three co-ordinates specifying the position of the object with
respect to time. Then it is called one dimensional motion or rectilinear motion.
For Example- (i) Motion of car on straight road.
(ii) Motion of a body under gravity.
2.Two dimensional Motion -
If only two out of three co-ordinates specifying the position of the object with respect to time, then the
motion is called two dimensional motion.
For Example- (i) A gymnast on a balance beam.
(ii) Motion of planets around the sun.
(iii) A car moving along zig-zag path on a level road.
3. Three dimensional motion -
If all three coordinates specify the position of object with respect to time then it is called 3-D motion
For example- (i) Movement of gyroscope.
(ii) A like flying on a windy day.
(iii) Motion of an aeroplane in space.
On the basis of moving object in space:-
1. Uniform Motion: When moving objects cover equal distances in equal time intervals.
2. Non Uniform Motion: When moving objects cover different distances in unequal time intervals.

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32
■ Distance and Displacement -
Distance (x)
• Total path ACB traveled by the body between initial and final position in definite interval is called Distance
• It is a scalar quantity.
• It have no direction
• Distance will be always positive.
• Distance have infinite function.
Displacement ( x )
• Displacement is the minimum possible path (AB) between initial and final position.
• It is a vector quantity.
• Its direction will be always from initial to final position.
• It may be +ve, –ve or zero.
• it have only one unique function.

■ Speed and Velocity-

Y
(i) Speed-: The rate of change of position of an object with respect to time in any direction is called its speed.
distance travelled(s)
Speed(V) =
time taken(t)
• It is a scalar quantity
• It is always +ve
SP
• It's S.I unit is m/sec.
Uniform Speed- If a body covers equal distance in equal intervals of time it is said to be moving with uniform
m
speed.
Example- (i) A rotating fan
(ii) A rocket moving in a space.
Variable speed or Non-Uniform speed:-
a

If a body covers unequal distances in equal intervals of time. It is said to be moving with a variable speed.
Example- (i) A train starting from a station.
(ii) a dog chasing a cat.
Te

Average speed : The ratio of total distance travelled by the object to the total time taken is called average speed.
Distance travelled
Average speed =
Total time taken
Instantaneous speed: If the speed of a body is continuously changing with time. Then the speed at some particular
instant during the motion is called instantaneous speed.
For example- Speedometer of a moving automobile measures instantaneous speed.
(ii) Velocity : The rate of change of displacement with respect to time of body in specified direction is called
velocity.
Displacement
Velocity =
Time taken
• It is a vector quantity.
• It may be +ve, -ve or zero.
• It's S.I. unit is m/sec.
Uniform velocity -
When a body covers equal distances in equal intervals of time in a particular direction the body is said to be
moving with uniform velocity.
Non-uniform velocity- when a body covers unequal distances in equal intervals of time in a particular direction the
body is said to be non-uniform velocity .

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33
Average Velocity- The ratio of the total displacement to the total time taken by the body is called average velocity.
Totaldisplacement
Average velocity =
Total time taken
Instantaneous Velocity - The velocity of a particle at any instant of time is known as instantaneous velocity
∆x dx
Instantaneous velocity = lim =
∆t →0 ∆t dt
■ Acceleration -
The rate of change of velocity with respect to time is known as acceleration.
Changein velocity (∆V)
Acceleration =
Timeinterval (∆t)
• Its S.I unit is m/sec2
• It is a vector quantity
• It may be +ve, -ve or zero
• If velocity increases then acceleration is +ve
• If velocity decreases then it is known as retardation and 'it' is -ve.
• If velocity is constant then a = 0 (i.e uniform motion)
Uniform Acceleration - When a body describes equal changes in velocity in equal intervals of time , it is said to be
moving with uniform acceleration.

Y
Non- Uniform Acceleration-
If an object is moving with non-uniform acceleration , it means that change in velocity is unequal for equal
interval of time.
Average Acceleration-
SP
It is defined as the ratio of total change in velocity in given interval to the total time taken. Unlike
acceleration the average acceleration is calculated for a given interval.
Instantaneous Acceleration-
It is defined as the acceleration of body at any instant of time.
∆V dV
am
Instantaneous Acceleration = lim =
∆t →0 ∆t dt
Formula and concept for uniformly accelerated motion in a straight line
Scalar form Vector form
• v = u + at v = u + at
1 2 1
• s= ut + at s = ut + at 2
Te

2 2
• v2 = u2 + 2as v.v − u.u = 2as
u+v 1
• s=  t s = (u + v) t
 2  2
a a
• sn = u + ( 2n − 1) sn = u + ( 2n − 1)
2 2
• Displacement of a particle in nth second of its motion in uniformly accelerated motion-
a
Dn = u + (2n-1)
2
■ Relative motion in one Dimension :- Let A and B are two objects and if x A and x B are their respective
displacements with respect to the fixed origin. Then

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34
 • The relative displacement of B with respect to A is defined as
x BA = x B – x A
• The relative velocity of B with respect to A is defined as-
V BA = V B − V A
• The relative acceleration of B with respect to A is defined as -
a BA = a B − a A
Relative velocity of Rain with respect to the Moving man -
A man walking west with velocity vm , represented by OA . Let the rain be falling vertically downwards
with velocity v r represented by OB as shown in

Y
SP
m
The relative velocity of rain with respect to man Vrm = Vr − Vm will be represented by diagonal OD of
rectangle OBDC.
a

∴ Vrm = Vr2 + Vm2 + 2Vr Vm cos90° = Vr2 + Vm2

If θ is the angle which Vrm makes with the vertical direction then
Te

BD Vm V
tan θ = = ⇒ θ = tan −1 m
OB Vr Vr
• Swimming into the River-
A man can swim with velocity V i.e it is the velocity of man with respect to still water. If water is also
flowing with velocity VR , then velocity of man relative to ground.
Vm = V + VR
Case I -
• If the swimming is in the direction of flow of water or downstream then-

Case II -
• If the swimming is in the direction opposite to the flow of water or then-

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35
Case-III To cross the river from one bank to another bank.
(i) To cross the river in minimum possible path.

d = width of river to reach from A to B,

Vm sin θ = Vr
V
sin θ = r
Vm
Vr
θ = sin –1
Vm
(ii) Time taken to cross the river -
d d
t= =
Vm cos θ Vm – Vr2
2

(iii) To cross the river in minimum possible time-

Y
SP
am
d
t=
Vm cos θ
For minimum, θ = 0º
 d 
 t min = 
 Vm 
Te

■ Motion Under Gravity –

• If a body is thrown vertically up with a velocity u in the uniform gravitational field (neglecting air resistance),
then-
u2
(i) Maximum height attained H =
2g
u
(ii) Time of ascent = time of descent =
g
2u
(iii) Total time of flight =
g
(iv) Velocity of body at the point of projection = u (downwards)
(v) Galileo's law of odd numbers : For a freely falling body ratio of successive distance covered in equal time
interval 't' S1 : S2 : S3 ............. = 1 : 3 : 5 : ............ : 2n – 1.

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36
(vi) At any point on its path the body will have same speed for upward journey and downward journey.
1
(vii) If a body throws upward crosses point in time t1 & t2 respectively, then height of point h = gt t and
2 12
1
g ( t1 + t 2 ) .
2
maximum height H =
2
(viii) A body is thrown upward, downward & horizontally with same speed takes time t1, t2 & t3 respectively to
1
reach the ground then t 3 = t1t 2 & height from where the particle was thrown is- H = gtt .
2 12

Important points about graphical analysis of motion -

 dx 
• Instantaneous velocity is the slope of position time curve  V = .
 dt 

Y
 dv 
• Slope of velocity time curve = instantaneous acceleration  a = .
 dt 

 
SP
• V-t curve area gives displacement, ∆x = ∫ vdt  .

• a-t curve area gives change in velocity ∆v = ∫ adt 

 
m
■ Key points -

•
a

• Displacement ≤ Distance.
Velocity
Te

• ≤1
Speed
Average velocity
• ≤1
Average speed
Instantaneous velocity
• =1
Instantaneous speed
• If distance > |displacement| this implies -
(a) Atleast at one point in path, velocity is zero.
(b) The body must have retarded during the motion.
• If particle travels distances S1, S2, S3, ...... with speeds V1, V2, V3, ..... then,
S1 + S2 + S3
Average speed =
 S1 S2 S3 
 + + ...... 
V
 1 V2 V3 
• If particle travels equal distances (S1 = S2 = S) with velocities V1, V2, V3, ..... during time intervals t1, t2, t3
V1t1 + V2 t 2 + V3 t 3
then, Average speed =
t1 + t 2 + t 3 + ........

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37
 • If particle travels with speed V1 and V2 for equal time intervals i.e t1 = t2 = t, then
V + V2
Average speed = 1 .
2
• When a body travels equal distances with speed V1 and V2, the average speed (V) is the harmonic mean of
two speeds i.e
2 1 1
= +
V V1 V2
Different Motions and their Graphs :
Different Cases V-t Graph S-t Graph

1. Uniform motion

2. Uniform accelerated motion

with u = 0 at t = 0

Y
3. Uniformly accelerated with u
SP
≠ 0 at t = 0
am

4. Uniformly accelerated
motion with u ≠ 0 and S= S0
at t = 0
Te

5. Uniformly retarded motion

till velocity becomes zero

6. Uniformly retarded then

accelerated in opposite
direction

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38
 (5) Motion in a Plane
■ Motion in a Plane
• Motion in a plane is also called as a motion in two dimension.
For example- circular motion, projectile motion etc.
Polar Vectors - The polar vectors which have a starting point or point of application are called polar vectors.
Example- Displacement, velocity, force etc are polar vectors.
Axial Vectors- The vector which represent rotational effect and act along the axis of rotation in accordance with
right hand screw rule are called axial vector.
Example:- Angular velocity, Torque, Angular momentum etc.
Polar vector

■ Terms related to motion in a plane -

Position vector

Y
SP
m
OP = OA + OB
a

r = xiˆ + yjˆ
• This equation express position vector r in terms of its rectangular component x and y.
Te

Displacement Vector -

• In plane, displacement can be represented as -

∆r = ( x – x ) ˆi + ( y – y ) ˆj
2 1 2 1

• Magnitude of displacement vector

( x 2 – x1 ) + ( y 2 – y1 )
2 2
∆r =
• Direction of the displacement vector ∆r is given by -
∆y
tan θ =
∆x

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39
 Velocity Vector-
(i) Average Velocity -

∆r r2 – r1
Vav = =
∆t t 2 – t1
Average velocity in component form-
∆x ˆ ∆y ˆ
Vav = i+ j
∆t ∆t
= ∆V ˆi + ∆V ˆj
x y

Direction of the velocity ∆V is given by-

∆Vy
tan θ =
∆Vx

Y
(ii) Instantaneous Velocity-
∆r dr
V = lim =
x → 0 ∆t

dx ˆ dy ˆ
dt
SP
V= i+ j
dt dt
V = V ˆi + V ˆj
x y
am
Magnitude of Instantaneous Velocity-
V = Vx2 + Vy2
Direction of V is given by-
Vy
tan θ =
Vx
Te

Acceleration Vector -
(i) Average Acceleration-
• The average acceleration vector is defined as the rate at which the velocity changes. It is in the direction of the
change in velocity ∆V
∆V
a av =
∆t
a av = a x ˆi + a y ˆj + a z kˆ
(ii) Instantaneous Acceleration -
• It is defined as the limit of the average acceleration as ∆t approaches zero.
∆V dV
a = lim =
∆t →0 ∆t dt
 ∆Vx ∆Vy ∆Vz 
a = lim  xˆ + yˆ + zˆ 
∆t →0
 ∆t ∆ t ∆t 
■ Motion in a plane with uniform acceleration-
Vx = Vox + axt
Vy = Voy + ayt

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Path of particle under constant Acceleration-
1
x = x0 + Voxt + a x t 2 ............. along x-axis
2
1
y = y0 + Voyt + a y t 2 ............. along y-axis
2
■ Circular Motion -
• When object is moving on a circular path on the circumference of the circle, then the motion is called circular
motion.
Uniform circular Motion-
• When object is moving on a circular path on the circumference of the circle, covers equal distances in equal
intervals of time then the motion is called uniform circular motion.
Angular displacement (θ)-
• It is the angle traced out by the radius vector at the circular path.
arc
Angle (θ) =
radius

Y
It is a vector quantity.
Angular Velocity ( ω ) -
SP
• It is the time rate of change of angular displacement.
SI unit is rad .
sec
m
Angular displacement
ω=
Time taken
dθ
a

• Instantaneous angular velocity ω =

dt
Total angular displacement ∆θ
• Average angular velocity ωav = =
Te

Total time taken ∆t

• For clockwise rotation ω is directed downwards

A
∆θ

→
ω
• For anti-clockwise rotation ω is directed upwards.

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■ Time Period (T):- The taken by object to complete one revolution on its circular path.
■ Frequency (v):-The number of revolution per unit time on the circular path.
■ Angular acceleration (α) -
• It is the time rate of change of angular velocity
dω
α =
dt
• SI unit radian/second2
• When a body moves with constant angular velocity, its angular acceleration is zero.
Centripetal Acceleration (ac) -
• Acceleration of an object moving uniformly on the circular path and is along the radius towards the centre of
the circular path.
V2  V
ac = ω2r = = ωV ∵ ω = 
r  r
ac = ω × V
Centripetal Force (Fc) -
mv 2
Fc =
r
Fc = mac
Fc = mω2r

Y
Fc = mωv
Fc = m ( v× ω )
SP b
• The work done by centripetal force is zero.
• Centripetal force is essential for circular motion, without it the body cannot move in circular path.
• The K.E. and angular momentum cannot be increased by centripetal force.
am
Tangential Acceleration (at) -
• The acceleration which acts along the tangent to the circular path.
at = α r
at = α × r
Total acceleration ( a ) -
Te

a = α × r + ω× v
a = a 2t + a c2

Where, at = Tangential acceleration -

ac = Centripetal acceleration
Some relations -
1
(i) Relation between time period and frequency v =
T
θ 2π
(ii) Relation between frequency angular velocity and time. ω = = = 2πv
t T
(iii) Relation between linear acceleration and angular acceleration.
a=αr
a = α× r

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■ Motion in Vertical circle -
• Motion in a vertical circle is non-uniform circular motion.

• Tension at the lowest point P

mVp2
Tp = + mg
l
• Tension at the highest point Q.
mVQ2
TQ = – mg
l
mVp2
TQ = – 5 mg
l
• Tension at point R-
mVR2
TR =
l
mVp2
TR = – 2 mg

Y
l
• Tp > TR > TQ
•
•
Tp – TQ = 6 mg
Tp – TR = 3 mg
SP
• Tension at any point A -
mV 2
T= + mg cos θ
m
r
• Minimum velocity for vertical circular motion -
(a) VP at P ≥ 5gl
a

(b) VQ at Q ≥ gl
Te

(c) VR at R ≥ 3gl

• In case of minimum velocity-

(a) Tp ≥ 6 mg
(b) TQ = 0
(c) TR ≥ 3 mg
• If Tmin < 0, the string will slack and the body will fall down from the highest point. Hence, for "looping the
loop" or completing the vertical circle Tmin ≥ 0.
• If VP = 2gl , velocity and tension becomes zero at R and S and particle will oscillate along semi-circular
path.
• If VP < 2gl , velocity becomes zero between P and R and particle oscillate about with the lower point P.

• If VP > 5gl tension never becomes zero and particle will just complete the circle.
• For leaving the vertical circle somewhere between 90º < θ < 180º. Tension becomes zero (T = 0) at the point
of leaving but the velocity will not be zero.
2gl < VP < 5gl

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■ Rounding a level curved Road -

mv 2
• ≤ ( F1 + F2 )
r
Where, F1 = µR1 and F2 = µR2 µ = Coefficient of friction between tyres and road.

•V ≤ µrg , Vmax = µrg

Y
This is the maximum speed without skidding.
SP
•If centripetal force is obtained only by the banking of roads, then the speed (v) of the vehicle for a safe turn.

v= r g tan θ

•If speed of vehicle is less than r g tan θ . Then it will move inward (down) and r will decrease and if speed is
am
more than r g tan θ then it will move toward (up) and r will increases.

•In normal life, the centripetal force is obtained by the friction force between the road and tyres as well as by the
banking of the roads.

•Therefore the maximum permissible speed for the vehicle is much greater than the optimum value of the speed
Te

on a banked road.
•When centripetal force is obtained from friction force as well as banking of roads then maximum safe value of
speed of vehicle.

rg(tanθ + µ s )
Vmax =
(1 – µ s tanθ) Where µs = coefficient of static friction

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44
Bending of cyclist-
• When a cyclist takes turn at road, he inclines himself from the vertical slows down his speed and moves on a
circular path of larger radius.
If a cyclist is inclined at an angle θ, then
V2
tan θ =
rg
Where, V = Speed of the cyclist
r = Radius of path
g = Acceleration due to gravity
■ Projectile Motion –
• When any object is thrown from horizontal at an angle θ except 90º then it moves on a parabolic known as
trajectory. The object is called projectile and its motion is called projectile motion.
Projectile motion in two dimensional motion :-

Ux = U cos θ

Y
= Horizontal motion
= Responsible for range produced
SP
= Constant acceleration ( ∵ a = 0)
But,
Uy= U sin θ
m
= Vertical component
= Variable (ay = – g)
= Responsible for height produced.
Concept -
a

x-axis y-axis
Ux= U cos θ Uy = U sin θ
Te

ax = 0 ay = –g
• Time of assending (t) -
along y axis-
V y = U y + a yt
U sin θ
t=
g
• Time of Flight (T) -
T = 2t
2U sin θ
T=
g
• Height attained by the body in projectile motion -
U 2 sin 2 θ
H=
2g
• Condition for maximum height attained (Hmax) –
For maximum height,
θ = 90º, Sin θ = 1
U2
H max =
2g

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45
 • Range produced by the body in projectile motion (R) -
U 2sin 2θ
R=
g
• Condition for maximum Range : (Rmax) –
Sin 2θ = 1 = max = sin90º
θ = 45º
U2
R max =
g
• Ratio -
U2
R max g
= 2 =2
H max U
2g
Rmax = 2× Hmax
• Two projective angles for the same range -

Y
θ1 + θ2 = 90º =
π
2
SP
Special Cases –
• If Horizontal range is n-times of height produced then to determine projection angle.
am
Te

θ = tan
-1 u
 
H
• If two bodies are projected with equal speed u such that their range produced are same but height produced are
different.

R = 4 h1 h 2
• To determine kinetic energy of body at topmost point in projectile motion ⇒ K'=K cos2θ where K=initial K.E

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46
• To determine potential energy of body at topmost point in projectile ⇒ U = K sin2θ

U
• Ratio of potential energy and kinetic energy at topmost point in projectile motion ⇒ = tan 2θ
K'
• To determine linear momentum of body at topmost point in projectile of initial linear momentum p is given by-
p' = p cos θ

• To determine the change in linear momentum of body after time t in projectile motion (∆P = ?)

Y
SP
|∆p| = |∆py|
|∆p| = mg × t
m
• When projectile projected horizontally-
uy=0
a
Te

2H
Time of flight = T =
g
2H
Range = ux ×
g
Concept -

2H
T = T1 = T2 = T3 =
g
V3 > V2 > V1 > V

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47
• When projectile is projected downward at an angle θ with Horizontal -

R = u cos θ × t
1 2
H = (u sin θ)t + gt
2
– 2u sinθ 4u 2sin 2θ + 8gh
Time of flight, T = ±
2g 2g
• When projectile is projected upward at an angle θ with Horizontal.

1 2

Y
H = – (u sin θ)t + gt
2
u sin θ u 2 sin 2 θ 2h
T=
g
±
g2
+
g
SP
• To determine no of steps in a stair (n)
am

2hu 2
n=
gb 2
Te

• To determine equation of trajectory of projectile motion.

x
t=
u cos θ
gx
y = x tan θ –
2u 2 cos 2 θ

 xy 
h =  tan θ
x+y

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48
• Projectile motion on an inclined plane-

Initial velocity along the inclined plane = u cos (α – β).

Initial velocity perpendicular to the inclined plane = u sin (α – β).
Acceleration along the inclined plane = g sin β.
Acceleration perpendicular to the inclined plane = g cos β.
2u sin ( α – β )
Time of flight, T =
g cosβ
u 2 sin 2 ( α – β )
Maximum height, H =
2g cosβ
2u sin 2 ( α – β ) cosα
2

Horizontal range, x =
g cosβ
2u sin ( α – β ) cosα

Y
2
x
Range on inclined plane, R = =
cos β g cos 2β
Range on inclined plane will be maximum,

when, α = 45º +
β
2
SP
u2
Rmax =
g (1+ sinβ )
m
For angle of projectile α and (90º – α + β), The range an inclined plane are same.
If the projectile is thrown downwards, then maximum range is -
u2
Rmax =
g (1 – sinβ )
a

• A positive acceleration can be associated with a "slowing down" of the body because the origin and the
positive direction of motion are a matter of choice.
Te

• The x-t graph for a particle undergoing rectilinear motion cannot be as shown in figure because infinitesimal
changes in velocity are physically possible only in infinitesimal time.

• In oblique projection of a projectile the speed gradually decreases up to the highest point and then increases
because the tangential acceleration opposes the motion till the particle reaches the highest point, and then it
favours the motion of the particle.
• In free fall the initial velocity of a body may not be zero.
• A body can have acceleration even if its velocity is zero at an instant.
• Average velocity of a body may be equal to its instantaneous velocity.
• The trajectory of an object moving under constant acceleration can be straight line or parabola.
• The path of one projectile as seen from another projectile is a straight line as relative acceleration of one
projectile with respect to another projectile is zero.

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49
 (6) Newtons's Law of Motion
Force -
• A push or pull that one object exerts on another.
Force in Nature -
• There are four fundamental forces in nature-
1. Gravitational force 2. Electromagnetic force
3. Strong nuclear force 4. Weak force
Interaction Particle Range Relative Characterst Particle Role in universe
affected Strength ics time exchange
Strong Nuclear Quarks ∼ 10–15 m 1 10–23 Sec Gluons Holds quark together
force to form nucleon.
Hold nucleons
Hadrons Mesons together to form
atomic nuclei.
Electromagnetic Charged ∞ 10–2 ....... 10–20 sec Photons Determine structure
particles of atoms, solids and
liquid is important
factor in astronomical
universe.
Weak nuclear Quark & ∼ 10–16 m 10–13 10–10 sec Intermediate Mediate

Y
force Leptons boson transformations of
quarks & leptons
helps determine
SP composition
atomic nuclei
of

Gravitational All ∞ 10–39 10–16 Gravitons Assemble matter into

Not experim- planet, stars and
entally galaxies
detected
am
Types of forces on macroscopic objects –
(a) Field Force or Range Forces -
• These are the forces in which contact between two objects is not necessary.
Ex. (i) Gravitational force between two bodies.
(ii) Electrostatic force between two charges.
(b) Contact force -
Te

• Contact forces exist only as long as the objects are touching each other.
(i) Normal force (ii) Frictional force.
(c) Attachment to another body -
• Tension (T) in a string and spring force (F = kx) comes in this group.
Newton's Law of Motion –
(i) First law (Galileo's law of inertia)
(ii) Second law (Law of force)
(iii) Third law (Law of action and reaction)
(i) Newton's First law (Galileo's law of inertia)
• If Fexternal = 0 and V = 0 i.e body is in rest then it will always remain in rest.
Ex. A person who is standing freely in bus is thrown backward when the bus starts suddenly.
(ii) Newton's Second law (Law of force) -
• The rate of change of linear momentum w.r.t. time is equal to applied force and change in momentum takes
place in the direction of applied force.
∆P
F=
∆t
If P = f(t) then,
dP
F=
dt

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50
 ∆P Pf − Pi mv − mu ∆v
• If = = =m = ma
∆t ∆t ∆t ∆t
• F = ma
• Unit - 1 Kg-m/s2 = 1 Newton (In M.K.S.)
1 Newton = 105 Dyne ( In C.G.S.)
• For Horizontal motion -
F = ma
Where, m = Inertial mass
• For vertical motion -
W = mg
Where, m = Gravitational mass.
Concept -

(a) F = ma

(b) F1 – F2 = ma

Y
(c) F1 cos θ– F2 = ma
Momentum (P) -
SP
• It is the product of the mass and velocity of a body i.e
P = mv
• Change in linear momentum (∆P) -
m
∆P = Pf – Pi Where, Pf = final momentum, Pi = Initial momentum.
∆P = mv – mu
∆P = m(v – u)]
a

∆P = m (v – u)
•S.I. unit is Kg-m-s-1 or N-sec
Te

•Dimension of linear momentum = [MLT–1].

Impulse -
• If a force is applied on the body for very small time interval then-
I = F ∆t
∆P
I= × ∆t
∆t
I = ∆P Impulse = chang in momentum.
Area bounded by F - T Graph -
(a) If constant force acting on the body-
• Area under the force time graph give impulse

Area = length × breadth

= F × ∆t

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51
(b) If direction of force on the body is reversed. I = ∆P = |A1| – |A2|

(c) If variable force is acting on the body i.e F = f(t)

I = ∫ f ( t ) dt
F

t1
Concept -

Y
∆p mv – mu
(a) F= =

(b) F=
2mu
SP
∆t ∆t

∆t
u
am
∆p 2mu cos θ
(c) F= =
∆t ∆t

(iii) Newton's Third Law (Law of action and reaction) -

• According to this law, for every action there is always equal and opposite reaction i.e the forces of action and
Te

reaction are always equal and opposite.

Example -
• When you walk you interact with the floor, you push against the floor and the floor pushes against you. The
pair of forces occurs at the same time.
• Likewise, the tires of car push against the road while the road pushes back on the tires the tires and the road
simultaneously push against each car.
NOTE :-Normal force will be perpendicular to the surface of contact.
Representing normal reactions and weight in free body diagram -

Smooth
(i)

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52
(ii)

(iii)

Tension -
• Tension force always pulls a body.
• Tension can never push a body.
• Tension across massless pulley or frictionless pulley remains constant.
• Ropes become slack when tension force becomes zero.
Representation of Tension force in different situations -
Case-1 Two blocks of masses mA and mB are arranged in the diagram as shown. The free body diagram of -

Y
1. Block mA 2. Block mB
3. Pulley 1 4. Pulley 2
SP
a m
Te

Case -2 Three blocks of masses mA, mB and mC are arranged in the diagram as shown. The free body diagram of-
1. Block mA 2. Block mB
3. Block mC 4. Pulley

Frame of Reference -A frame in which an observer is situated and makes his observations is known as
"Frame of reference."
• Inertial frame of reference - A frame of reference which is at rest or which is moving with a uniform
velocity along a straight line is called an inertial frame of reference.
Ex. Car moving with constant velocity on a straight road.
• Non-Inertial frame of reference - Accelerated frame of references are called non-inertial frame of reference.
Ex. Car moving in uniform circular motion.

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53
Inertial observer –
•Rest
•Moving with constant velocity
•a = 0
•Non-acceleration
•Newton's law is valid for it.
Non-inertial observer –
•Accelerated observer or retarded observer
•a ≠ 0
•Newton's law is not valid.
•Newton's law is valid when Pseudo force is applying.
•FPseudo = Mass of observer body× Acceleration of observer
FPseudo = ma
Apparent Weight and Weight -
• Apparent Weight of an object refers to weight of an object whenever gravity force acting on object is not
balanced by an equal and opposite normal force
• If whole system is in rest, then-
R = mg
• If acceleration increases or decreases then-

Y
R > mg or R < mg
R = m(g ± a)
Where, R = apparent weight
= observed weight
SP
= reading of spring balance
Different cases for lift Motion –
(i) When lift is in rest, then-
am
Te

R = mg
The weighing machine will read the actual weight.
(ii) If lift upward with some acceleration (a > g)

The weighing machine will read the apparent weight which is more than the actual weight.
(iii) If lift moves downward with some acceleration (a < g)

The weighing machine will read the apparent weight, which is less than actual weight.

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54
(iv) When lift is falling freely under gravity (g = a), then
R = m(g – g)
R=0
The apparent weight of body becomes zero.
(v) If lift is accelerating downward with acceleration greater than g, then body will be lifted from floor to ceiling
of the lift.
Key Points-
(i) Inertia of direction - It is the inability of body to change by itself the direction of motion.
Ex. The rotating wheel of any vehicle throw out mud.
(ii) The equilibrium of a particle in mechanics refers to the situation when the net external force acting on the
particle is zero.
(iii) Lami's Theorem- When three coplanar & concurrent forces acting at a point are in equilibrium, then each
force is proportional to the sine of the angle between the other two forces.

Y
P Q R
= =
sin α sin β sin γ
SP
(iv) The force on a body due to acceleration of non-inertial frame is called fictitious or apparent or Pseudo force.
(v) Aeroplane always fly at low altitudes because according to Newton's IIIrd law of motion as aeroplane displaces
air & at low altitudes density of air is high.
(vi) Rocket move by pushing the exhaust gases out so they can fly at low or high altitude.
(vii) A man in a closed cabin (lift) falling freely does not experiences gravity as inertial and gravitational mass have
m
equivalence.
(viii) Inertia is proportional to mass of the body.
(ix) If a number of force F1 , F2 , F3 ......... act on the body then it is in equilibrium when F1 + F2 + F3 ....... = 0
a

(x) A body in equilibrium cannot change the direction of motion.

(xi) If a body moves along a curved path, then it is certainly acted upon by a force
(xii) A single isolated force cannot exist.
Te

(xiii) Newton's second law of motion give the measure of force i.e., (f = ma), force is a vector quantity.
(xiv) Absolute units of force are dyne in C.G.S. system and Newton (N) in SI.
(xv) A body starting from rest moves along a smooth inclined plane of length ℓ, height h and having angle of
inclination θ.
(1) Its acceleration down the plane is g sin θ
(2) Velocity at the bottom of the inclined plane will be 2gh = 2glsin θ
(3) Time taken to reach the bottom will be –
2ℓ 1 2h
t= =
g sin θ sin θ g
(4) If the angle of inclination is changed keeping the height constant then–
t1 sin θ1
=
t 2 sin θ2
(xvi) Action and reaction forces never act on the same body they act on different bodies. If they act on the same
body, the resultant force on the body will be zero i.e., the body will be in equilibrium.
• Action and reaction forces act along the line joining the centres of two bodies.
• Newton's third law is applicable whether the bodies are at rest or in motion.

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55
 (7) Friction
• Friction is the force between two surface in contact, or a force of a medium acting on a moving object (i.e air
on aircraft).
• Frictional forces arise due to molecular interactions. In some cases frictions acts as a supporting force and in
some cases it acts as a opposing force.

■ Cause of friction - Friction arises on account of strong atomic or molecular force of attraction between the two
surfaces at the points of actual contact.
Concept –
• If motion is in equilibrium (fig (i)) then equation of motion
(F – f) = ma
• For just to move (a = 0)
F – f = m×0
F=f

Y
■ Types of Friction - SP
am
■ Graph between applied force and force of friction -
Te

tic friction

Where, µs = coefficient of static friction

µk = coefficient of kinetic friction
Concept :-
• If µk < µs, Fk < Fs
then block is in rest.
■ Coefficient of friction (µ) and Frictional force (F) -

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56
 F∝R
F = µR
but here R = mg
⇒ F = µR = µ mg
F
⇒ µ=
R
⇒ It has no unit. i.e. Dimensionless [M0L0T0]
⇒ Coefficient of friction depends upon nature of surface
• For perfectly smooth surface (µ) = 0
• For perfectly rough surface (µ) = 1
• Value of µ, 0 ≤ to ≤ 1
■ Angle of Friction (λ) -
The angle between the resultant of friction force and the normal reaction is called the angle of friction.

Y
•
•
tan λ =
f µR
R
=
λ = tan–1 (µ)
R
=µ
SP
• For smooth surface λ = 0
• Resultant -
m
S = f 2 + R 2 = (µR)2 + R 2
S = R 1+ µ 2
■ Angle of repose or angle of sliding -
a

• The maximum angle of inclination of a plane for which a block remains stationary on this plane.
Te

• tan θR = µS
• For smooth surface θR = 0
■ Special Cases for friction -
Case-1 For horizontal rough surface-

• Equation of motion -
F - f = ma
• Just to move a = 0
F–f=0

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57
 Case-2 If force is applied on block at an angle θ -

R = mg – F sin θ
f = µR = µ(mg – F sin θ)
Case (2.1)
• If block is move in horizontal direction then-

• Equation of motion is -
F cos θ – f = ma
• For just to move a = 0
F cos θ = f
F cos θ = µ(mg – F sin θ)
• Applied force at an angle θ upward for just to move -

Y
µ mg
F=
cos θ + µ sinθ

F=
mg sinλ
cos ( θ – λ )
SP
• If Fmin then -
cos (θ – λ) = 1
θ–λ=0
am
θ= λ
Case-2.2-
Te

• R = mg + F sin θ
• f = µR = µ(mg + F sin θ)
µ mg
• Force applied at angle θ in downward for just to move F =
cos θ – µ sinθ
Case -3 Inclined Rough surfaces -
(a) Upward motion of body on the inclined plane -

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58
 (b) If body moves upward with some acceleration-

F = mg sin θ + µ mg cos θ = ma
(c) If a body projected in upward direction on the rough inclined plane-
a = g sin θ + µ cos θ = retardation
Case- 4
(a) Downward motion of a body on the rough inclined plane-

Y
R = mg cos θ
SP
f = µ R = µ mg cos θ
(b) If block moves downward with some acceleration -
a m

a = g sin θ – µ g cos θ = Downward acceleration

Te

(c) For just to move -

a=0
θ = tan–1(µ) = λ = angle of repose
Concept -
• If θ = λ i. e θ = tan–1(µ), then body will be in condition of just to move.
• If θ > λ i. e θ > tan–1(µ), then body moves downward.
• If θ < λ i. e θ < tan–1(µ), then body remains in rest on the inclined plane.

• Force applied for just to move the • Force applied for just to prevent to sliding down
block F1 = mg sin θ + f F2 = mg sin θ - f

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59
■ Key Points -
• While walking on ice, one should take small steps to avoid slipping. This is because smaller step increases the
normal reaction and that ensure larger friction.
• Pulling is easier than pushing on a rough horizontal surface because normal reaction is less in pulling than in
pushing.
• Force of friction is non-conservative force.
• Force of Friction acts in a direction opposite to that of the tendency of relative motion between the surfaces.
• Rolling friction is much less than the sliding friction at slow speed. This knowledge was used by man to invent
the wheels.
• The atomic and molecular forces of attraction between the two surface at the point of contact give rise to
friction between the surface.

(8) Work, Energy and Power

■ Workdone- W= ∫ dw = ∫ F ⋅ dr = ∫ F dr cos θ

• W = F.d For constant force.

Y
• Unit = Newton – Meter.
• W=
SP
∫ dw = ∫ F dx For unidirectional force.
• Nature of work done -Although work done is scalar quantity, yet its value may be +ve, –ve or zero.
Negative Work Zero Work Positive Work
am
Te

,S=0

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■ Graph between force and displacement -
(i) If constant force is acting on body

(ii) If direction of force on the body is reversed -

(iii) If variable force is applied on the body

dw = Fdx

Y
x2
∫dw =
SP ∫x1
Fdx
x2
w = ∫ Fdx
x1

Concept-
(i) If F = f(x)
m
x2
W = ∫ Fdx
x1

(ii) If F = f(y)]
a

y2
W = ∫ Fdy
y1

(iii) If F = f(z)
Te

z2
W = ∫ Fdz
z1

But for more than one variable -

W=∫
( x 2 , y2 , z 2 )
( x1 , y1 ,z1 ) (
F dxiˆ + dyjˆ + dzkˆ )
■ Conservative Forces -
• Work done does not depend upon path.
• Work done in a round trip is zero.
• Central forces, spring forces etc are conservative forces.
• When only a conservation forces acts within a system, the kinetic energy and potential energy can change into
each other. However, their sum the mechanical energy of system doesn't change.
• Work done is completely recoverable.
• If F is a conservative force then- ∇ × F = 0 (i.e curl of F is zero)
■ Non-Conservative Forces -
• Work done depends upon path.
• Work done in a round trip is not zero.
• Force are velocity dependent & regarding in nature eg. friction, viscous force etc.
• Work done against a non-conservative force may be dissipated as heat energy.
• Work done is not recoverable.

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61
■ Energy -
• The capacity of doing work is called energy.

■ Kinetic Energy-
1
• K.E. = mv 2
2
• K.E ∝ v2

• Percentage error in K.E -

∆K ∆v
×100 = 2 ×100
K v
• Relation between Kinetic energy (K.E) and Linear Momentum –

Y
P2
K.E =
2m

•
P = 2mK
For same K.E of two particles -
SP
P1 m1
=
P2 m2
Concept -
am
• Work done due to all types of forces acting on the body will be equal to only change in K.E of that body.
■ Potential Energy -
• The energy possessed by any object by virtue of its position or configuration is called potential energy.
Te

• Potential energy is relative quantity.

• Potential energy is defined only for conservative force field.
• Relationship between conservative force field and potential energy.
 ∂U ˆ ∂U ˆ ∂U ˆ 
F = – ∇U = –grad(U) = –  i+ j+ k
 ∂x ∂y ∂z 
• If force varies only with one dimension (along x-axis) then
dU x2
F=– ⇒ U = – ∫x F dx
dx 1

■ Potential energy curve and equilibrium -

• It is a curve which shows change in potential energy with position of a particle.

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62
Stable Equilibrium -
• When a particle is slightly displaced from equilibrium position and it tends to come back towards equilibrium
then it is said to be in stable equilibrium.
dU
At Point C : Slope is negative so F is positive.
dx
dU
At Point D : Slope is positive so F is negative.
dx
At Point A : It is the point of stable equilibrium.
dU d2U
At Point A : U= Umin, and = positive.
dx dx 2
Unstable Equilibrium –
• When a particle is slightly displaced from equilibrium and it tends to move away from equilibrium position
then it is said to be is unstable equilibrium.
dU
At Point E : Slope is positive So, F is negative.
dx
dU
At Point G : Slope is negative so F is positive.
dx
At Point B : It is the point of unstable equilibrium
dU d2U

Y
At Point B : U = Umax , = 0 and = negative.
dx dx 2
Neutral Equilibrium –
SP
• When a particle is slightly displaced from equilibrium position and no force acts on it then equilibrium is said
to be neutral equilibrium point.

dU d2 U
= 0, 2 = 0
m
U = constant :
dx dx
■ Total Mechanical Energy of body-
• Mechanical energy = K.E + P.E
a

• E=K+U
• E = Kmax + Umin
• E = Kmin + Umax
Te

■ Work energy theorem for constant force-

• It states that the work done by the net force acting on a body is equal to the change in the K.E of the body.
W = Kf – Ki
Change in K.E of body = work done in the body by net force.
Work Energy theorem for variable force -
W = ∆ K.E
Change in Kinetic energy = Work done by all forces.
■ Power -
•The rate of doing work with respect to time is power.
W dW
Pavg= & Pinstantaneous =
t dt
•Power is scalar quantity.
•S.I. unit of power is J/S or Watt.
•1 mW = 10–3 W 1 MW = 106 W
3
1 KW = 10 W 1 Horse Power = 746 Watt
• P = F⋅V
= F V cos θ
•If θ = 0º If θ = 180º If θ = 90º
P = FV = +ve P= – FV = –ve P = 0

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63
■ Graph between force and velocity –

(i) Area = FV = P = Power

(ii)

Y
(iii)
SP v2
P = ∫ F dv
v1

■ Principle of Conservation of Energy –

• This law states that energy can neither be created nor destroyed but it can changed from one form to
another.
am
Example – When a body falls freely, under gravity its potential energy gradually changes into Kinetic energy,
But total mechanical energy (Kinetic energy + Potential energy) remains constant at any point of its motion.
■ Law of Conservation of Linear Momentum –
• This law states if no external force acts on a system, then its linear momentum remains constant.
Example - A rifle givens backward kick on firing a bullet before firing, both the bullet and the rifle are at rest
and initial momentum of the system is zero. As soon as bullet is fired, it moves forward with a large velocity.
In order to conserve momentum the rifle moves backward with such a velocity that final momentum of the
Te

system is zero.

■ Collision of Bodies –The event of the process, on which two bodies in contact with each other or due to
mutual interaction at distance apart, affect each other motion (velocity, momentum, energy or direction of
motion) is defined as a collision.
In Collision –
• The particle comes closer before collision and after collision they either stick together or move away from
each other.
• The particles need not come on contact with each other for a collision.
• The law of conservation of linear momentum is necessary applicable in a collision whereas the law of
conservation of mechanical energy is not.
Type of Collision –
• On the basis of direction
(i) One dimensional collision or Head on collision- The collision in which the particles move along the same
straight line before and after the collision is defined as one dimensional collision.
(ii) Two dimensional collision or oblique collision- The collision in which the particles move in the same plane
at different angles before and after collision is defined as oblique collision.
• On the Basis of Kinetic Energy-
(i) Elastic collision-A collision is said to be elastic, if the total kinetic energy before and after the collision
remains same.

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64
 (ii) Inelastic collision - A collision is said to be inelastic, If the total K.E does not remains constant.
(iii) Perfectly Inelastic collision- The collision in which the particles gets stacked together after the collision it
is called perfectly inelastic collision, in this type of inelastic collision loss of energy is maximum.
Coefficient of restitution --
Velocity of Seperation along line of impact
• e=–
Velocity of approach along line of impact
⇒ Value of e-
For elastic collision, e = 1
For perfectly inelastic collision, e = 0
For inelastic collision, 0 < e < 1
Head on collision-

Head on inelastic collision of two bodies-

(i) Momentum is conserved m1u1 + m2u2 = m1v1 + m2v2 ................ (i)
(ii) Kinetic energy is not conserved.
V – V1
(iii) According to Newton's law- e = 2 .............. (ii)
u1 – u 2
By solving (i) and (ii) we get-

Y
m u + m 2 u 2 – m 2 e ( u1 – u 2 )
v1 = 1 1
m1 + m 2

v2 =
m1 + m 2
SP
m1u1 + m 2 u 2 – m1e ( u 2 – u1 )

Elastic collision (e = 1)
• If the two bodies of equal masses : m1 = m2 = m, v1 = u2, v2 = u1.
Thus, if two bodies of equal masses undergoes elastic collision in one dimension, then after the collision, the
m
bodies will exchange their velocities.
• If the mass of body is negligible as compared to other -
If m1>>m2 and u2 = 0 then v1 = u1, v2 =2u1. When a heavy body A collides against a light body B at rest, the
body A should keep on moving with same velocity and the body B will moves with velocity double that of A.
a

If m2>>m1 and u2 = 0 then v2 = 0, v1 = – u1.

Loss in Kinetic Energy in inelastic collision–
m1m 2
(1 – e2 ) ( u1 – u 2 )2
Te

∆K =
2 ( m1 + m 2 )
Oblique Collision –
• Conserving the momentum of system in direction along normal (x-axis in our case) and tangential (y-axis in
our case).
m1u1 cos α1 + m2u2 cos α2 = m1v1 cos β 1 + m2v2 cos β 2
m2u2 sin α2 – m1u1 sin α1 = m2v2 sin β 2 – m1v1 sin β 1

Since number of force is acting on m1 and m2, along the tangent (i.e y-axis) the individual momentum of m1
and m2 remains conserved.
m1u1 sin α1 = m1v1 sin β 1 & m2u2 sin α2 = m2v2 sin β 2
By using Newton's experimental law along the line of impact-
v cos β 2 – v1 cos β1
e= 2
u1 cos α1 – u 2 cos α 2

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65
• To Determine Rebounce Velocity and Rebounce Height of Body when Collision Takes Place Between A
Body And Horizontal Rigid Surface-

• Newton's Experimental Formula-

V1–V2 = –e (U1–U2)
V–0 = –e (U–0)
V = –eU
• Rebounce Velocity -
| V| = eU = E 2gh
• nth Rebounce Velocity
Vn = enu = en × 2gh

Y
Here, n = 1,2,3,4,5........
• Rebounce Height-

h=
e2
x
SP
• nth Rebounce Height-
x nth = e 2n × h
x nth
h=
am
e2n
here, n = 1,2,3.......
■ Rocket propulsion –
 dm 
Thrust force on the rocket = v r  – 
 dt 
Te

Velocity of rocket at any instant

m 
V = u – gt + vr ln  0 
 m 

■ Key points-
• A quick collision between two bodies is more violent then slow collision, even when initial and final velocity
are equal because the rate of change of momentum determines that the impulsive force small or large.
• Impulse momentum theorem is equivalent to Newton's 2nd law of motion.
• For a system conservation of linear momentum is equivalent to Newton's third law of motion.
• A body may gain P.E. simultaneously because principle of conservation of mechanical energy may not be
valid every time.
• Comets move around the sun in elliptical orbits. The Gravitational force on the comet due to sun is not normal
to the comet's velocity but the work done by the gravitational force is zero in complete round trip because
gravitational force is conservative force.
• Rocket move by pushing the exhaust gases out so they can fly at low or high altitude.
• A man in a closed cabin (lift) falling freely does not experiences gravity as inertial and gravitational mass have
equivalence

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66
 (9) Rotational Motion
■ Rigid body - In physics a rigid body (also known as a rigid object) is a solid body in which deformation is zero
or so small that it can be neglected.
■ Center of Mass-
A point where total mass of body is concentrated.
■ Centre of Gravity (C.G) -
A point where total weight of body is concentrated.
To Determine Position (Co-ordinate ) of Centre of Gravity of a Body-

Concept -

Y
xC.G = xC.M
m x + m 2 x 2 + ...... + m n x n
xC.M = 1 1

yCM =
m1 + m 2 + m3 + .........m n
m1y1 + m 2 y 2 + ...... + m n y n
SP
m1 + m 2 + m3 + .........m n
m1z1 + m 2 z 2 + ...... + m n z n
zCM =
m1 + m 2 + m3 + .........m n
m
Position of center of mass in vector from-
a
Te

(i) For many particle System-

m1 r1 + m 2 r2 + m3 r3 ....... + m n rn
rC.M =
m1 + m 2 + m3 + ..... + m n
(ii) For two particle system-
m r + m 2 r2
rC.M = 1 1
m1 + m 2

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67
Velocity of centre of mass -
(i) For many particle system-
m1V1 + m 2 V2 + m3V3 + ....... + m n Vn
VC.M =
m1 + m 2 + m3 + ....... + m n
(ii) For two Particle system-
m V + m 2 V2
VC.M = 1 1
m1 + m 2
• Acceleration of centre of Mass-
(i) For many particle system-
dV
a C.M = C.M
dt
(ii) For two particle system-
m a + m2a 2
a C.M = 1 1
m1 + m 2
■ Position of centre of Mass of some Regular shape-
Regular Shape Centre of Mass
(i) Semi circular ring

2R

Y
yC.M =
π
(ii) Semi circular disc
SP
yC.M =
4R
3π
(iii) Hollow Hemi Sphere
am
R
yC.M =
2
(iv) Solid Hemi Sphere

3R
yC.M =
8
Te

(v) Triangular Lamina

h
yC.M =
3

(vi) For hollow cone

h 2h
yC.M = (From Base) & (From Apex)
3 3

■ Moment of Inertia (I)

It always opposes the rotational motion of body about any of rotation.
Moment of Inertia of single particle-

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68
→ I = mr2
→ Unit kg –m2
→ [ML2T0]
→ It is the tensor quantity and for a fixed axis it is Scalar.
→ If r = 0 then I = 0
Ι
• Radius of gyration K=
M
• Radius of gyration of particle system
r12 + r22 + ...... + rn2
K=
n
Parallel - Axis Theorem:
The parallel axis theorem states that, the moment of inertia of a body about any axis is equal to the sum of its
moment of inertia about a parallel axis through its center of mass and the product of the mass of the body
and the square of the perpendicular distance between the two parallel axes.
I = Icm +Md2
Where, Icm - moment of inertia about an axis through the centre of mass, M - total mass of the body and d -
Perpendicular distance between the two parallel axis.

Y
SP
G = centre of gravity
m
O = origin
Perpendicular Axis Theorem (Applicable for only planar bodies)
The perpendicular axis theorem states that the moment of inertia, for any axis which is perpendicular to the
a

plane, is equal to the sum of any two perpendicular axes of the body which intersects with the first axis.
Te

Iz =Ix + Iy
Moment of Inertia of several Uniform object-
1. For a Thin circular Ring
Sr. No. Axis of Rotation Moment of Inertia
(i) About its main axis
IG = Imainaxis = MR2

(ii) About its tangent perpendicular to

its plane
IT = IG +MR2
= 2MR2

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69
 (iii) About its diameter
IX+IY = IZ
ICD+IAB = IZ
Idia+Idia = MR2
MR 2
Idia =
2
(iv) About its tangent parallel to
diameter
IT = IAB + MR2
1
= MR 2 + MR 2
2
3
MR 2
2
2. For a disc (M.R) -

Sr. Axis of Rotation Moment of Inertia

No.
(i) About its main axis
1

Y
IG = Imainaxis = MR2
2 SP
(ii) About its tangent perpendicular to
its plane
IT = IG +MR2
3
= MR2
am
2

(iii) About its diameter

1
Idia = MR 2
4
Te

(iv) About its tangent parallel to

diameter
5
IT = MR 2
4

3. For a hollow cylinder (M,R,L)-

Sr. No. Axis of Rotation Moment of Inertia
(i) About its main axis
IG = Imainaxis = MR2

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70
 (ii) About its tangent
IT = IG +MR2
= MR2 + MR2
= 2MR2

(iii) About an axis passing through its

diameter of circular surface
 L2 R 2 
I=M + 
 12 2 

(iv) About its tangent parallel to

diameter
 L2 R 2 
IT = M  + 
3 2 

Y
4. For Solid Cylinder [M.L.R]-
Sr. No. Axis of Rotation Moment of Inertia
(i) About its main axis
IG = Imainaxis = MR2/2
SP
a m
(ii) About its tangent
3
IT = MR2
Te

(iii) About an axis passing through its

diameter of circular surface
 L2 R 2 
I=M + 
 12 4 

(iv) About its tangent parallel to

diameter
 L2 R 2 
IT = M  + 
3 4 

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71
5. Moment of inertia of Hollow Sphere-

Sr. No. Axis of Rotation Moment of Inertia

(i) About its main axis
2
IG = Imainaxis = MR2
3

(ii) About its tangent

5
IT = MR 2
3

6. For solid Sphere-

Sr. No. Axis of Rotation Moment of Inertia

(i) About its main axis
2
IG = Imainaxis = Idia= MR2

Y
5

(ii) About its tangent

SP
7
IT = MR 2
5
am

7. For rod (M,L)-

Sr. No. Axis of Rotation Moment of Inertia

(i) About its main axis
Te

1
IG = Imainaxis = ML2
12

(ii) About its end points

1
Iend = ML2
3

8. For Rectangular Lamina (Plate)-

Sr. No. Axis of Rotation Moment of Inertia

(i) About its main axis

IG =
1
12
(
M L2 + B2 )

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72
9. For Square Lamina -

Sr. No. Axis of Rotation Moment of Inertia

(i) About its main axis

IG =
1
12
(
M L2 + L2 )
1
IG = ML2
6
10. Moment of inertia of di-atomic molecule about its centre of gravity-
I = µ r2
m1m 2
Where , µ =
m1 + m 2
= Reduced Mass
= Average Mass of two Mass system.
Moment of force (τ)-
• Torque or moment of force about the axis of rotation
τ = r × F = rFsin θnˆ

Y
• It is a vector quantity
• It is also known as moment of force or couple .
• Its S.I. Unit is N-m.
Sign convention for torque-
SP
• If the object is rotating in a clockwise direction then torque is considered negative.
τ = –Fd
m
• If the object is rotating in a anti-clockwise direction then torque is considered positive.
τ = +Fd
Relation between τ and I is
a

τ = Iα
Where, α = angular acceleration, I = moment of inertia
■ Angular Momentum
Te

The moment of linear momentum is called angular momentum.

It is denoted by L.
L = I ω = mvr = r × mv
Its SI unit is J-s and its dimensional formula is [ML2T–1].
Relation between torque and angular momentum-
τ = Text = Rate of change in angular momentum
∆L L 2 − L1 dL
τ= = = = external torque on the system.
∆t ∆t dt
Law of conservation of angular momentum-
The Law of conservation of angular momentum states that if no external force acts on a system, then its
angular momentum remains constant
Angular momentum (L) = Moment Inertia (I) ×angular speed (ω)
L = I ω = constant
L1 = L2
I1ω1 = I2 ω2
Example - While revolving in its elliptical orbit, when a planet approaches the sun Its moment of Inertia about the
sun decreases. To conserve the angular momentum, its angular speed increases.

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73
■ Kinetic Energy of rotational motion-
1 2
K.E = Iω
2
Where, I = moment of inertia, ω = angular speed
■ Power delivered by the Torque-
ω2
P=
∫ω1
τdω = τ. ω

■ Work done by the Torque-

τ = f(θ)
θ2
W=
∫ θ1
τ(θ) dθ = τθ

■ Motion of a body Rolling down without slipping on an inclined Plane-

• Acceleration of the body-
mg sin θ g sin θ
α= =
m+ 2
I K2
1+ 2
r r

Y
SP
Where, K = radius of gyration
am
m = mass of the body.
θ = inclination of the Plane.
• Velocity attained at the bottom-
2gh 2gSsin θ  h 
V= = ∵ S = 
2 2
 θ
Te

K K sin
1+ 2 1+ 2
r r
• Time taken by the rolling body to reach at the bottom of inclined plane-

 K2 
2S 1 + 2 
 r 
Time =
g sin θ
Where, S = length of slope, r = radius of rolling body and h = height of slope.
Concept-
• If a cylinder, ring, disc and sphere rolls on inclined plane, then the sphere will reach the bottom first with
greater velocity while the ring will reach the bottom with least velocity.
• If a solid and hollow body of same shape are allowed to roll down an inclined plane, then solid body will
reach the bottom first with greater velocity.
• For rolling without slipping - the minimum value of coefficient friction-

µ=
F
=
( )
I α / r2
R mg cos θ

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74
■ Pure rolling (or rolling without slipping ) on stationary surface-
→ Condition : Vcm = R ω
→ In accelerated motion acm = Rα
→ If Vcm> R ω then rolling with forward slipping.
→ If Vcm< R ω then rolling with backward slipping.
→ Total kinetic energy of rolling object-
1 1
= mv 2 + Iω2
2 2
Concept-
In rolling all points of the body have same angular speed but different linear speed.
• In pure Translational motion-

• In pure rotational motion-

Y
•
SP
In combined motion i.e translational as well as rotational motion-
m
• To determine linear velocity of any point on the rolling bodies if velocity of its center of mass is V-
a
Te

V
• VA = r ω = 2R × = 2V
R
V
• VB = r ω = R 2 × =V 2
R
V
• VD = r ω = R 2 × = 2V
R
■ Key Points-
• A ladder is more opt to slip, when you are high up rather than when you just began to climb because at high
up on a ladder the torque is large and on climbing up the torque is small.
• The hardboiled egg and raw egg can be distinguished on the basis of spinning of both.
• Instantaneous axis of rotation is stationary with respect to ground.
• All particles of a rigid body, which do not lie on an axis of rotation move on circular paths with centers at an
axis of rotation.
• The relative angular velocity between any two points of a rigid body is zero at any instant.

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75
 (10) Gravitation
Gravitation - It is the force of attraction between any two bodies.
■ Newton's Law of Gravitation-

• Force of attraction between two masses m1 and m2 separated by a distance r -

Gm1m 2
F=
r2
Where, G = Universal gravitational constant
G = 6.67×10–11 Nm2 kg–2
F12 = –F21

■ Kepler's Law's of Planetary Motion –

(i) Laws of orbit -

Y
SP
Perigee
am

• Every planet revolves around the earth in an elliptical orbit and sun is at its focus.
(ii) Law of area -
• The radius vector drawn from the sun to a planet sweeps out equal areas in equal intervals of time i.e that areal
velocity of the planet around the sun is constant.
Te

Area swept ( ∆A ) L
Areal velocity of planet = = constant
Time ( ∆t ) 2m

Where, L = angular momentum

m = mass of the planet
(iii) Laws of period -
• The square of the time period of revolution of a planet around the sun is directly proportional to the cube of
semi-major axis of its elliptical orbit.
2 3
T  a 
T ∝ a or  1  =  1 
2 3

 T2   a 2 

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76
■ Acceleration due to gravity –
The uniform acceleration produced in a freely falling object due to the gravitational pull of the earth.
GM 4
g= = ( πρGR )
R2 3
• for same material on two planet -
g∝R
g1 R1
=
g2 R 2
Where, ρ = density of earth, M = mass of earth and R = radius of earth
Acceleration due to gravity at earth's surface –

GM e
gearth = = 9.8 m/sec 2
R e2

Where, Me = 6×1024 Kg
Re = 6.4 ×106 m or 6400 km
Acceleration due to gravity at moon surface –
GM m

Y
g moon =
R 2m
g earth
g moon =

Where,
6
Mm = 7.34×1022 Kg
SP
Rm = 1.74 ×106 m or 1737.4 km
■ Variation of gravity -
m
(i) Due top shape of earth-
GM e
g=
R e2
a

1
g∝
R 2e
Requator – Rpolar = 21 Km
Te

Requator > RPolar

gequator < gpolar

(ii) Due to height from earth surface -

g  2h 
gh = 2
= g  1- 
 h   R
 1+ 
 Re 
• The value of 'g' decrease with height. It varies inversely as the square of the distance from the center of the
earth.
g h
If h = Re , gh =
4
If h → ∞, gh = 0
2hg
Decrease in the value of g with height is g h - g =
Re
g h – g 2h
Fractional decrease in the value of g = =
g R

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(iii) Due to depth from earth surface -
 h 
g' = g  1 – 
 Re 
If h = Re, g'centre = 0
gh
Decrease in the value of 'g' with depth is ∆g = g – g' =
Re
∆g g – g' h
Fractional decrease in the value of 'g' with depth is = =
g g Re
∆g h
Percentage error in g is = ×100 = ×100
g Re
(iv) Rotation of earth about its own axis-
If ω is the angular velocity of rotation of earth about its own axis then acceleration due to gravity at a place
having latitude λ is given by - g' = g – Rω2cos2λ
♦ At poles λ = 90º and g' = g. Therefore, there is
no effect of rotation of earth about its own axis
at poles.
♦ At equator λ = 0º and g' = g – Rω2. Therefore
value of g is minimum at equator.

Y
♦ If earth stops its rotation about its own axis,
then g will remain unchanged at poles but
increase by Rω2 at equator.
SP
■ Gravitational field –
• The space around a body in which its gravitational pull works, is called gravitational field.
am
• The gravitational force acting per unit mass at any point in gravitational field is called intensity of gravitational
field at that point.
• It is denoted by E .
F
E=
m
Te

GMm
F=
r2
GM
E = – 2 er
r
Where, er is the unit vector along r
– ve sign shows force of attraction
• Intensity is zero at infinite distance from the body.
Gravitational field intensity for different bodies -
(1) Intensity due to point mass -
GM
E = – 2 er
r

Where, er is the unit vector along r

If r = 0, E = ∞
If r = ∞, E = 0

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78
Concept
• Gravitational field intensity always direct towards the mass (M) of the body.

(2) Intensity due to uniform solid sphere –

♦ Outside the Surface , r > R
GM
E=– 2
r
♦ On the Surface, r = R
GM
E=– 2
R
♦ Inside the Surface, r < R
GMr
E=– 3
R
(3) Intensity due to Spherical shell -

Y
♦ Outside the Surface , r > R
GM
E=– 2
r
♦ On the Surface, r = R
SP
GM
E=– 2
R
♦ Inside the Surface, r < R
m
E=0
(4) Intensity due to uniform circular ring-
♦ At a point on its axis
a

GMr
E = -- 3
(a + r 2 ) 2
2
Te

♦ At the centre of ring, E = 0

■ Gravitational Potential (V) -
• It is amount of work done in bringing a unit mass m0 from infinity to a point in the gravitational field without
acceleration.
r GM
V=∫ dr
+∞ r2

GM W
V=– =
r r
• If r = R (Surface of earth)
– GM
V=
R
• If r = ∞, V = 0 means 'V' is maximum at infinity.
• Its S.I. units is J/Kg.
• It is a scalar quantity.
• Since, work W is obtained i.e. it is negative, the gravitational potential is always negative.

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79
■ Gravitational Potential Energy (U) -
• It is amount of work done in bringing a massive body from infinity to a point in the gravitational field without
acceleration.
GMm
U=–
r
• Negative sign shows attractive force.
• When r = ∞, U = 0 (Maximum gravitational P.E.)
• Change in P,E. of a body, when it moves from distance r1 to distance r2
r2 GMm
∆U = ∫ dr
rl r2
1 1 
∆U = GMm  – 
 r1 r2 
♦ Gravitational potential energy at height 'h' from surface of earth
GMm mgR
Uh = – =
R +h h
1+
R
♦ P.E. of the body decreases when it brought close to the earth.

Y
♦ Change in P.E. of a body, which is at a height 'h' above the
surface of the earth.
∆U = mgh
SP
am
Gravitational Potential Energy of a two particle system-
Gm1m 2 r
U= – •− − − − − − −•
r m1 m2
Gravitational Potential Energy for a System of more than two particles- (say m1, m2, m3 & m4)
m m m m mm m m 
Te

m m mm
U = – G 4 3 + 4 2 + 4 1 + 3 2 + 3 1 + 2 1
 r43 r42 r41 r32 r31 r21 
n ( n – 1)
∴for n particle system there are pairs
2
■ Gravitational Potential for different bodies -
(i) Potential due to a point mass -
GM 0 r
V=– •− − − − − − −• P
r M
(ii) Potential due to uniform ring –
♦ At a point on its axis
GM
V=–
a 2 + r2

♦ GM
At the centre of ring, V = –
a

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(iii) Potential due to spherical shell -
♦ Outside the Surface , r > R
GM
V=–
r
♦ On the Surface, r = R
GM
V=–
R
♦ Inside the Surface, r < R
GM
V=–
r

(iv) Potential due to uniform solid sphere -

♦ Outside the Surface , r > R
GM
V=–
r
♦ On the Surface, r=R
GM
Vsurface = –
R
♦ Inside the Surface,

Y
GM   r  
2

V=– 3 – 
2R   R 
–3 GM
Vcentre =

SP
2 R
■ Relation between Gravitational Field and Potential –
dV = – E .dr
m
Where, E = E ˆi + E ˆj + E kˆ
x y z

dr = dxiˆ + dyjˆ + dzkˆ

a

dV = – E x dx – E y dy – E z dz
– ∂V – ∂V – ∂V
Ex = , Ey = , Ez = ,
∂x ∂y ∂z
Te

■ Orbital Velocity -
• Orbital velocity of satellite is the minimum velocity required to put the satellite into a given orbit around earth.
GM g
Vo = =R
r R+h
Where, M = mass of the planet
R = radius of the planet
h = height of the satellite from planets surface.
• If satellite revolving near the earth's surface then orbital velocity Vo ≈ 7.92 Km/s.
• If V is the speed of satellite in its orbit and Vo is the required orbital velocity.
(i) If V < Vo, then satellite will move on a parabolic path and satellite will fall back to earth.
(ii) If V = Vo, the satellite will revolve in circular path/orbit around earth.
(iii) If Vo < V <Ve, then satellite will revolve around earth in elliptical orbit.
■ Escape Velocity -
• Escape velocity of earth is the minimum velocity with which a body has to be projected vertically upwards
from the earth surface, so that it just crosses the earth's gravitational field and never returns.
Case-1
• Escape velocity does not depend upon the mass, shape and size of the body as well as direction of
projection of body.

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 2GM
Ve = = 2gR
R
Ve ∝ mº
Case-2 Escape velocity in terms of density of that planet -
M
ρ=
V
8
Ve = R πGρ
3
Case- 3 – Condition for black hole of any planet –
2 GM
Escape velocity of the planet = ≥ light velocity (3×108)
R
Case-4
• If Projection Velocity (Vp) of a body from earth-surface is more than escape velocity (Ve) then to determine
the velocity of that body in space -
Vs = Vp2 – Ve2
Some important escape velocity –
Heavenly body Escape Velocity
Moon 2.3 Km/sec

Y
Mercury 4.28 Km/sec
Earth 11.2 Km/sec
Jupiter
Sun
Neutron star
60 Km/sec
618 Km/sec
2×105 Km/sec
SP
Relation between escape velocity and orbital velocity–
Ve = 2Vo
■ Motion of Satellite –
am
GM
• Orbital velocity Vo =
r
2π
• Time period T = r 3/2
GM
GMm
• Kinetic energy K =
Te

2r
GMm
• Potential energy U = –
r
GMm
• Total mechanical energy E = –
2r
• Near the surface of earth,
GM V
r ≈ R and Vo = = Rg = e = 7.9Kms –1
R 2
This is the maximum speed of any earth's satellite.
• Time period of such satellite would be
2π 3
2
R
T= R = 2π
= 84.6 min
GM g
This is the minimum time period of any earth's satellite.
GMm
• Binding energy B.E = +
2r
• Angular momentum of Satellite, L = m 2 GMr
• Effective weight in a satellite, W = 0 and satellite behaves like a free fall body.

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■ Geostationary or Parking Satellites –
• A satellite which appears to be at a fixed position at a definite height to an observer on earth is called
geostationary or parking satellite. They rotate from west to east.
Height from earth's surface = 36000 Km
Time period = 24 hour
Orbital velocity = 3 Km/sec
2π π
Angular velocity = = rad/min
24 12

• These satellite are used in communication purpose.

• INSAT 2B and INSAT 2C are geostationary satellite of India.
■ Polar Satellites –
• These are those satellites which revolve in polar orbits around earth.
• Height form earth's surface ≈ 880 km
Time period ≈ 90 min
Orbital velocity ≈ 8 km/sec
2π π
Angular velocity ≈ = rad/min
90 45

Y
SP
• These satellite revolve around the earth in polar orbits.
• These satellites are used in forecasting weather studying the upper region of the atmosphere in mapping etc.
• PSLV series satellites are polar satellites of India.
■ Key Points -
m
(i) At the centre of earth, a body has centre of mass, but no centre of gravity.
(ii) The centre of mass and centre of gravity of body coincide if gravitational field is uniform.
(iii) We does not experience gravitational force in daily life due to objects of same size as value of G is very
a

small.
(iv)Moon travellers tie heavy weight at there back before landing on moon due to smaller value of g at moon.
(v) Space rockets are usually launched in equatorial line from west to east because g is minimum at equator and
Te

earth rotates from west to east about its axis.

(vi)Angular momentum is gravitational field is conserved because gravitational force is central force.
(vii)Kepler's second law or constancy of areal velocity is a consequence of conservation of angular momentum.
(viii)The energy required by satellite to leave its orbit around the earth (planet) and escape to infinity is called
Binding Energy of satellite.

(11) Elasticity
Deforming Force – A force which produces a change in configuration of the objects on applying it.
Elasticity – The property of the body to regain its original configuration after removing the deforming force .
■ Stress – The stress is internal restoring force acting per unit area of a deformed body.
F
Stress = = restoring force per unit area.
A
• If the configuration of the body is not permanently changed then stress in defined as –
External deforming force
Stress = .
Area
• Stress is tensor quantity.
• S.I. unit of stress is N/m2, Pascal (Pa).

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(1) Normal Stress – The stress which acts perpendicular to the cross sectional area of any object or body.

(a) Longitudinal Stress - The stress which acts along the length of the body.

Y
SP
am

(b) Volumetric Stress - The stress which acts from all dimension resulting in the change in the volume of the
object.
Te

(2) Shear stress - The stress which acts parallel to the cross-sectional area of any object or body is called shear
stress.

■ Strain - The effect of stress in the body or object is called strain.

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 The ratio of change in configuration to the original configuration is called strain.
Change in dimension
Strain =
Original dimension
• It is unit less.
Types of strain -
Change in Length
(i) Longitudinal Strain = .
Original length
Change in Volume
(ii) Volumetric Strain = .
Original Volume
(iii) Shear Strain = Angular displacement of the plane perpendicular to the fixed surface.
∆x
= tan θ =
ℓ

Y
Hooke's law -
SP
• Within the limit of elasticity, the stress is proportional to strain.
a m
Te

Stress ∝ Strain
Stress = E × Strain
Stress
E = Modulus of elasticity = .
Strain
• A material is more elastic when its E is large.
■ Elastic Modulus - The ratio of stress and strain is called modulus of elasticity or elastic moduli.
Types of modulus of elasticity -
(1) Young's Modulus of elasticity -
• It is defined as the ratio of longitudinal stress to the longitudinal strain within the elastic limit
Longitudinal Stress
Y=
Longitudinal Strain
F l
Y=
A ∆l
• Young's modulus is defined only for Solids.
• When impurity in the solids increases, Y increases.
• When temperature increases, Y decreases.

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85
 • It's S.I. unit is N/m2 or Pascal.
• Dimensional formula is [ML–1T–2].
Force Constant of wire -
• Force required to produce unit elongation in a wire is called force constant of a material of a wire. It is denoted
YA
by k. k= .
l
Where, Y = Young's modulus of elasticity
A = Cross – section area of wire.
(2) Bulk Modulus of elasticity -
• It is defined as the ratio of volumetric stress to the volumetric strain within the elastic limit.
Volumetric Stress
K=
Volumetric Strain
FV ∆ P.V
K= – = –
A ∆V ∆V
F
Where, ∆P = = change in pressure.
A
• – ve sign indicates that when pressure decreases volume increases and vice -versa.

Y
• Bulk modulus of elasticity is defined for all the three states of matter.
• Its S.I. unit is N/m2 or Pascal.
• Its dimensional formula is [ML–1T–2]
SP
1
• Compressibility of the material C =
K
• S.I. unit of compressibility is Pascal–1 = N–1 m2.
am
• CGS unit of compressibility is = dyne–1 cm2.
(3) Modulus of rigidity (η) -
• It is defined as the ratio of tangential stress to the shearing strain.
Tangential Stress
η=
Shearing Strain
Te

F
η=
Aθ
• It is define only for Solid.
• It's S.I. unit is N/m2 or Pascal.
• It's dimensional formula is [ML–1T–2]
Factor affecting elastic limit–
(i) Modulus of elasticity of material decreases with the rise in temperature, except for invar steel.
(ii) By annealing elasticity of the material decreases.
(iii) By hammering or rolling elasticity of the material increases.
(iv) Addition of impurities affects elastic properties depending on whether impurities are themselves more or less
elastic.
(v) For liquids, modulus of rigidity is zero.
■ Poisson's Ratio –
• When a deforming force is applied at the free and of a suspended wire of length and Radius R, then its length
increases by dl but radius decreases by dR.
Lateral Strain – ∆R/R
Poisson's ratio = = .
Longitudinal Strain ∆l/l

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86
 • Practical value lies between 0 and 0.5.;
1
• Theoretical limits of poisson 'σ' = –1 < σ <
2
■ Relation between Y, K, η and σ -
(i) Y= 3K(1 – 2σ)
3K – 2η
(ii) σ =
2η + 6K
(iii) Y = 2η[(1 + σ)]
9 1 3
(iv) = +
Y K η
9Kη
(v) Y=
η + 3K
■ Stress-Strain Curve -
• It is the plot of stress (y-axis) and strain (x-axis) of a material or metal in the graph.
• The stress and Strain diagram for different material is different.

Y
SP
a m
(i) Proportional limit -
It is the region in the stress-strain curve which obey's Hooke's law.
Te

(ii) Elastic limit -

It is the point in the graph up to which the material returns to its original position when the load acting on it is
completely removed. Beyond this limit the material cannot retain its original position and plastic deformation
starts to appear in it.
(iii) Yield point or Yield stress point –
it is defined as the point at which the material starts to deform plastically after the yield point is passed there is
permanent deformation in the material and which is not reversible.
(iv) Ultimate stress point -
It is the point corresponding to the maximum stress that a material can handle the maximum load.
(v) Fracture or Breaking point –
It is the point in the curve at which the failure of the material takes place. The fracture or breaking of material
takes place at this point.
• If large deformation takes place between the elastic limit and the fracture point, the material is called ductile.
• If it breaks soon after the elastic limit is crossed it is called brittle.
■ Elastic potential Energy - in a stretched wire –
When a body is in its natural shape, its potential energy corresponding to the molecular forces is minimum and
we may take the potential energy in this state to be zero.
When a body deformed, internal forces appears and work has to be done against these forces.
Thus, the potential energy of the body is increased. This is called the elastic potential energy.

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87
 1
U= ×Stress×Strain × Volume
2
1  l  l 
= ×  Y  ×   × ( AL )
2  L L
■ Work done per unit Volume (or Energy per unit Volume in a strain) -
(i) Longitudinal Strain –
Work done per unit volume of the wire or strain energy per unit volume of the wire –
1 1 F   l 
×Stress ×Strain =   ×  
2 2 A L
(ii) Volume Strain -
Work done (or strain energy) per unit volume.
1 ∆V

Y
= ×P×
2 V
1
= ×Stress ×Strain
2
(iii) Shearing Strain -
SP
Work done (or strain energy) per unit volume
1 F 
=   (θ )
2 A
am
1
= ×Stress×Strain
2
■ Thermal Stress -
Te

• Thermal stress is induced in a body when the temperature of the body is raised or lowered and the body is not
allowed to expand or contract freely. Thermal stress includes both heat and cold stress.
F
Thermal Stress = =Y α ∆θ
A
Where, α = coefficient of linear expansion of the material of the rod.
Y = Young's modulus of elasticity
∆θ = change in temperature.

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 (12) Beams, Bending of Beams & Torsion of Cylindrical Bodies
■ Beam - A rod or a bar of a circular or rectangular cross sections with its length very much greater than its
thickness (so that there are no shearing stresses over any section of it) is called a beam.
■ Bending moment of beam -
Flexural Rigidity YI g
• Bending moment = =
R R
Where, Y = Young's modulus of elasticity.
bd 3
• For a beam of rectangular cross section, Ig = .
12
Where, b = breadth of the beam
d = depth of the beam
Ig = geometrical moment of inertia.
πR 4
• For a beam of circular cross section, Ig = .
4
Where, R = radius of its cross section.
■ Stiffness of beam -

Y
• The stiffness of a beam is taken to be the ratio between the maximum deflection of its loaded end and its span
and is usually denoted by the symbol 1 .
n
SP
• For steel girders with a large span, n should lie between 1000 to 2000, and for those with a smaller span,
between 500 to 700. For timber beam, it should be 360 or above.
■ The Cantilever (Depression of its loaded end) -
• If the beam is fixed only at one end and loaded at the other end, then it is called the cantilever.
m
WL3
Case (i) - Weight of the cantilever ineffective - δ= .
3YI g
Where, δ = depression of the loaded end
a

L = length of Cantilever
Y = Young's modulus of rigidity
Ig = Geometrical moment of Inertia
Te

W = Weight (loaded at its free end)

WL3
Case (ii) - Cantilever uniformly loaded - δ= .
8YI g
W0 L3
In case there if no load placed on the cantilever and it bends under its own weight i.e. W = W0, δ = .
8YI g
■ Depression of Supported and fixed beam -
Case (i) - Supported beam, centrally loaded and when the weight of the beam is ineffective -

WL3
δ= .
48YIg
Where, L = Length of cantilever.
89

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 5  WL3 
Case (ii) - Supported beam uniformly loaded - δ=   .
8  48YIg 
5  W L3 
If there is no load placed on the beam i.e. W = W0 then - δ =  0  .
8  48YIg 
1  WL3

Case (iii) - Fixed beam, centrally loaded - δ=   .
4  48YI g

i.e. the depression of the mid point of beam is one fourth of that when it is simply supported at the end.
Concept -
• Equivalence of a shear to a tensile and a compressive strain at right angles to each other and each equal half the
shear.
• Equivalence of a shearing stress to an equal tensile and an equal compressive stress at right angle to each other.
■ Twisting Couple of a Cylinder -
(i) Case of a solid cylinder or wire-
Let a solid cylinder (or wire) of length L and radius R be fixed at its upper end and let a couple be applied to its
lower end in a plane perpendicular to its length (with its axis coinciding with that of cylinder) such that it is
twisted through an angle 'θ'.

Y
SP
am
2πηθ 3
• The moment of this force about the axis OO' of the cylinder is = x dx .
L
2πηθ 3
R πηR 4
• Twisting couple on the whole cylinder, ∫0 L x dx =
2L
θ.

• Twisting couple per unit twist of the cylinder or wire, is called torsional rigidity of its material is given by -
Te

πηR 4
C= .
2L
(ii) Case of Hollow Cylinder -
• If the cylinder be a hollow one of inner and outer radii R1 and R2 respectively we have-

( R 2 – R14 ) θ .
R 2 2πηθ πη 4
• Twisting couple on the cylinder = ∫ x 3 dx =
R1 L 2L

• Twisting couple per unit twist - C' =

2L
( R 2 – R 14 ) .
πη 4

Concept -
• If we consider two cylinders of the same material, of density ρ, and of same mass M and length L but one solid
of radius R and the other hollow of inner and outer radii R1 and R2 respectively -
C' R 22 + R 12 C'
= 2
and > 1 or C' > C.
C R C
The twisting couple per unit twist is greater for a hollow cylinder than for a solid one of the same material,
mass and length.
Variation of Stress in a Twisted Cylinder -
(i) Along the radius -
• Shearing stress at distance x from the axis = ηφ.
90

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 • Maximum shearing stress at distance R from the axis = ηφm,
Shearing stress at distance x ηΦ Φ x
= = =
Maximum shearing stress ηΦ m Φ m R
x
• Stress at distance x from the axis = × maximum stress.
R
(ii) Along the length -
L
• Strain or shear on the surface of the cylinder - θ= φm
R
R L
So, shear on the surface of the cylinder × φm = φm is same as in the plane at distance L from the fixed end.
L R
Thus, the shearing stress on the surface of the cylinder is quite independent of the distance from either end of
it.
■ Strain Energy in a twisted cylinder -
1
• The work done or energy stored up in a cylinder twisted through an angle θ is - Cθ 2
2
Where, C = couple per unit twist.

(13) Hydrostatics
Hydrostatics- The branch of physics that deals with the study of fluids at rest is called fluid static or Hydrostatics.

Y
■ Fluids-
• Fluids are those substances which has no fixed shape and can flow when external force is applied on them.
SP
• Liquids and gases can flow and therefore called fluids.
• An ideal fluid is incompressible, Non-viscous, Irrotational
■ Thrust-
• A force acting normally on a surface is called thrust
• Thrust is a vector quantity.
m
• Thrust is measured in dynes in C.G.S system and in Newton's (N) in S.I. system.
• The gravitational unit of thrust is kilogram force Kgf.
Where, 1 kgf = 9.8 N
■ Pressure - The amount of force exerted (thrust) on a surface per unit area is called pressure.
a

Thrust F⊥
Pressure = =
Area A
Te

• Pressure is a scalar quantity.

• Unit of pressure -
- In S.I. unit = Nm–2 = Pascal = Pa
- 1atm = 1.01×105 Pa ≈ 1 bar ≈ 760 mm of Hg ≈ 760 torr
- 1 torr = 133.32 Pa
- In gravitational unit = Kgfm–2
1 Kgfm–2 = 105 Pa
■ Pressure in fluids-
When an object is submerged in a fluid at rest, the fluid exerts a force on its surface . This force is always normal
to the object's surface.
Force⊥
Pressure =
Area

91

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■ Density -
• The density of any material is defined as its mass per unit volume. If a body of Mass M occupies volume V,
then its density is.-
M
ρ=
V
• Density is positive scalar quantity.
• As liquids are incompressible, their density remains constant at all pressures.
• Density of a gas varies largely with pressure.
Example- water = 1.0×103 Kg-m–3 , Mercury = 13.6×103 kg-m–3 , Air = 1.29 kg-m–3
■ Relative density/ Specific Gravity-
• Relative density of a substance is the ratio of its density to the density of water at 4 °C
Density of sustance
R.D =
Density of water at 4°C
• Water has highest density at 4°C = 1g / cm3 =103kg/m3
• Relative density is a unit less quantity.
Example -
13.6 × 103 kg / m 3
( R.D )Hg = = 13.6
103 kg / m3

Y
■ Density of a mixture of two or more liquids-
Case I - In the proportion of Mass -

The density of mixture is ρ =

M1 M 2 M 3
+
SP
M1 + M 2 + M3 + ......
+ + ......
ρ1 ρ2 ρ3
Case (II) - In the proportion of volume-
ρ V + ρ2 V2 + ρ3 V3 +
The density of the mixture is ρ = 1 1 ..........
am
V1 + V2 + V3 +
■ Pressure Exerted by Liquid Column-
The pressure exerted by a liquid column at rest is proportional to
(i) Height of liquid column (h)
(ii) Density of the liquid (ρ)
P = hρg
Te

■ Absolute Gauge, Atmospheric and vacuum pressures-

(i) Absolute pressure -
• It is the zero reference to a perfect vacuum which exist in the air free space of the universe.
• It is the sum of gauge pressure and atmospheric pressure.
P = P0 + ρgh
Where, Pgauge = ρgh
(ii) Gauge pressure -
• It is the pressure, zero referenced against ambient Pressure
• It is also called overpressure. Gauge pressure is + ve for pressure above the atmosphere and negative for
a pressure below it.
Pgauge = P – P0
92

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(iii) Atmospheric Pressure-
• It is the pressure exerted by the weight of the atmosphere.
• The standard value of air pressure at sea level is 14.696 psi at 59 deg F heat
• In imperial unit and metric units - it is 1013.25 milibar at 15 deg C
(iv) Vacuum Pressure -
It is the pressure below atmospheric pressure measured by vacuum gauges. It indicates the difference
between atmospheric pressure and absolute pressure.
Pvac = P0 – P
Pvac= – Pgauge

Y
■ Effect of gravity on Fluid Pressure- SP
m
PB = PA + ρgh
a

Where, h = vertical height.

• The liquid pressure is the same at all points at the same horizontal level or same depth.
Te

• Pressure at any point inside the fluid depends on the depth h.

• Pressure does not depend on the cross- section or base area or the shape of the vessel.
■ Pascal's law -
• This law tell us how pressure can be transmitted in a fluid.
• The pressure exerted at any point on an enclosed liquid is transmitted equally in all direction.
• The pressure in a fluid at rest is same at all points if we ignore gravity.
Application of Pascal's law-
(i) Hydraulic lift-
• Hydraulic lift is an application of Pascal's law.
• It is used to lift heavy objects.
• It is a force multiplier.
• According to Pascal's Law , the same pressure P
is also transmitted to the larger piston of
cross- sectional area A.
• Force on larger piston is-
f A
F = P×A = A = × f
a a
As A > a , therefore , F > f
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(ii) Hydraulic brakes-
The hydraulic brakes used in automobiles are based on Pascal's Law of transmission of pressure in a liquid.

• The Working of hydraulic lift and hydraulic brakes are based on Pascal's law.
■ Hydrostatic Paradox-
The liquid pressure at a point is independent of the quantity of liquid but depends on the depth of point below
the liquid surface this is known as hydrostatic paradox.
Important Point related to fluid pressure-
(i) The pressure exerted at any point on an enclosed liquid is transmitted equally in all direction.
(ii) Pressure will be same at all point at the same level in a liquid.
(iii) The pressure exerted by a liquid depends only on the height of fluid column and is independent of the shape of
the containing vessels.

Y
SP
If hA = hB = hC, then pA = pB = pC

(iv) Pressure at a point inside the liquid increases with the increase in the density of liquid.
■ Buoyancy-
am
The upthrust force experienced by a body when partly or wholly immersed in a fluid is called upthrust or
buoyant force .The phenomena responsible for this force is called buoyancy
■ Archimedes Principle -
• Archimedes Principle states that when a body is partially or wholly immersed in a fluid, it experiences an
upward thrust equal to the weight of the fluid displaced by it and its upthrust acts through the center of gravity
of the displaced fluid.
Te

Upthrust or buoyant force = weight of liquid displaced -

• Apparent weight of immersed body = Actual weight – Buoyant force
 ρ
Wapp = W 1 −  Where, W = V σg = weight of the body, σ = density of the body, ρ = density of liquid
 σ
V = volume of liquid displaced.
■ Law of floatation-
A body will float in a liquid, if the weight of the body is equal to or less than weight of the liquid displaced by
the immersed part of the body.

If W is the weight of the body and ω is the buoyant force, then -

(a) If W > ω ⇒ V σ g > Vρg or σ > ρ , Then a body sinks in a liquid.
(b) If W = ω ⇒ V σ g = Vρg or σ = ρ, then the body will be float fully immersed in the liquid.
(c) If W < ω , then the body will float partially submerged in the liquid.
• The floating body will be in stable equilibrium, if meta-centre (center of buoyancy ) lies vertically above the
center of gravity of body.
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 • The floating body will be in unstable equilibrium, if meta center (centre of buoyancy) lies vertically below
the centre of gravity of the body.
• The floating body will be in neutral equilibrium if meta centre coincides with the centre of gravity of the body.
• Fraction of volume of a floating body outside the liquid.
Vout  ρ 
= 1 − 
V  σ
where, ρ = density of body
σ = density of liquid
If two different bodies A and B are floating in the same liquid , then
ρA (Vin )A
=
ρB (Vin )B
If the same body is made to float in different liquids of densities σA and σB respectively then-
σA (Vin ) A
=
σ B (Vin ) B

(14) Hydrodynamics
Fluid dynamics:- The branch of physics that deals with the study of fluids in motion is called fluid dynamics or
hydrodynamics.

Y
■ Types of fluid flow -
• Steady and unsteady flow -
Steady flow
SP Unsteady flow

Fluid property do not change Change with time

with time.
m
∂V ∂P ∂ρ ∂V ∂P ∂ρ
= 0, = 0, =0 ≠ 0, ≠ 0, ≠0
∂t ∂t ∂t ∂t ∂t ∂t
a

This is applicable for all properties.

• Uniform and non-uniform flow :
Uniform Non-uniform
Te

Velocity at any given, time Velocity at any given time changes

does not change with respect with respect to space.
to space.  ∂V 
 ∂V    ≠0
 ∂s t =c
  =0
 ∂s t =c
It is applicable for velocity only.
∂s = length of flow in the direction s.
∂V = change of velocity.
• Laminar and Turbulent flow -
Laminar flow Turbulent flow
Fluid particle move along well Fluid particle move in random
defined path. The adjacent layer order of zig-zag way.
do not cross each other.

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 Reynolds number < 2000 (for Reynolds number > 4000 (for pipe
pipe flow ) flow)
Reynolds number < 5×105 (for Reynolds number = 5×105 (For
flow over the flat plate) flow over flat plate)
• Compressible and incompressible flow -
Compressible flow Incompressible flow
Density of fluid varies point to Density remains constant (ρ = c).
point (ρ ≠ c). Density of fluid is constant with
Density of fluid varries with respect to Pressure
respect to Pressure

■ Type of flow lines -

(1) Stream line : Stream line is an imaginary line or curve in a flow field such that the tangent drawn at any point
gives the direction of instantaneous velocity at that point.

Y
• Flow never takes place perpendicular to stream line.
• Stream line equation in 3D flow.
dx dy dz
= =
SP
u v w
• Stream line equation in 2D flow.
dx dy
=
am
u v
(2) Streak Line :-
• At any instant of time it is locus of all particles i.e. passes through a fixed point in a flow fluid.
Te

(3) Path line -

• Path travelled by a single individual particle over same time interval is called path line.
dx dy dz
Equation for path line, u = ,v= ,w=
dt dt dt
■ Reynold's Number :-
• It is dimensionless parameter whose value decides the nature of flow of a liquid through a pipe. It is given by -
ρvD
Re =
η
Where, ρ = density of the liquid.
v = velocity of the liquid.
η = coefficient of viscosity of the liquid.
D = diameter of the pipe.

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■ Equation of continuity -
• Conservation of mass (m) ; Mass flow rate is constant.
• For compressible flow, ρ1A1V1 = ρ2A2V2 .
• For incompressible flow, Density ρ will be constant A1V1 = A2V2. (Q = AV is discharge)
• General continuity equation -
∂ρ ∂ ∂ ∂
+ ( ρu ) + ( ρv ) + ( ρw ) = 0
dt ∂x ∂y ∂z
Where, u, v & w are the components of velocity in x, y & z direction.
 ∂ρ 
• Continuity equation for steady flow  = 0
 ∂t 
∂ ∂ ∂
( ρu ) + ( ρv ) + ( ρw ) = 0
∂x ∂y ∂z
• Continuity equation for incompressible flow i.e. ρ = constant
∂u ∂v ∂w
+ + =0
∂x ∂y ∂z
∇V = 0
div V = 0

Y
■ Energy of a fluid in a steady state -
Energy
Per unit mass
SP
Kinetic Energy
1 2
V
Pressure Energy
P
Potential Energy
gh
2 ρ
Per unit volume 1 P ρgh
ρV 2
m
2
■ Bernoulli's Equation -
Assumptions -
a

1. Fluid is ideal i.e. viscosity is zero.

2. Steady flow.
3. The flow is incompressible.
Te

4. The flow is irrotational.

5. The flow is along the stream line.
Mathematically, Equation in form of energy per unit volume
1
P + ρV 2 + ρgh = constant
2
Equation in form of head
P V2
+ + h = constant
ρg 2g
P
Where, = pressure head.
ρg
V2
= velocity head or K.E. head
2g
h = gravitational head.
Application of Bernoulli's Equation -
1. Venturimeter (To measure the rate of discharge or flow rate).
2. Orificemeter (To measure the rate of discharge or flow rate).
3. Pitot tube (To measure the fluid velocity).
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■ Torricelli's Theorem or law of efflux -
• Consider a vessel containing a liquid upto some height H. A small hole is punched in the wall at a depth h
below the free surface. The speed of liquid coming out of the hole is called the velocity of efflux of the liquid.
V = 2gh

• Time taken by liquid to reach base levels.

2(H – h )
t=
g
• The distance at which liquid hits the ground.
x = 2 h(H – h)

■ Viscosity -

Y
• It is a measure of resistance to flow due to internal; frictional force that develops between adjacent layers of
fluid when they try to move over each other.
SP
• These internal frictional forces are called viscous forces.
• Viscous forces are intermolecular forces acting between the molecules of different layers of liquid moving
with different velocities.
dv
Viscous force (F) = – ηA
dx
am
F
η= –
 dv 
A 
 dx 
Where, η = Coefficient of viscosity and it depends on the nature of fluid.
A = Area of cross section.
Te

dv
= Velocity gradient or rate or change of velocity with distance.
dx
• Negative sign indicates opposition to relative motion η is measured in N-s/m2 or dyne-s/cm2 or poise
Variation of Viscosity -
• The Viscosity of liquids decreases with increase in temperature.
• The viscosity of liquids increases with increase in pressure but the viscosity of water decreases with increase in
pressure.
• The viscosity of gases increases with increase of temperature because when temperature of gas increase then
rate of diffusion increases.
■ Flow of fluid through narrow tube, Poiseuille's Formula -
• The rate of flow of a fluid of coefficient of viscosity η through a tube of length l and radius of cross-section r
when subjected to a pressure difference P is-
π Pr 4
V=
8 ηℓ
8ηℓ
Where, R = called liquid resistance.
π r4

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 (i) When two tubes are connected in series -

(a) Rate of flow of liquid is same through both tubes.

(b) Resultant pressure difference, P = P1 + P2
(c) Equivalent liquid resistance - R = R1 + R2
(ii) When two tubes are connected in parallel -

(a) Pressure difference (P) is same across both tubes.

(b) Rate of flow of liquid V = V 1 + V 2.

Y
1 1 1
(c) Equivalent liquid resistance = + .
R R1 R 2 SP
■ Stoke's Law -
• When a spherical body of radius r falls through a fluid of viscosity η with a terminal velocity v a viscous drag
acts on it is given by
F = 6πηrv
This is called Stoke's Law.
m
■ Terminal Velocity -
• When a small spherical body falls in a long liquid column, then after sometimes it falls with a constant
velocity, called terminal velocity.
a

2 r (ρ – σ) g
2
v=
9 η
Te

Where, ρ = density of body.

σ = density of liquid.
η = coefficient of viscosity of liquid.
g = acceleration due to gravity.
(i) if ρ > σ, the body falls down wards.
(ii) if ρ < σ, the body moves upwards with the constant velocity.
2r 2ρg
(iii) if σ << ρ, v = .
9η
■ Critical Velocity -
• The critical velocity is the velocity of liquid flow, below which its flow is streamlined and above which its
become turbulent.
η Re
Vc =
rρ
Where, Re = Reynolds number.
η = Coefficient of viscosity of liquid.
r = Radius of capillary tube.
ρ = Density of the liquid.
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■ Key Points -
(i) For water specific gravity is 1.0 at 4ºC and mercury specific gravity is 13.6.
(ii) Specific gravity varies with temperature therefore it should be determined at specified temperature (4ºC to
25ºC).
(iii) Density of water is 1000 kg/m3.
(iv) In case of steady flow two stream lines can never intersect each other.
(v) A path line is an outcome of lagrangian approach.
(vi) A path line can intersect itself or other path line.
(vii) In case of steady flow, path line, stream line and streak line are identical.
(viii) Fluid flow is possible where mass is conserved and continuity equation is satisfied.
(ix) If the flow is steady but rotational then Bernoulli's can only be applied between those points which comes in
same stream line because constant of integration will be different for different stream line.
(x) Terminal velocity depends on the radius of the sphere in such a way that, if radius becomes n times, then
terminal velocity will becomes n2 times.
(xi) Stokes' Law helps a man coming down with the help of parachute.
(xii) Stoke's Law accounts for the formation of clouds.
(xiii) Stoke's Law was used in the determination of electronic charge by Milikan in his oil drop experiment.

(15) Surface Tension

Y
■ Surface Tension :-
• It is the elastic tendency of a fluid surface which makes it acquire the least surface area possible.
SP
• Surface tension allows insects to float and stride on a water surface.
• It is a scalar quantity.
• It is denoted by σ .
Tension Force (F)
• Surface Tension ( σ) = .
Lenght (ℓ)
am
• SI unit = N/m
• CGS unit = dyne/cm
• Dimension = [MT–2]
• Small liquid drops are spherical due to property of surface tension.
• Surface tension of liquid depends only on the nature of liquid and is independent of the surface area of film or
length of line considered.
Te

• Surface tension of a liquid is numerically equal to its surface energy.

Factor Affecting Surface Tension -
(i) Surface tension of liquid decreases with increase in temperature and becomes zero at critical temperature.
(ii) At boiling point, surface tension of a liquid becomes zero and becomes maximum at freezing point.
(iii) Surface tension decreases when partially soluble, impurities such as soap, detergent, dettol, phenol etc are
added in water.
(iv) Surface tension increases when highly soluble impurities such as salt is added in water.
(v) When dust particles or oil spreads over the surface of water. its surface tension decreases.
Adhesion - The force of attraction between the molecules of the different substances is called the force of
Adhesion.
Example (i) Chalk particles to the black board.
(ii) Sticking of glue to the wood.
(iii) force of attraction acting between water molecules with capillary tube.
Cohesion -
• The force of attraction between molecules of same substance is called the force of Cohesion.
• Decreasing order of force of Cohesion
Solid > Liquid > Gas.
• Due to maximum force of cohesion in solids, it have definite shape and resist all deforming forces,
Example - (i) Force of attraction acting between water molecules.
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■ Surface Energy -
• The potential energy per unit area of the surface film is called the surface energy.
Workdone in increasing the surfaec area
Surface Energy =
Increase in surface area
Excess Pressure due to Surface Tension -
Excess pressure Excess pressure (∆P)
Inside a liquid drop 2T
∆P =
R
Inside a liquid or soap bubble 4T
∆P =
R
Inside an air bubble 2T
∆P =
R
For a spherical surface (R1 = R2 = R)  1 1 
∆P = 2T  2T
+  ∆P =
R
 1 R 2  R
,
For a cylindrical surface (R1 = R & R2 = ∞)  1 1 
∆P = 2T  + 
R
 1 R 2 
T
, ∆P =
R
∆P = 0

Y
On plane surface
In liquid film of unequal radii  1 1 
∆P = 2T  + 
SP
Where, T = surface tension, R = radius of curvature
 R1 R 2 

• Work done in spraying a liquid drop of radius R into n droplets of radius r -

1 1 
= T × increase in surface area = 4 πTR 3  – 
r R
m
3s  1 1 
Fall in temperature, ∆θ =  – 
J r R
Where, J = 4.2 J/cal.

( )
a

1
• When n small drops are combined into a bigger drop, then work done is given by, W = 4πR 2T n 3
–1

3T  1 1 
Temperature increases, ∆θ =
Te

 – 
J r R
• When two soap bubbles of radii r1 and r2 (r2 > r1) are brought in contact with each other, then the interface
rr
acquires radius of curvature r = 2 1
r2 – r1
• When two soap bubbles collapse to form a single bubble, the radius of curvature of the new bubble formed is r
= r12 + r22
■ Capillarity or Capillary Action -
• Capillary is a phenomenon by which a liquid (depending upon its specific gravity) rises or fall into a thin glass
tube above or below its general level. This phenomenon is due to the combined effect of Cohesion and
Adhesion of liquid particles. The rise of liquid surface is known as capillary rise while the fall of liquid surface
is known as capillary depression.

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 • Ascent of liquid column in capillary tube is given by -
2Tcosθ
h=
r ρg
• If capillary is very narrow, then -
2Tcosθ
h=
rρg
Where, r = radius of capillary tube.
ρ = density of the liquid.
θ = angle of contact.
T = surface tension of liquids.
• If θ < 90º, h = positive (capillary rise) → Adhesive force is greater than cohesive force.
• If θ > 90º, h = negative (capillary fall) → Cohesive force is greater than Adhesive force.
• θ = 0º, for pure water and clean glass tube.
• θ = 130º, for mercury and clean glass tube.
Practical Applications of Capillarity –
(i) Blotting paper absorbs ink by capillary action.
(ii) Sap (moisture) rises in plant by capillary actions.
(iii) Coffee power is easily soluble in water because water immediately wets the fine granules of coffee by the
action of capillarity.

Y
(iv) We use a towel to dry our body after bath, which soaks water due to capillary action.
Angle of Contact -
SP
•The angle which the tangent to the liquid surface at the point of contact makes with the solid surface inside the
liquid is called the angle of contact or the capillary angle.
•The angle of contact depends on the nature of the solid and liquid in contact.
•Angle of contact θ < 90º ⇒ Concave shape & Liquid rise up.
•Angle of contact θ > 90º ⇒ Convex shape & Liquid falls.
am
•Angle of contact θ = 90º ⇒ Plane shape liquid neither rise nor falls.
•Angle of contact for pure water and glass is zero.
•For ordinary water and glass it is 8º (θ < 90º).
•For mercury and glass it is 138º (θ > 90º).
•For pure water and silver it is 90º.
•For alcohol and clean glass θ = 0º.
Te

Some Properties of Surface tension -

•It acts tangentially to liquid surface.
•Surface tension is always produced due to cohesive force.
•More is the cohesive force, more is the surface tension.
•When surface area of liquid increases, molecules from the interior of the liquid rise to the surface. For this work
is done against the downward Cohesive force.
■ Key Points -
•The maximum distance upto which a molecule can attract some other molecule is known as Range of
intermolecular forces.
•Surface tension of liquid is molecular phenomena.
•Energy required to split bigger drop into smaller drop -
∆U = ∆S × T
Where, ∆S = increase in surface area
T = surface tension of liquid.
•When a thin soap film is formed by dipping a U-shaped wire loop having a slider in a soap solution of surface
tension T, then the maximum weight attached to the slider, the film can support before it will breaks, is given
by- Mg = 2(T × l)
Where, l= length of slider.

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 • If a bigger drop of radius R is splits into n small drops of radius r, then-
(i) The radius of small drop formed is given by -
–1
r = n 3R
(ii) The increase in surface area is given by -

∆S = n ( 1
3
)
– 1 × 4πR 2

(iii) The energy required to split the bigger drop is given by -

∆U = n ( 1
3
)
– 1 × 4πR 2 T

(iv) The decrease in temperature is given by -

∆θ =
3T
Rρs
1
n 3 –1 =(3T  1 1 
 – 
ρs  r R 
)
Where, ρ density of the liquid
s = specific heat
• When a capillary tube of insufficient length is dipped in a liquid, the liquid will not overflow. It will rise upto
the top end of the tube and then increase the radius of curvature of its meniscus to a suitable value R', so that
R'h' = Rh (Zurin's Law).

Y
Where, R = radius of curvature of meniscus, when the liquid rises in the capillary tube to a height h.
SP
h' = insufficient length of the capillary tube.

(16) Special Theory of Relativity

■ Frame of Reference -
m
(i) Inertial frame of reference -
• In this case Newton's Ist law of motion is valid i.e. F = 0 then a = 0 ,
But in daily life we observe Newton's Ist law of motion for example (If ball is in rest until the external force is
a

applied).
• But in the case of bus and train without applying the external force we bend when the bus and train stops. (In
this case Newton's Ist law is not valid for this another frame is valid).
Te

(ii) Non-Inertial frame of reference -

• Newton's Ist law is not valid.
• Therefore, we impartly apply Newton's first law and this force is called Pseudo force.
■ Axis System -

■ Galilean Transformation -
• When the particle velocity is less than velocity of light i.e. v <<< c then in this condition we use Galilean
Transformation.
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 • For high velocity v ≈ c Galilean transformation is not adequate.

S-frame (Platform)

• If S' moves with uniform velocity w.r.t. S, then S' is also inertial.
• When O' crossing O at t = t' = 0
(i) X-X' axis are on same line.
(ii) Y-Y' axis are parallel.
(iii) Z-Z' axis are parallel.
■ Galilean Transformation equation -
• Measurement of event from s-frame is (x, y, z, t).

Y
• Similarly, measurement of event form s'-frame is (x', y', z', t').
SP
am

• x' = x – vt x = x' + vt
y' = y y = y'
Te

z' = z z = z'
t'=t t = t'
Invariance of Newton's Laws of motions under Galilean transformation (GT) -
Vx' = Vx – V 

• Vy' = Vy  Velocity transformation equation

Vz' = Vz 
a 'x = a x
• a 'y = a y
a 'z = a z
• Acceleration of any particles are invariant in all inertial frame.
• Above result is true for only Galilean transformation.
• Newton's laws of motion are invariant in all inertial frames under G.T.
Postulates of Special theory of relativity -
(a) The laws of physics are the same in all inertial system. No preferred inertial system exist. (The Principle of
relativity).
(b) The speed of light in free space has the same value c in all inertial system. (The principle of the constancy of
the speed of light).
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■ Lorentz Transformation -
• Lorentz transformation have to be such that -
(a) It is linear in x and x' so that a single event in frame S corresponds to a single event in frame S'.
(b) For lower velocity it reduces to Galilean transformation.
(c) The inverse transformation exist.
Lorentz Transformation Inverse Lorentz Transformation
x – vt x' + v' t
x' = x=
2
1– 2
v v2
1– 2
c c
y' = y y = y'
z' = z z = z'
vx vx'
t– 2 t' + 2
t' = c t' = c
v2 v2
1– 2 1– 2
c c
Consequences of Lorentz Transformation -
(i) Length Contraction -
• In order to measure the length of an object in motion relative to observer, the position of two end points

Y
recorded simultaneously, the length of object in direction of motion appeared smaller to observer.
V2
SP
ℓ = ℓ0 1 –
C2
a m

s
Te

• Thus l < l0 this means that the length of rod as measured by an observer relative to which rod is in motion, is
smaller than its proper length.
• Such a contraction of length in direction of motion relative to observer is called Lorentz Fitzgerald
contradiction.
■ Time Dilation -
• A clock being at rest in the S' frame measures the time t'2 and t'1 of two events occurring at a fixed position x'.
The time interval ∆t measures from s-frame appear slow (∆t0) from s-frame.i.e. to the observer the moving
clock will appear to go slow.
 vx '   vx ' 
∆t = ∆t ' = t 2' – t1' = γ  t 2' + 2  – γ  t1' + 2 
 c   c 
t 2' – t1' ∆t 0
∆t = =
2
v v2
1– 1 –
c2 c2
∆t0 → proper time, ∆t → time interval measured from s-frame ∆t > ∆t0.
■ Relative velocity -
• There is one inertial frame S, S' is another inertial frame moving with respect to S in x-direction and A is
another inertial frames which is moving with respect to S' with velocity component (u'x, u'y, u'z)
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 So,
dx ' dy ' dz'
u 'x = , u 'y = , u 'z = ,
dt ' dt ' dt '
The velocity component of A from s-frame is given by -
dx dy dz
ux = , uy = , uz = ,
dt dt dt
■ Relative velocity are -
u 'x + v ux – v
ux = u 'x =
v v
1 + 2 u 'x 1 – 2 ux
c c
u 'y uy
uy = u 'y =
 vu '   vu 
γ 1 + 2 x  γ  1 – 2x 
 c   c 
u 'z uz
uz = u 'z =

Y
 vu '   vu 
γ 1 + 2 x  γ  1 – 2x 
 c   c 

■ Relativistic Mass -
SP
• The mass of a body moving at the speed v relative to an observer is
larger than its mass then at rest relative to the observer by the factor
1
v2
am
1–
c2
m0
Thus, m=
v2
1–
c2
Where, m0 is rest mass of body and m is observed mass.
Te

■ Relativistic Momentum -
m0 v
P = mv =
v2
1– 2
c
■ Relativistic second law of motion -
 
 
dP d d  m0 v 
F= = ( mv ) =
dt dt dt  v2 
 1– 2 
 c 
■ Relativistic Energy-
• Einstein suggested if m is relativistic mass of body then relativistic energy E is given by -
m0c2
E = mc2 and E =
v2
1–
c2

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Rest Energy -
• If rest mass of particles is m0 then rest mass energy is given by m0c2.
■ Relativistic Kinetic Energy -
K = mc2 – m0c2
m0c2
K= – m0c2
v2
1– 2
c
■ Relationship between total energy and momentum -
2
m0c m0 v
E= and P=
2
v v2
1– 1–
c2 c2
E2 = m02c4 + P2c2

E = m02c4 + P 2c2
■ Four Vector and Relativistic Invariance -
• Four position vector ds = (dx, dy, dz, icdt)
ds  dx dy dz icdt 
• Four velocity vector = , , ,

Y
,
dt  dt dt dt dt 
 dx dy dz icdt 
u = γ , , ,
 dt dt dt dt 
,

u = γ ( u x , u y ,u z ,ic )
SP
u = γ ( u, ic )
•
m
Four momentums -four energy vector-
 imc 2   iE 
P = γ ( m 0 u, i m 0 c ) = ( m 0 u, imc ) =  P,  ⇒ P =  P,  .
 c   c 
a

 dm 
• Four force F = γ  F, ic 
 dt 
Te

■ The invariant interval –

• Suppose event A occurs at ( x Aº , x1A , x A2 , x 3A ) and event B at ( x Bº , x1B , x B2 , x 3B ) . The difference

∆x u ≡ x uA – x uB is the displacement 4-vector.

The scalar product of ∆xu with itself is a quantity of special importance.
The interval between two events -
I ≡ (∆x)u(∆x)u
= – (∆x0)2 + (∆x1)2 + (∆x2)2 +(∆x3)2
= – c 2t 2 + d 2
1. If I < 0 we call the interval time like, for this is the sign we get when the two occur at the same place (d = 0)
and separated only temporally.
2. If I > 0 we call the interval space like, for this is the sign we get when the two occur at the same time (t = 0)
and are separated only spatially.
3. If I = 0 we call the interval light like, for this is the relation that holds when the two events are connected by a
signal traveling at the speed of light.
■ Key Points -
(i) Photons are charge less and mass less particles that travels at speed of light.
(ii) The rest mass of photon is zero. This can be proved from Einstein special theory of relativity.
107

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 Exam Oriented Objective Problems
General Physics (Mechanics)
Units, Dimensions and 7. A screw gauge gives the following readings
when used to measure the diameter of a wire
Measurements] Main scale reading: 0 mm
1. The SI unit of a physical quantity is Pascal- Circular scale reading: 52 divisions
second. The dimensional formula of this Given that 1 mm on main scale corresponds to
quantity will be 100 divisions on the circular scale. The
diameter of the wire from the above data is
(a) [ML–1T–1] (b) [ML–1T–2]
(a) 0.052 cm (b) 0.52 cm
(c) [ML2T–1] (d) [M–1L3T0] (c) 0.026 cm (d) 0.26 cm
JEE MAIN 2022 NEET 2021
2. The dimension of mutual inductance is : 8. Taking into account of the significant figures,
what is the value of 9.99 m – 0.0099 m?
(a) [ML2 T–2 A–1] (b) [ML2 T–3 A–1]
(a) 9.98 m (b) 9.980 m
(c) [ML2 T–2 A–2] (d) [ML2 T–3 A–2]] (c) 9.9 m (d) 9.9801 m
JEE MAIN 2022 NEET 2020

Y
3. One main scale division of a Vernier calipers is 9. A screw gauge has least count of 0.01 mm and
'a' cm and nth division of the Vernier scale there are 50 divisions in its circular scale.
SP
coincide with (n – 1)th division of the main
scale. The least count of the calipers in mm is:
The pitch of the screw gauge is:
(a) 0.25 mm
(c) 1.0 mm
(b) 0.5 mm
(d) 0.01 mm
10na 10a
(a) (b) NEET 2020
( n − 1) ( − 1)
n 10. A student measured the diameter of a small
steel ball using a screw gauge of least count
 n −1  10a
am
(c)  a (d) 0.001 cm. The main scale reading is 5 mm and
 10n  n zero of circular scale division coincides with 25
divisions above the reference level. If screw
JEE MAIN 2021
gauge has a zero error of –0.004 cm, the correct
4. If surface tension (S), moment of inertia (I) and diameter of the ball is
Planck’s constant (h), were to be taken as the (a) 0.521 cm (b) 0.525 cm
fundamental units, the dimensional formula for (c) 0.053 cm (d) 0.529 cm
Te

linear momentum would be NEET 2018

(a) S1/2 I1/2 h–1 (b) S3/2 I1/2 h0 11. Given the equation → Angular Momentum
γ 
(c) S1/2 I1/2 h–1 (d) S1/2 I1/2 h–1 =  αβ −  ×velocity which of the following are
 time 
JEE MAIN 2019 possible dimensions of α, β and γ?
5. Plane angle and solid angle have (a) M, L, T (b) M, L, MLT
(a) Both units and dimensions (c) ML, ML, MLT (d) M2L–2, ML, T
UPTGT Science - 2021
(b) Units but no dimensions 12. The unit of Poynting vector is -
(c) Dimensions but no units (a) Watt (b) Watt/meter2
(d) No units and no dimensions (c) Watt - meter (d) Newton
NEET 2022 UPPSC Poly. Lect. 2021 Paper - II
6. The area of a rectangular field (in m2) of 13. The dimensional formula for latent heat is -
length 55.3 m and breadth 25 m after rounding (a)  M 0 L2 T −2  (b)  MLT −2 
off the value for correct significant digits is
(c)  ML2 T 2   ML2 T −1 
(d)
(a) 14 × 10 2 (b) 138 × 101
UPPSC Poly. Lect. 2021 Paper - I
(c) 1382 (d) 1382.5
(UPPGT 2005, 2010)
NEET 2022 UPPCS Pre 2006
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14. If force (F), velocity (V) and Time (T) are taken 20. Rain is falling vertically on the ground at speed
as the fundamental dimensions, instead of 5 3 m/s. If a man walks towards the East with
mass, length and time, what will be dimensions speed 5 m/s, he will feel the rain falling at what
of linear momentum (P)? angle to the vertical?
(a) FVT-1 (b) FT (a) 0° (b) 30°
(c) FT-1 (d) VT-2 (c) 45° (d) 60°
UPTGT Science - 2021 UPTGT Science - 2021
15. Unit of Gravitational constant in S.I. system is : 21. Two forces F and −3F acts at a perpendicular
(a) Nm2kg–1 (b) Nm2kg–2 distance’d’ from each other. This is equivalent
–1
(c) Nm (d) Nm–2 to which one of the following?
TGT 2013 (a) Net linear force −2F only
a+x
16. The dimensions of a/b in the relation P = (b) Net linear force zero only
b (c) A net couple of moment 2Fd only
where P is pressure and x is distance, are−
(d) A net linear force of −2F and a net couple of
(a) [M1L−1T−2] (b) [M−1L1T2]
1 2 −1
moment Fd
(c) [M L T ] (d) [M−1L−2T1] UPTGT Science - 2021
(UPPGT 2011) 22. If A and B are non–zero vectors which obey the
Scalar and Vectors relation A + B = A - B then the angle between
them is :
17. Two vectors A and B have equal magnitudes.
(a) 00 (b) 600

Y
If magnitude of A + B is equal to two times the
(c) 900 (d) 1200
magnitude of A − B then the angle between A UP TGT Physics 2016
SP
A

B
and B will be: 23. If A×B = AB , then angle between and is :
−1  3  −1  1 
(a) sin   (b) sin   π
5 3 (a) 0 (b)
4
3
−1 −1 1 π
(c) cos   (d) cos  
m
5 3 (c) (d) π
2
JEE MAIN 2022 UP PGT Physics 2016 (Exam : 02.02.2019)
18. Find the torque about the origin when a force 24. Three vectors A , B and C will be coplanar
a

of 3jɵ N acts on a particle whose position vector only if :

is 2kɵ m. (
(a) A.B. = B.C = A.C = 0 (b) A. B × C = 0 )
(a) 6ɵjNm −6iɵ Nm ( ) ( A × B) × C = 0
Te

(b) (c) A × B × C = 0 (d)

(c) 6kɵ Nm (d) 6iɵ Nm UP PGT Physics 2016 (Exam : 02.02.2019)
NEET 2020 25. Which of the following physical quantity is a
scalar?
19. Match List-I (Vector Combination) with List-II (a) Current (b) Area
(Physical Quantities) and choose correct
(c) Momentum (d) Angular velocity
answer using codes given below from the list.
UPPCS Pre 2010
List-I List-II 26. Surface area is -
A. Scalar 1. Mass (a) Scalar
B. Vector 2. Torque (b) Vector
C. Scalar product 3. Velocity (c) Neither scalar nor vector
D. Vector Product 4. Work done (d) Both scalar and vector
Codes: TGT 2011
A B C D 27. The magnitude of the sum of two vectors
(a) 1 3 4 2 A and B comes out
(b) 2 4 1 3
(a) Less than A − B
(c) 4 1 3 2
(d) 3 1 4 2 (b) More than A + B
UPPSC GDC - 2021
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 (c) Either less than A−B or greater 33. In coplanar vectors A = 2iˆ − ˆj + kˆ ,
than A + B B = ˆi − 2ˆj + 3kˆ and C = 3iˆ + αjˆ + 5kˆ the value
of unknown α in C will be
(d) ≥ A − B and ≤ A + B (a) 3 (b) –3.6
UPPSC Ashram Paddhati PGT - 2021 (c) 4 (d) None of these
28. If the resultant R of two vectors P and Q is UPPSC Ashram Paddhati PGT - 2021
such that R2 = P2 + Q2, the angle between 34. ∇ represents
vector P and Q is (a) A differential operator
(a) Zero (b) 45° (b) A differential vector operator
(c) 60° (d) 90° (c) A scalar operator
UP PGT - 2021 (d) A Laplacian operator
UPPSC Ashram Paddhati PGT - 2021
29. The value of λ for which vectors 2iˆ + ˆj + 3kˆ 35. Which of the following is not correct?
and ˆi - λjˆ + 4kˆ are perpendicular is -  ∂D 
(a) ∇ × B = µ 0  j +  (b) ∇ × B = µ 0 j
(a) 14 (b)  ∂t 
10
(c) 7 (d) 3 ρ
(c) ∇.B = 0 (d) ∇.B =
ε0

Y
UPPSC Poly. Lect. 2021 Paper - I
30. For two vectors A and B, A + B = A – B , is UPPSC Poly. Lect. 2021 Paper - II
always true when
(a) A = B ≠ 0
SP 36.
1
The value of grad   is
r
grad
(b) A ⊥ B
r
(c) A = B ≠ 0 and A and B are parallel (a) − (b) zero
r
am
(d) A = B ≠ 0 and A and B are anti-parallel r r
(c) − (d) −
RPSC School Lect. 08.01.2020 r3 r2
31. If magnitude of two vectors are 7 and 3 UP PGT - 2021
respectively, which of the following could not
37.The gauge transformation in which ∇.A = 0 , is
be magnitude of resultant of these two vectors?
called
(a) 3 (b) 4 (c) 5 (d)7
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(a) Lorentz gauge

RPSC School Lect. 08.01.2020
(b) Gauss gauge
Curl, Divergence, Gauss & Stokes' (c) Coulomb gauge
Theorem & their Application (d) Longitudinal gauge
32. According to kinetic theory of gases, UPPSC GDC - 2021
A. The motion of the gas molecules freezes at 0ºC 38. The divergence of position vector r is :
B. The mean free path of gas molecules decreases (a) 1 (b) 0 (c) 3 (d) 2
if the density of molecules is increased. (UPPGT 2011)
∫
C. The mean free path of gas molecules increases 39. If A.dl = 0 for each closed curve, this implies
if temperature is increased keeping pressure
constant. (a) ∇× A = 0 (b) ∇.A = 0
D. Average kinetic energy per molecule per degree
3
of freedom is k B T (for monoatomic gases)
(c) ∇× ∇.A = 0 ( )
(d) ∇. ∇.A = 0 ( )
2 UPPSC Ashram Paddhati PGT - 2021
Choose the most appropriate answer from the 40. Single magnetic pole does not exist because :
options given below:
(a) ∇× B = 0 (b) ∇ . B = 0
(a) A and C only (b) B and C only
(c) A and B only (d) C and D only (c) ∇ × B = 0 (d) ∇ × B = ∇ . B
JEE MAIN 2022 (UPPGT 2004)
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41. A charge q is placed at one corner of a cube. The 1 1
electric flux linked with cube will be : (a) mg y02 (b) mg y 2
2 2
q q (c) mg( y − y0 ) (d) mgy0
(a) (b)
∈0 2∈0
JEE MAIN 2022
q q 46. A block of mass M placed inside a box descends
(c) (d)
4∈0 8∈0 vertically with acceleration 'a'. The block
(UPPGT 2004) exerts a force equal to one-fourth of its weight
on the floor of the box. The value of 'a' will be :
Motion in a Straight Line g g
(a) (b)
42. Two buses P and Q start from a point at the 4 2
same time and move in a straight line and their 3g
positions are represented by Xp (t) = ∝t + βt2 (c) (d) g
4
and XQ (t) = ft – t2. At what time, both me
JEE MAIN 2022
buses have same velocity?
47. A shell of mass m is at rest initially. It explodes
α−f α+f into three fragments having mass in the ratio 2
(a) (b)
1+ β 2 ( β − 1) : 2 : 1. If the fragments having equal mass fly
off along mutually perpendicular directions
α+f α+f with speed v, the speed of the third (lighter)
(c) (d)
2 ( β + 1) 2 ( β + 1) fragment is
JEE MAIN 2022 (a) 3 2v (b) v

Y
43. Two blocks of masses 10 kg and 30 kg are (c) 2v (d) 2 2v
placed on the same straight line with
NEET 2022
SP
coordinates (0, 0) cm and (x, 0) cm respectively.
The block of 10 kg is moved on the same line 48.
through a distance of 6 cm towards the other
A ball is thrown vertically downward with a
velocity of 20 m/s from the top of a tower. It
block. The distance through which the block of hits the ground after some time with a velocity
30 kg must be moved to keep the position of of 80 m/s. The height of the tower is (g = 10
m/s2)
centre of mass of the system unchanged is :
m
(a) 360 m (b) 340 m
(a) 4 cm towards the 10 kg block
(c) 320 m (d) 300 m
(b) 2 cm away from the 10 kg block
NEET 2020
(c) 2 cm towards the 10 kg block
49. Two cars P and Q start from a point at the
a

(d) 4 cm away from the 10 kg block

same time in a straight line and their positions
JEE MAIN 2022 are represented by xP(t) = (at + bt2) and xQ(t) = (
44. When a ball is dropped into a lake from a f t – t2). At what time do the cars have the same
Te

height 4.9 m above the water level, it hits the velocity?

water with a velocity v and then sinks to the a −f a +f
bottom with the constant velocity v. It reaches (a) (b)
the bottom of the lake 4.0 s after it is dropped. 1+ b 2 (1 − b )
The approximate depth of the lake is : a+f f −a
(c) (d)
(a) 19.6 m (b) 29.4 m 2 (1 + b ) 2 (1 + b )
(c) 39.2 m (d) 73.5 m
NEET-II 2016
JEE MAIN 2022
50. Preeti reached the metro station and found that
45. In the given figure, the block of mass m is the escalator was not working. She walked up
dropped from the point 'A'. The expression for the stationary escalator in time t1. On other
kinetic energy of block when it reaches point days, if she remains stationary on the moving
'B' is : escalator, then the escalator takes her up in
time t2. The time taken by her to walk up on
the moving escalator will be
t1 t 2 t1 t 2
(a) (b)
t 2 − t1 t 2 + t1
t1 + t 2
(c) t1 – t2 (d)
2
NEET 2017
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51. In above velocity-time graph of a particle, the 55. A girl standing on road holds her umbrella at
distance covered in first 4 seconds is 45º with the vertical to keep the rain away. If
she starts running without umbrella with a
speed of 15 2kmh −1 , the rain drops hit her
head vertically. The speed of rain drops with
respect to the moving girl is :
25
(a) 30 kmh–1 (b) kmh −1
2
30
(a) 12m (b) 16m (c) kmh −1 (d) 25 kmh–1
(c) 20m (d) Zero 2
UPPSC Ashram Paddhati PGT - 2021 JEE MAIN 2022
Motion in a Plane 56. A stone tide to a string of length L is whirled in
a vertical circle with the other end of the string
52. For a particle in uniform circular motion, the at the centre. At a certain instant of time, the
acceleration a at any point P(R,θ) on the stone is at its lowest position and has a speed u.
circular path of radius R is (when θ is The magnitude of change in its velocity, as it
measured from the positive x –axis and v is reaches a position where the string is
x ( u 2 − gL ) .The value of x is
uniform speed) :
2 2
horizontal, is
v v
(a) − sin θˆi + cos θˆj (a) 3 (b) 2
R R

Y
(c) 1 (d) 5
v2 v2
(b) − cos θˆi + sin θˆj JEE MAIN 2022
R R 57. The displacement-time graphs of two moving
(c) −
v2
R
v 2
cos θˆi − sin θˆj
R
SP particles make angles of 30° and 45° with the x-
axis as shown in the figure. The ratio of their
respective velocity is
v2 2
ˆi + v ˆj
(d) −
R R
JEE MAIN 2022
am
53. Given below are two statements. One is labeled
as Assertion A and the other is labeled as
Reason R. Assertion A :Two identical balls A
and B thrown with same velocity ‘u’ at two
different angles with horizontal attained the
same range R. If A and B reached the (a) 1: 3 (b) 3 :1
maximum height h1 and h2 respectively, then R (c) 1 : 1 (d) 1 : 2
Te

= 4 h1 h 2 NEET 2022
Reason R: Product of said heights. 58. A ball is projected with a velocity, 10 ms–1, at
an angle of 60° with the vertical direction. Its
 u 2 sin 2 θ  u 2 cos 2 θ  speed at the highest point of its trajectory will
h1 h 2 =   
 2g  2g  be
Choose the CORRECT answer : (a) 10 ms–1 (b) Zero
(a) Both A and R are true and R is the correct (c) 5 3 ms −1 (d) 5 ms −1
explanation of A. NEET 2022
(b) Both A and R are true but R is NOT the 59. A small block slides down on a smooth inclined
correct explanation of A. plane, starting from rest at time t = 0. Let Sn be
(c) A is true but R is false the distance travelled by the block in the
(d) A is false but R is true interval
JEE MAIN 2022 S
t = n – 1 to t = n. Then, the ratio n is
54. A projectile is launched at an angle ‘α’ with the S n+1
horizontal with a velocity 20 ms-1 . After 10 s,
its inclination with horizontal is ‘β’. The value 2n 2n − 1
(a) (b)
of tanβ will be : (g = 10 ms–2) 2n − 1 2n
(a) tan α + 5 sec α (b) tan α – 5 sec α 2n − 1 2n + 1
(c) (d)
(c) 2 tan α – 5 sec α (d) 2 tan α + 5 sec α 2n +1 2n − 1
JEE MAIN 2022 NEET 2021
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60. A car starts from rest and accelerates at 5 m/s2. (a) 3 (b) 6
At t = 4 s, a ball is dropped out of a window by (c) 5 (d) 4
a person sitting in the car. What is the velocity JEE MAIN 2022
and acceleration of the ball at t = 6 s? 66. In the arrangement shown in figure a1,a2,a3 and
(a) 20 2 m / s, 10 m / s 2 (b) 20 m / s, 5 m / s 2 a4 are the accelerations of masses m1,m2,m3 and
m4 respectively. Which of the following relation
(c) 20 m / s, 0 (d) 20 2 m / s, 0 is true for this arrangement?
NEET 2021
61. When an object is shot from the bottom of a
long smooth inclined plane kept at an angle 60°
with horizontal, it can travel a distance x1 along
the plane. But when the inclination is decreased
to 30° and the same object is shot with the same
velocity, it can travel x2 distance. Then x1 : x2
will be
(a) 1: 2 3 (b) 1: 2
(c) 2 :1 (d) 1: 3
NEET 2019
62. The speed of a swimmer in still water is 20 m/s.
The speed of river water is 10 m/s and is
(a) 4a1 + 2a2 + a3 + a4 = 0

Y
flowing due east. If he is standing on the south
bank and wishes to cross the river along the (b) a1 + 4a2 + 3a3 + a4 = 0
shortest path, the angle at which he should (c) a1 + 4a2 + 3a3 + 2a4 = 0
SP
make his strokes w.r.t. north is, given by
(a) 45º west (b) 30º west
(d) 2a1 + 2a2 + 3a3 + a4 = 0
JEE MAIN 2022
(c) 0º (d) 60º west 67. A 34m long ladder weighing 10 kg leans on a
NEET 2019 frictionless wall. Its feet rest on the floor 3 m
63. A mass m is attached to a thin wire and whirled away from the wall as shown in the figure. If Ff
m
in a vertical circle. The wire is most likely to and Fw are the reaction forces of the floor and
break when the wall, then ratio of Fw/Ff will be : (Use g =
(a) inclined at an angle of 60° from vertical 10 m/s2)
(b) the mass is at the highest point
a

(c) the wire is horizontal

(d) the mass is at the lowest point
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NEET 2019
64. What is the minimum velocity with which a
body of mass m must enter a vertical loop of
radius R so that it can complete the loop?
(a) 3gR (b) 5gR
(c) gR (d) 2gR 6 3
(a) (b)
NEET 2016 110 113
Newton's Law of Motion 3 2
(c) (d)
65. A block of metal weighing 2 kg is resting on a 109 109
frictionless plane (as shown in figure). It is JEE MAIN 2022
struck by a jet releasing water at a rate of 1 68. Amass of 10 kg is suspended vertically by a
kgs-1 and at a speed of 10 ms-1. Then, the initial rope from the roof. When a horizontal force is
acceleration of the block, in ms-2, will be : applied on the mass, the rope deviated at an
angle of 45° at the roof point. If the suspended
mass is at equilibrium, the magnitude of the
force applied is (Take, g = 10 ms–2)
(a) 70 N (b) 200 N
(c) 100 N (d) 140 N
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69. A spherical ball is dropped in a long column of 73. One end of string of length l is connected to a
a highly viscous liquid. The curve in the graph particle of mass m and the other end is
shown, which represents the speed of the ball connected to a small peg on a smooth
(v) as a function of time (t) is horizontal table. If the particle moves in circle
with speed v, the net force on the particle
(directed towards centre) will be (T represents
the tension in the string)
mv 2 mv 2
(a) T + (b) T−
ℓ ℓ
(c) zero (d) T
NEET 2017
(a) D (b) A
74. A wire of length L has mass µ per unit length.
(c) B (d) C It is used to pull up a body of mass M upwards
NEET 2022 with acceleration α. What is the tension at the
70. A particle is released from height S from the midpoint of the wire?
surface of the Earth. At a certain height its (g = acceleration due to gravity)
kinetic energy is three times its potential (a) M(g + α) (b) (M + µL)g
energy. The height from the surface of earth µL  µL 
 
and the speed of the particle at that instant are (c)  M +  (g + α ) (d)M + g
 2   2 

Y
respectively
UPTGT Science - 2021
S 3gS S 3gS 75. A force of 10 N acts on a particle in vertically
(a) ,
4 2
(b) ,
4 2
SP upward direction and it is displaced downward
direction by a distance 5.0 m. The work done
S 3gS S 3gS
(c) , (d) , is:
4 2 2 2
(a) +10 J (b) +50 J
NEET 2021
(c) –50 J (d) –10 J
am
71. A ball is thrown vertically downward with a UKPSC Lecturer (Mains) 2020
velocity of 20 m/s from the top of a tower. It 76. A 2.5 kg iron ball has the same diameter as a
hits the ground after some time with a velocity 1.25 kg aluminium ball. The balls are dropped at
of 80 m/s. The height of the tower is : (g = 10 the same time from a cliff. Just before they reach
m/s2) the ground, they have same :
(a) 340 m (b) 320 m (a) Acceleration (b) Momentum
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(c) 300 m (d) 360 m (c) Kinetic energy (d) Potential energy
NEET 2020 UP TGT Physics 2016
72. Two bodies of mass 4 kg and 6 kg are tied to Friction
the ends of a mass less string. The string passes
over a pulley which is frictionless (see figure). 77. A block of mass 40 kg slides over a surface,
The acceleration of the system in terms of when a mass of 4 kg is suspended through an
acceleration due to gravity (g) is : inextensible massless string passing over
frictionless pulley as shown below. The
coefficient of kinetic friction between the
surface and block is 0.02. The acceleration of
block is.
(Given g = 10 ms–2.)

(a) g/2 (b) g/5 (a) 1 ms–2 (b) 1/5 ms–2

(c) g/10 (d) g (c) 4/5 ms–2 (d) 8/11 ms–2
NEET 2020 JEE MAIN 2022
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78. A block of mass 2 kg moving on a horizontal (c) Frictional force opposes the relative motion.
surface with speed of 4 ms-1 enters a rough (d) Coefficient of sliding friction has dimensions
surface ranging from x = 0.5 m to x = 1.5 m. of length.
The retarding force in this range of rough NEET 2018
surface is related to distance by F = – kx where 83. A 40 N crate is resting on a rough horizontal
k = 12Nm -1 . The speed of the block as it just floor. A 12 N horizontal force is then applies to
crosses the rough surface will be : it. If the coefficient of frictions are µs = 0.5 and
(a) zero (b) 1.5 ms–1 µs = 0.4, the magnitude of the frictional force
–1
(c) 2.0 ms (d) 2.5 ms–1 on the crate is
JEE MAIN 2022 (a) 8 N (b) 12 N
79. A block of mass m slides along a floor while a (c) 16 N (d) 20 N
force of magnitude F is applied to it at an angle RPSC School Lect. 26.07.2016
θ as shown in figure. The coefficient of kinetic Work, Energy and Power
friction is µK. Then, the block's acceleration 'a'
is given by : (g is acceleration due to gravity) 84. A body of mass M at rest explodes into three
pieces, in the ratio of masses 1:1:2. Two smaller
pieces fly of perpendicular to each other with
velocities of 30 ms-1 and 40 ms–1 respectively.
The velocity of the third pieces will be:
(a) 15 ms–1 (b) 25 ms–1
–1
(c) 35 ms (d) 50 ms–1
JEE MAIN 2022

Y
F  F  85. A constant power delivering machine has
(a) − cos θ − µ K  g − sin θ 
m  m  towed a box, which was initially at rest, along a

(b)
F
m
 F 
cos θ − µ K  g − sin θ 
 m 
SP horizontal straight line. The distance moved by
the box in time 't' is proportional to :-
(a) t2/3 (b) t3/2
F  F  (c) t (d) t1/2
(c) cos θ − µ K  g + sin θ  JEE MAIN 2021
m  m 
86. A force acts on a 2 kg object, so that its position
m
F  F  is given as a function of time as x = 3t2 + 5.
(d) cos θ + µ K  g − sin θ 
m  m  What is the work done by this force in first 5
JEE MAIN 2021 seconds?
a

80. Aman (mass = 50kg) and his son (mass = 20kg) (a) 850 J (b) 900 J
are standing on a frictionless surface facing (c) 950 J (d) 875 J
each other. The man pushes his son, so that he JEE MAIN 2019
starts moving at a speed of 0.70 ms−1 with 87.
Te

A particle of mass m is moving with speed 2v

respect to the man. The speed of the man with and collides with a mass 2m moving with speed
respect to the surface is v in the same direction. After collision, the first
(a) 0.28 ms–1 (b) 0.20 ms–1 mass is stopped completely while the second
–1
(c) 0.47 ms (d) 0.14 ms–1 one splits into two particles each of mass m,
JEE MAIN 2019 which move at angle 45º with respect to the
original direction. The speed of each of the
81. An electric lift with a maximum load of 2000 kg
moving particle will be
(lift + passengers) is moving up with a constant
speed of 1.5 ms–1. The frictional force opposing ν
(a) 2ν (b)
the motion is 3000 N. The minimum power 2
delivered by the motor to the lift in watts is : (g
= 10 m s–2) ν
(c) (d) 2 2ν
(a) 23500 (b) 23000 (2 2 )
(c) 20000 (d) 34500
JEE MAIN 2019
NEET 2022
88. From a circular ring of mass 'M' and radius
82. Which one of the following statements is 'R' an arc corresponding to a 90° sector is
incorrect? removed. The moment of inertia of the
(a) Rolling friction is smaller than sliding remaining part of the ring about an axis
friction. passing through the centre of the ring and
(b) Limiting value of static friction is directly perpendicular to the plane of the ring is 'K'
proportional to normal reaction. times 'MR2'. Then the value of 'K' is
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 1 3 3
(a) (b) (a) 2 Mv2 (b) Mv2
8 4 2
7 1 1
(c) (d) (c) Mv2 (d) Mv2
8 4 2
NEET 2021 UP PGT - 2021
89. A ball of mass 0.15 kg is dropped from a height 95. Consider a solid cylinder of mass M and radius
10 m, strikes the ground and rebounds to the
R rolling down and inclined plane without
same height. The magnitude of impulse
imparted to the ball is (g = 10 m/s2) nearly slipping from a height h. The speed of its centre
of mass when the cylinder reaches the bottom,
(a) 1.4 kg m/s (b) 0 kg m/s
is
(c) 4.2 kg m/s (d) 2.1 kg m/s
NEET 2021 4
(a) gh (b) 2gh
90. A wheel of mass m and moment of inertia I is 3
in motion with linear velocity v and angular
velocity ω . Its kinetic energy is 3 3
(c) gh (d) gh
1 1 2 2 5
(a) mv 2 (b) Iω UP PGT - 2021
2 2
1 2 1 1 1 96. What is conserved in an inelastic collision?
(c) Iω + Im v 2 (d) mv 2 + I ω2 (a) Kinetic energy (b) Potential Energy
2 2 2 2
UPPSC Ashram Paddhati PGT - 2021 (c) Total energy (d) Momentum

Y
91. Two bodies of masses m1 and m2 are connected UPPSC Poly. Lect. 2021 Paper - I
through a spring of force constant k. When a
force F is applied in the direction of the length Rotational Motion
SP
of spring, the distance between m1 and m2
changes by x. The stored potential energy in
spring will be-
97. What percentage of kinetic energy of a moving
particle is transferred to a stationary particle
when it strikes the stationary particle of 5 times
1 2 its mass? (Assume the collision to be head-on
(a) kx (b) kx
2 elastic collision)
1 2 1 2 2 (a) 50.0% (b) 66.6%
am
(c) kx (d) kx
2 2 (c) 55.5% (d) 33.3%
UPPSC Ashram Paddhati PGT - 2021 JEE MAIN 2022
92. A spring 40mm long is stretched by the 98. One end of a mass less spring of spring
application of a force. If 10N force is required constant k and natural length l0 is fixed while
to stretch the spring through 1mm, then the the other end is connected to a small object of
work done in stretching the spring through 40
mass m lying on a frictionless table. The spring
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mm is
remains horizontal on the table. If the object is
(a) 84J (b) 64J
made to rotate at an angular velocity ω about
(c) 25J (d) 8J
an axis passing through fixed end, then the
UPPSC Ashram Paddhati PGT - 2021 elongation of the spring will be:
93. Potential energy per unit volume u of a
strained wire is k − mω2 l0 mω2 l0
(a) (b)
(a) u = stress × strain mω2 k + mω2
1 mω2 l0 k + mω2 l0
(b) u = stress × strain (c) (d)
4 k − mω2 mω2
1 JEE MAIN 2022
(c) u = stress × strain
2 99. Solid spherical ball is rolling on a frictionless
3 horizontal plane surface about is axis of
(d) u = stress × strain symmetry. The ratio of rotational kinetic
4
UP PGT - 2021 energy of the ball to its total kinetic energy is :-
94. An object of mass M moving with velocity v 2 2
(a) (b)
explodes and breaks up into three equal pieces. 5 7
Immediately after the explosion two pieces 1 7
become stationary, but the third piece keeps (c) (d)
moving. What is the kinetic energy of this 5 10
piece? JEE MAIN 2022
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100. Match List-I with List-II 103. Four equal masses, m each are placed at the
List-I List-II corners of a square of length (l) as shown in the
figure. The moment of inertia of the system
A Moment of inertia of I 5 2
MR about an axis passing through A and parallel to
solid sphere of radius R 3 DB would be :
about any tangent
B Moment of inertia of II 7
hollow sphere of radius MR 2
5
(R) about any tangent
C Moment of inertia of III 1
circular ring of radius MR 2
4
(R) about its diameter.
D Moment of inertia of IV 1
circular disc of radius MR 2
2
(R) about any diameter.
(a) ml2 (b) 2ml2
Question: Choose the correct answer from the
options given below (c) 3 ml2 (d) 3ml 2
(a) A-II, B-II, C-IV, D-III JEE MAIN 2021
(b) A-I, B-II, C-IV, D-III 104. The angular speed of a fly wheel moving with
(c) A-II, B-I, C-III, D-IV uniform angular acceleration changes from
(d) A-I, B-II, C-III, D-IV 1200 rpm to 3120 rpm in 16 seconds. The

Y
angular acceleration in rad/s2 is
JEE MAIN 2022
(a) 104π (b) 2π
101. A thin circular ring of mass M and radius r is
SP
rotating about its axis with an angular speed w.
Two particles having mass m each are now
(c) 4π (d) 12π
NEET 2022
attached at diametrically opposite points. The 105. A particle moving in a circle of radius R with a
angular speed of the ring will become : uniform speed takes a time T to complete one
M M + 2m revolution. If this particle were projected with
(a) ω (b) ω
m
the same speed at an angle 'θ' to the horizontal,
M+m M
the maximum height attained by it equals 4R.
M M − 2m The angle of projection, θ, is then given by :
(c) ω (d) ω
M + 2m M + 2m 1 1
 2gT 2  2  gT 2  2
a

JEE MAIN 2021 (a) θ = sin −1  2  (b) θ = cos −1  2 

102. A large block of wood of mass M = 5.99 kg is  πR  π R
hanging from two long massless cords. A bullet 1 1
−1  π R  −1  π R 
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2 2 2 2
of mass m = 10g is fired into the block and gets (c) θ = cos  2  (d) θ = sin  2 
embedded in it. The (block + bullet) then swing  gT   gT 
upwards, their centre of mass rising a vertical NEET 2021
distance h = 9.8 cm before the (block + bullet) 106. Two particles of mass 5 kg and 10 kg
pendulum comes momentarily to rest at the respectively are attached to the two ends of a
end of its arc. The speed of the bullet just rigid rod of length 1 m with negligible mass.
before collision is : (Take g = 9.8 ms–2) The centre of mass of the system from the 5 kg
particle is nearly at a distance of
(a) 33 cm (b) 50 cm
(c) 67 cm (d) 80 cm
NEET 2020
107. The moment of inertia of a uniform circular disc of
radius R and mass M about an axis passing from
the edge of the disc and normal to the disc is−
1
(a) MR 2 (b) MR2
2
(a) 841.4 m/s (b) 811.4 m/s 7 3
(c) MR 2 (d) MR 2
(c) 831.4 m/s (d) 821.4 m/s 2 2
JEE MAIN 2021 (UPPGT 2011)
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108. We have one solid sphere and one very thin [Take, mass of planet = 8 × 1022 kg,
spherical shell. They have identical masses and radius of planet = 2 × 106 m,
moment of inertia about their respective
diameters. The ratio of their radii is given by: gravitational constant G = 667×10–11 . N-
m2/kg2]
(a) 3 : 7 (b) 3: 7
(a) 11 (b) 17
(c) 5 : 3 (d) 5: 3 (c) 13 (d) 9
UPPCS Pre 2001,
JEE MAIN 2019
(UPPGT 2013)
109. One quarter sector is cut from a uniform 115. A solid sphere of mass M and radius a is
circular disc of radius R, the sector has mass surrounded by a uniform concentric spherical
M. It is made to rotate about a line shell of thickness 2a and 2M. The gravitational
perpendicular to It's plane and passing field at distance 3a from the centre will be
through the centre of the original disc. It's GM 2GM
moment of inertia about the axis of rotation is: (a) (b)
9a 2 9a 2
1 2 1 2
(a) MR (b) MR GM 2GM
2 4 (c) (d)
2
1 3a 3a 2
(c) MR 2 (d) 2MR 2 JEE MAIN 2019
8
RPSC School Lect. 08.01.2020 116. A body of mass 60 g experiences a gravitational
(UPPGT 2002) force of 3.0 N, when placed at a particular
point. The magnitude of the gravitational field

Y
Gravitation intensity at that point is
110. The distance of the Sun from earth is 1.5 × 1011 (a) 180 N/kg (b) 0.05 N/kgj
SP
m and its angular diameter is (2000) s when
observed from the earth. The diameter of the
Sun will be :
(c) 50 N/kg (d) 20 N/kg
NEET 2022
(a) 2.45 × 10 m10
(b) 1.45 × 10 m10 117. The escape velocity from the Earth's surface is
9 9 v. The escape velocity from the surface of
(c) 1.45 × 10 m (d) 0.14 × 10 m
another planet having a radius, four times that
JEE MAIN 2022 of Earth and same mass density is
am
111. The time period of a satellite revolving around
(a) 4v (b) v
earth in a given orbit is 7 hours. If the radius of
orbit is increased to three times its previous (c) 2v (d) 3v
value, then approximate new time period of the NEET 2021
satellite will be : 118. The kinetic energies of a planet in an elliptical
(a) 40 hours (b) 36 hours orbit about the Sun, at positions A, B and C are
(c) 30 hours (d) 25 hours
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KA, KB and KC, respectively. AC is the major

JEE MAIN 2022 axis and SB is perpendicular to AC at the
112. The distance between Sun and Earth is R. The position of the Sun S as shown in the figure.
duration of year if the distance between Sun Then
and Earth becomes 3R will be :
(a) 3 years (b) 3 years
(c) 9 years (d) 3 3 years
JEE MAIN 2022 (a) KA < KB < KC (b) KA > KB > KC
113. The time period of a satellite in a circular orbit (c) KB < KA < KC (d) KB > KA > KC
of radius R is T. The period of another satellite NEET 2018
in a circular orbit of radius 9R is: 119. A planet moving along an elliptical orbit is
(a) 9T (b) 27T closest to the sun at a distance r1 and farthest
(c) 12T (d) 3T away at a distance of r2. If v1 and v2 are the
JEE MAIN 2021 linear velocities at these points respectively,
114. A spaceship orbits around a planet at a height ν
of 20 km from its surface. Assuming that only then the ratio 1 is
ν2
gravitational field of the planet acts on the 2
spaceship, what will be the number of complete (a) (r1/r2) (b) r2/r1
revolutions made by the spaceship in 24 hours (c) ( r / r
2 1 2) (d) r1/r2
around the planet? NEET 2011
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120. Two astronauts are floating in gravitational 125. The radius of the orbit of a satellite is 16 times
free space after having lost contact with their the radius of the orbit of a geo-stationary
spaceship. The two will satellite. The period of the satellite is
(a) move towards each other (a) 4 days (b) 16 days
(b) move away from each other (c) 64 days (d) 96 days
UP PGT - 2021
(c) will become stationary UPPCS Pre 2009
(d) keep floating at the same distance between 126. Steering of satellite is based on conservation of
them. which of the following?
NEET 2017 (a) Energy (b) Linear momentum
121. If the mass of the Sun were ten times smaller (c) Angular momentum (d) None of the above
and the universal gravitational constant were UPPSC Poly. Lect. 2021 Paper - I
ten times larger in magnitude, which of the 127. Two satellites A and B are revolving around the
following is not correct? earth in the same orbit. Mass of B is thrice to
(a) Raindrops will fall faster. that of A. Then the correct statement is
(a) speeds of A and B are equal
(b) Walking on the ground would become more (b) speeds of A and B are greater
difficult. (c) P.E.s of A and B are equal
(c) Time period of a simple pendulum on the (d) None of the above
Earth would decrease. (UPPGT 2010)
(d) g on the Earth will not change. Elasticity, Elasticity Constants &
NEET 2018 their Interrelations

Y
122. A solid sphere of constant density ρ has mass 128. The bulk modulus of a liquid is 3 × 1010 Nm-2.
M and radius R. What is the gravitation The pressure required to reduce the volume of

2
SP
potential difference between point P which is at
distance R from the centre and its surface?
liquid by 2% is :
(a) 3 × 108 Nm-2
8
(c) 6 × 10 Nm -2
(b) 9 × 108 Nm-2
(d) 12 × 108 Nm-2
(i.e. Vp–V surface) JEE MAIN 2022
GM 129. In order to determine the Young's Modulus of
(a) Zero (b)
R a wire of radius 0.2 cm (measured using a scale
m
of least count = 0.001 cm) and length 1m
(c) – 3GM (d) −
3GM
(measured using a scale of least count = 1 mm),
8R 2R
a weight of mass 1kg (measured using a scale of
UPTGT Science - 2021
least count = 1g) was hanged to get the
a

123. The earth has mass M and radius R. If 'g' is elongation of 0.5 cm (measured using a scale of
acceleration due to gravity on the surface of the least count 0.001 cm). What will be the
earth, what is its value at height R above the fractional error in the value of Young's
Te

3 Modulus determined by this experiment ?

earth's surface? (a) 0.14% (b) 0.9%
(c) 9% (d) 1.4%
(a) 9 g (b) 4
g
16 9 JEE MAIN 2021
130. Young’s moduli of two wires A and B are in the
(c) g (d) zero ratio 7 : 4. Wire A is 2 m long and has radius R.
3
UPTGT Science - 2021 Wire B is 1.5 m long and has radius 2 mm. If
the two wires stretch by the same length for a
124. A gunman and an apple are both at height 98 given load, then the value of R is close to
m above the ground, at distance 200 m from (a) 1.3 mm (b) 1.5 mm
each other. At t = 0, a bullet (m = 5 gm, velocity (c) 1.9 mm (d) 1.7 mm
200 m/s) is fired horizontally aimed at the
JEE MAIN 2019
apple. At the same time (t = 0) the apple starts
to move downwards. Given g = 9.8 m/s2, the 131. The bulk modulus of a spherical object is ‘B’. If
it is subjected to uniform pressure ‘p’, the
bullet will hit the apple only if it moves at
fractional decrease in radius is
constant
(a) velocity 9.8 m/s B 3p
(a) (b)
(b) velocity 4.9 m/s 3p B
(c) acceleration 9.8 m/s2 p p
(c) (d)
(d) acceleration 4.9 m/s2 3B B
UPTGT Science - 2021 NEET 2017
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132. Copper of fixed volume V is drawn into wire of Beam, Bending of Beams & Torsion
length l. When this wire is subjected to a
constant force F, the extension produced in the of Cylindrical Bodies
wire is Dl. Which of the following graphs is a 139. The elastic limit of brass is 379 MPa. What
straight line?
should be the minimum diameter of a brass
(a) ∆l versus 1/l (b) ∆l versus l2 rod, if it is to support a 400 N load without
(c) ∆l versus 1/l2 (d) ∆l versus l exceeding its elastic limit?
NEET 2014 (a) 0.90 mm (b) 1.00 mm
133. When a linear load W is applied to a metal wire (c) 1.16 mm (d) 1.36 mm
of length l, its length increases by ∆l. The
JEE MAIN 2019
∆V
fractional change in its volume will be 140. A steel wire having a radius of 2.0 mm,
V carrying a load of 4 kg, is hanging from a
proportional to ceiling. Given that g = 3.1p ms-2, what will be
2
∆l  ∆l  the tensile stress that would be developed in the
(a) (b)   wire?
l  l 
3 (a) 6.2 × 106 Nm–2 (b) 5.2 × 106 Nm–2
∆l  ∆l  6 –2
(c) (d)   (c) 3.1 × 10 Nm (d) 4.8 × 106 Nm–2
l  l  JEE MAIN 2019
UP PGT - 2021
141. One end of a horizontal thick copper wire of
134. Which of the following correctly represents
length 2L and radius 2R is welded to an end of

Y
theoretical limits of Poisson ratio 'σ' ?
another horizontal thin copper wire of length L
1 and radius R. When the arrangement is
(a) 1 < σ < 2 (b) −1 < σ <

(c) −2 < σ < 1 (d)

1
SP
< σ <1
2 stretched by applying forces at two ends, the
ratio of the elongation in the thin wire to that in
the thick wire is
2
UPPSC Poly. Lect. 2021 Paper - I (a) 0.25 (b) 0.50
UPPCS Pre 2007 (c) 2.00 (d) 4.00
135. Increase in length of a wire on stretching is IIT 2013
am
0.025%. If its Poisson ratio is 0.4. then what 142. Two objects of mass 10 kg and 20 kg
will be the percentage decrease in the diameter respectively are connected to the two ends of a
of the wire? rigid rod of length 10 m with negligible mass.
(a) 0.01 (b) 0.02 The distance of the center of mass of the system
(c) 0.03 (d) 0.05 from the 10 kg mass is
UPPSC Poly. Lect. 2021 Paper - I 10
Te

136. Steels is - (a) 5 m (b) m

3
(a) Same elastic as rubber
20
(b) More elastic than rubber (c) m (d) 10 m
3
(c) Less elastic than rubber
NEET 2022
(d) Neither elastic nor plastic
UPPSC Poly. Lect. 2021 Paper - I 143. The ratio of the radius of gyration of a thin
uniform disc about an axis passing through its
137. Choose the correct relation among elastic
centre and normal to its plane to the radius of
constants Y, K and ɳ from the following -
gyration of the disc about its diameter is
1 1 1 1 1 1
(a) = + (b) = + (a) 1: 2 (b) 2 : 1
η 3Y 9K 3η Y 9K
(c) 2 :1 (d) 4 : 1
1 1 1 1 1 1
(c) = + (d) = + NEET 2022
3Y η 9K Y 3η 9K
144. A uniform rod of length 200 cm and mass 500 g
UPPSC Poly. Lect. 2021 Paper - I
is balanced on a wedge placed at 40 cm mark.
138. The volume of a solid does not vary with A mass of 2 kg is suspended from the rod at 20
pressure. What will be the Poisson ratio? cm and another unknown mass 'm' is
(a) 0.2 (b) 0.3 suspended from the rod at 160 cm mark as
(c) 0.4 (d) 0.5 shown in the figure. Find the value of 'm' such
UPPSC Poly. Lect. 2021 Paper - I that the rod is in equilibrium. (g = 10 m/s2)
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 sectional area 3A. If the length of the first wire
is increased by Dl on applying a force F, how
much force is needed to stretch the second wire
by the same amount?
(a) 9F (b) 6F
(c) 4F (d) F
1 1 NEET 2018
(a) kg (b) kg 150. Torsional couple required to twist a cylinder of
12 2
length l / 2, radius r and modulus of rigidity η
1 1
(c) kg (d) kg by one complete turn is :
3 6
2π2 ηr 4 πηr 4
NEET 2021 (a) (b)
l l
145. A wire of length L, area of cross section A is
hanging from a fixed support. The length of the π ηr
2 4
2π2 ηr 4
(c) (d)
wire changes to L1 when mass M is suspended l 2l
from its free end. The expression for Young’s UP LT Grade Science 2018 (Exam : 29.07.2018)
modulus is : 151. Twisting couple per unit angular twist is :
Mg(L1 − L) MgL πηa 4 2πηa 4
(a) (b) (a) (b)
AL AL l l l
MgL MgL1 πηa 4 πηa 4
(c) (d) (c) (d)

Y
A ( L1 − L ) AL 2l 3l
TGT 2005
NEET 2020
146. Two particles of mass 5 kg and 10 kg
SP
respectively are attached to the two ends of a
152. Two cylindrical rods have same length, mass
and material, but one is hollow having cross-
sectional internal and external radius r1, and r2
rigid rod of length 1 m with negligible mass. respectively and the other is solid having radius
The centre of mass of the system from the 5 kg r. These are twisted by the same angle (by
particle is nearly at a distance of : fixing at their respective ends), then the
m
(a) 50 cm (b) 67 cm restoring couples Ch and Cs required will have
ratio.
C C C C

C C C C
(c) 80 cm (d) 33 cm
h

h
r2 − r2 r2 + r2
NEET 2020 (a) = 2 21 (b) = 2 21
s r s r
a

147. The stress-strain curves are drawn for two

h

h
2
different materials X and Y. It is observed that r r2
the ultimate strength point and the fracture (c) = (d) =
s r22 − r12 s r22 + r12
point are close to each other for material X but
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are far apart for material Y. We can say that UPPCS Pre 2007, 2009
materials X and Y are likely to be (respectively) 153. A cantilever of length 50 cm is depressed by
15mm at the loaded end. The depresssion at
(a) ductile and brittle (b) brittle and ductile distance 30 cm from the fixed and will be :
(c) brittle and plastic (d) plastic and ductile (a) 3.24 ×10–3 (b) 12.96 ×10–3
Odisha NEET 2019 (c) 6.48 ×10 –3
(d) 3.24 ×10–3
148. A wire of length L, area of cross section A is (UPPGT 2009)
hanging from a fixed support. The length of the
wire changes to L1 when mass M is suspended Hydrostatics
from its free end. The expression for Young’s 154. The velocity of a small ball of mass ‘m’ and
modulus is density d1, when dropped in a container filled
Mg ( L1 − L ) with glycerin, becomes constant after some
MgL1
(a) (b) time. If the density of glycerin is d2, then the
AL AL viscous force acting on the ball, will be :
MgL MgL  d   d 
(c) (d) (a) mg 1 − 1  (b) mg 1 − 2 
AL A ( L1 − L )
 d2   d1 
NEET 2020
d  d 
149. Two wires are made of the same material and (c) mg  1 − 1 (d) mg  2 − 1
have the same volume. The first wire has cross- d
 2  d
 1 
sectional area A and the second wire has cross- JEE MAIN 2022
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155. The pressure acting on a submarine is 3 × 105 160. The streamline flow of an incompressible and
Pa at a certain depth. If the depth is doubled, non-viscous liquid is described by
the percentage increase in the pressure acting (a) Boyle's law
on the submarine would be : (Assume that (b) Poiseuille's law
atmospheric pressure is 1 × 105 Pa density of
3 –3 –2 (c) Archmedes principle
water is 10 kg m , g = 10 ms )
(d) Bernoulli's principle
200 200
(a) % (b) % UP PGT - 2021
3 5 161. Viscosity of a gas is due to transport of
5 3 (a) momentum (b) energy
(c) % (d) %
200 200 (c) mass (d) none of these
JEE MAIN 2021 UP PGT - 2021
156. The velocity of a small ball of mass M and 162. The velocity of oil in a 5 cm internal diameter
density d, when dropped in a container filled pipe is 0.63 m/s. The velocity in a 3 cm internal
with glycerin becomes constant after some diameter pipe that connects the first one is:
d (a) 1.75 m/s (b) 1.50 m/s
time. If the density of glycerin is , then the
2 (c) 3.0 m/s (d) 9.0 m/s
viscous force acting on the ball will be UPPCS Pre 2005
Mg 163. How high would water rise in the pipes of a
(a) 2Mg (b) building if the water pressure gauge shows the
2
pressure at the ground floor to be 300 KPa :

Y
3 (a) 95.5 m/95.5 m (b) 45.3 m/45.5 m
(c) Mg (d) Mg
2
(c) 40.2 m/40.2 m (d) 30.6 m/30.6 m
SPNEET 2021
157. A capillary tube of radius r is immersed in
water and water rises in it to a height h. The Hydrodynamics
UPPCS (Pre) 2003

mass of the water in the capillary is 5 g. 164. If p is the density and η is coefficient of
Another capillary tube of radius 2r is viscosity of fluid which flows with a speed v in
immersed in water. The mass of water that will the pipe of diameter d, the correct formula for
am
rise in this tube is : Reynolds number Re is :
(a) 5.0 g (b) 10.0 g ηd ρv
(c) 20.0 g (d) 2.5 g (a) R e = (b) R e =
ρv ηd
NEET 2020 ρvd η
158. A small hole of area of cross-section 2 mm2 is (c) R e = (d) R e =
η ρvd
present near the bottom of a fully filled open
Te

tank of height 2 m. Taking g = 10 m/s2, the rate JEE MAIN 2022

of flow of water through the open hole would 165. What will be the nature of flow of water from a
be nearly circular tap, when its flow rate increased from
–6
(a) 6.4 × 10 m /s3 –6
(b) 12.6 × 10 m /s3 0.18 L/min to 0.48 L/min? The radius of the tap
–6 3 –6 3 and viscosity of water are 0.5 cm and 10–3 Pa s,
(c) 8.9 × 10 m /s (d) 2.23 × 10 m /s respectively.
NEET 2019 (Density of water : 103 kg/m3)
159. A fluid is in streamline flow across a horizontal (a) Unsteady to steady flow
pipe of variable area of cross section. For this (b) Remains steady flow
which of the following statements is correct?
(c) Remains turbulent flow
(a) The velocity is maximum at the narrowest
(d) Steady flow to unsteady flow
part of the pipe and pressure is maximum at
the widest part of the pipe. JEE MAIN 2021
(b) Velocity and pressure both are maximum at 166. Water falls from a height of 60 m at the rate of
the narrowest part of the pipe. 15 kg/s to operate a turbine. The losses due to
(c) Velocity and pressure both are maximum at frictional force are 10% of the input energy.
the widest part of the pipe. How much power is generated by the turbine?
(d) The velocity is minimum at the narrowest part (g = 10 m/s2)
of the pipe and the pressure is minimum at the (a) 7.0 kW (b) 10.2 kW
widest part of the pipe. (c) 8.1 kW (d) 12.3 kW
(Karnataka NEET 2013) NEET 2021
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167. Two small spherical metal balls, having equal 174. Bernoulli's principle is based on the law of
masses, are made from materials of densities ρ1 conservation of :
and ρ2(ρ1= 8ρ2) and have radii of 1mm and 2 (a) mass (b) energy
mm, respectively. They are made to fall
vertically (from rest) in a viscous medium (c) linear momentum (d) angular momentum
whose coefficient of viscosity equals h and UPPCS (Pre) 1999, 2000
whose density is 0.1 ρ2. The ratio of their
terminal velocities would be
Surface Tension
79 19 175. Sixty four conducting drops each of radius 0.02
(a) (b) m and each carrying a charge of 5 µC are
72 36
combined to form a bigger drop. The ratio of
39 79
(c) (d) surface density of bigger drop to the smaller
72 36 drop will be :
Odisha NEET 2019 (a) 1 : 4 (b) 4 : 1
168. Venturimeter is based on -
(c) 1 : 8 (d) 8 : 1
(a) Stokes law
JEE MAIN 2022
(b) Archimedes principle
(c) Bernoulli theorem 176. A water drop of diameter cm is broken into 64
(d) Equation of continuity equal droplets. The surface tension of water is
0.075 N/m. In this process the gain in surface
UPPSC Poly. Lect. 2021 Paper - I
energy will be :
169. The working of an atomizer is based on
(a) 2.8 × 10−4 J (b) 1.5 × 10−3 J

Y
(a) Bernoulli's principle (b) Boyle's law
(c) Archimedes principle (d) Hooke's law (c) 1.9 × 10−4 J (d) 9.4 × 10−5 J
RPSC School Lect. 08.01.2020
SP
170. The fictitious force on a body of mass 5 kg in a
frame of reference moving vertically upwards
JEE MAIN 2022
177. If a soap bubble expands, the pressure inside
the bubble
with an acceleration of 5 m/s2 is
(a) 25 N, vertically downwards (a) Is equal to the atmospheric pressure
(b) 25 N, vertically upwards (b) Decreases
m
(c) 74 N, vertically upwards (c) Increases
(d) 74 N, vertically downwards (d) Remains the same
RPSC School Lect. 26.07.2016 NEET 2022
171. Equation for Bernoullis Theorem is :
a

178. A capillary tube of radius r is immersed in

(a) P + ρv2 + ρgh = constant water and water rises in it to a height h. The
(b) P + mv2 + mgh = constant
mass of the water in the capillary is 5 g.
1
Te

(c) P + ρv2 + ρgh = constant Another capillary tube of radius 2r is immersed

2 in water. The mass of ater that will rise in this
1
(d) P + mv2 + mgh = constant tube is
2 (a) 2.5 g (b) 5.0 g
UP PGT Physics 2016 (Exam : 02.02.2019)
172. Water rises to a height of 10 cm in a capillary. (c) 10.0 g (d) 20.0 g
Mercury falls to a depth of 3.42 cm in same NEET 2020
capillary. If the relative density of mercury is 179. The surface tension of a liquid
13.6 g/cc and its angle of contact is 135º, the ratio
of surface tension of water and mercury is : (a) Increases with surface area
(a) 0.05 (b) 0.10 (b) Decreases with surface area
(c) 0.15 (d) 0.20 (c) Increases with temperature
UP PGT Physics 2016 (Exam : 02.02.2019) (d) Decreases with temperature
173. Three capillaries of equal lengths but internal
radii r, 2r, and 3r respectively are connected in UPPSC Ashram Paddhati PGT - 2021
series, a liquid flows in streamline motion 180. Surface tension of soap solution is
through them. If the pressure difference across 1.9×10−2 N/m Pressure difference on both sides
the entire system is 77cm (of water), then the of a soap bubble of diameter 2 cm will be -
pressure difference across the first capillary is :
(a) 71.64cm (b) 70.32cm (a) 7.2 N/m2 (b) 3.8 N/m2
(c) 76.00cm (d) 77.00cm (c) 3.5 N/m2 (d) 7.6 N/m2
UP PGT Physics 2016 (Exam : 02.02.2019) UPPSC Poly. Lect. 2021 Paper - I
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 –31
181. Two capillary tubes of same material having 188. If rest mass of an electron is 9.11×10 kg its
radii 1 mm and 2 mm respectively are rest energy will be:
immersed in a liquid. If the liquid rises to 30 (a) 8.2×10–11 J (b) 4.1×10–14 J
cm in the first, then the height in second will (c) 5.1×10–12 J (d) 8.2×10–14 J
be- UPPCS Pre 2005
(a) 7.5 cm (b) 60 cm 2
189. If the speed of light were of its present value
(c) 15 cm (d) 120 cm 3
UPPSC Poly. Lect. 2021 Paper - I the energy released in a given atomic explosion:
182. Two water drops of same radii are falling in air 2
(a) decreased by a factor of
with terminal velocity v. If both drops are 3
collapsed into a big drop then terminal velocity 4
will be shall be : (b) decreased by a factor of
9
(a) 21/3v (b) 22/3v 5
1 (c) decreased by a factor of
(c) v (d) 2v 9
2 1
UP LT Grade Science 2018 (Exam : 29.07.2018) (d) decreased by a factor of
3
183. The excess pressure in a soap bubble of 2 mm UPPCS (Pre) 2004
radius, if surface tension is 0.03N/m, is : 190. A car is moving with a speed 108 km/hr. Its
(a) 30N/m2 (b) 40N/m2 length is l and height h to a stationary observer,
2
(c) 60N/m (d) 120N/m2 these will appear as :

Y
UP LT Grade Science 2018 (Exam : 29.07.2018) 1
–2
(a) l γ , hγ where γ =
184. A water drop of radius 10 m is broken into 1 − 10−18
SP
1000 equal droplets. If the surface tension of
water is 0.075 N/m, the gain in surface energy
l h
(b) , where γ =
γ γ
1
1 − 10−11
will be
(a) 8.5×10–4 J. (b) 8.1×10–4 J 1
(c) l γ , h where γ =
(c) 7.7×10–4 J (d) 7.5×10–4 J 1 − 10 −14
am
UP PGT - 2021 l 1
(d) , h where γ =
185. Air is pushed into soap bubble of radius r to γ 1 − 10 −11
double its radius. If the surface tension of the UPPCS PRE 1996
soap solution is S, the work done in the 191. The total energy of a relativistic particle with
process is : rest mass m0 and moving with velocity v is
(a) 8πr2S (b) 12πr2S given by :
Te

(c) 16πr S
2
(d) 24πr S 2
1 2 1 m0 v 2
UPPCS Pre 2006 (a) m 0 v (b)
2 2 v2
1− 2
Special Theory of Relativity c
186. When light propagates through a material
m0c 2 v2
medium of relative permittivity εr and relative (c) (d) m 0c 2 1 − 2
permeability μr, the velocity of light, v is given v2 c
1− 2
by (c-velocity of light in vacuum) c
c UPPCS Pre 2006
(a) v = (b) v = c 192. For a particle of zero rest mass, the energy can
εrµ r
be expressed in terms of its linear momentum p
µr εr and its velocity v by E = pv, only if :
(c) v = (d) v = (a) v < c (b) v = c
εr µr
(c) v > c (d) v = 0
NEET 2022 UPPCS Pre 2001
187. The source of solar energy is : 193. A particle of rest mass m0 moves at speed 0.6 c
(a) Chemical reactions relative to the observer. The observed mass will
(b) Nuclear fusion be:
(c) Nuclear fission (a) 1.25 m0 (b) 1.33 m0
(d) Gravitational interaction with other solar systems (c) 1.67 m0 (d) 1.76 m0
UP PGT Physics 2016 (Exam : 02.02.2019) UPPCS Pre 2001
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194. A body of mass mo is placed in a rocket. The 198. A cube is moving with a velocity v along one of
rocket is moving with a speed of 0.6 c. Then the its edges. If Lo be the proper length of each
mass of the body as observed by a person edge, the volume of moving cube would be :
3/ 2
3 v2 
sitting in the rocket is v2
(a) L  1 −  (b) L 3
c 1 −
5 0  c2  0
c2
(a) m0 (b) m0  
4
4 3 L0 3 3 v2
(c) m0 (d) m0 (c) (d) L 0 1 −
5 5 v2 c2
1− 2
UPPCS Pre 2008 c
195. The velocity at which the relativistic UPPCS Pre 2008
3
momentum of the particle becomes twice its 199. If L0 is the volume of a cube at rest, them the
Newtonian momentum is : volume viewed from a reference frame moving
(a) c (b) c 3 with uniform velocity v in a direction parallel
to an edge of the cube shall be:
2c c 3 L30
(c) (d)
3 2 1/ 2
(a) L3
(b)  v2 
UPPCS Pre 2008 0 1 − 2 
196. The increase in the relativistic mass of a  c 
particle of rest mass 1 gm when it is moving  v2 
1/ 2
 v2 

Y
with 0.8 c velocity is : (c) L30 1 − 2  (d) L30 1 − 2 
(a) 1 gm (b) 0.667 gm  c   c 
UPPCS Pre 2007
(c) 1.667 gm (d) zero
SP
UPPCS Pre 2008
197. The equivalent relativistic mass of a photon of
200. The mass a of relativistic particle :

(a) increases with increasing velocity

wavelength 662 nm shall be [h = 6.62×10–34 J.s] (b) decreases with increasing velocity
(a) Zero (b) 3.3 × 10–36 kg (c) first increases until a critical value then starts
decreasing
m
–34
(c) 3.3 × 10 kg (d) Infinity
(d) remains independent of its velocity
UPPCS Pre 2007 UPPCS Pre 2005

Answer Key
a
Te

1. (a) 2. (c) 3. (d) 4. (c) 5. (b) 6. (a) 7. (a) 8. (a) 9. (b) 10. (d)
11. (b) 12. (b) 13. (a) 14. (b) 15. (b) 16. (a) 17. (c) 18. (b) 19. (a) 20. (b)
21. (d) 22. (c) 23. (c) 24. (b) 25. (a) 26. (a) 27. (d) 28. (d) 29. (a) 30. (b)
31. (a) 32. (b) 33. (b) 34. (b) 35. (d) 36. (c) 37. (c) 38. (c) 39. (a) 40. (b)
41. (d) 42. (d) 43. (c) 44. (b) 45. (d) 46. (c) 47. (d) 48. (d) 49. (d) 50. (b)
51. (b) 52. (c) 53. (a) 54. (b) 55. (c) 56. (b) 57. (a) 58. (c) 59. (c) 60. (a)
61. (d) 62. (b) 63. (d) 64. (b) 65. (c) 66. (a) 67. (c) 68. (c) 69. (c) 70. (a)
71. (c) 72. (b) 73. (d) 74. (c) 75. (c) 76. (a) 77. (d) 78. (c) 79. (b) 80. (b)
81. (d) 82. (d) 83. (b) 84. (b) 85. (b) 86. (b) 87. (d) 88. (b) 89. (c) 90. (d)
91. (c) 92. (d) 93. (c) 94. (b) 95. (a) 96. (d) 97. (c) 98. (c) 99. (b) 100. (a)
101. (c) 102. (c) 103. (c) 104. (c) 105. (a) 106. (c) 107. (d) 108. (d) 109. (a) 110. (c)
111. (b) 112. (d) 113. (b) 114. (a) 115. (c) 116. (c) 117. (a) 118. (b) 119. (b) 120. (a)
121. (d) 122. (c) 123. (a) 124. (c) 125. (c) 126. (c) 127. (a) 128. (c) 129. (d) 130. (d)
131. (c) 132. (b) 133. (c) 134. (b) 135. (a) 136. (b) 137. (d) 138. (d) 139. (c) 140. (c)
141. (c) 142. (c) 143. (c) 144. (a) 145. (c) 146. (b) 147. (b) 148. (d) 149. (a) 150. (a)
151. (c) 152. (b) 153. (a) 154. (b) 155. (a) 156. (b) 157. (b) 158. (b) 159. (a) 160. (d)
161. (a) 162. (a) 163. (d) 164. (c) 165. (d) 166. (c) 167. (d) 168. (c) 169. (a) 170. (a)
171. (c) 172. (c) 173. (a) 174. (b) 175. (b) 176. (a) 177. (b) 178. (c) 179. (d) 180. (d)
181. (c) 182. (b) 183. (c) 184. (a) 185. (d) 186. (a) 187. (b) 188. (d) 189. (c) 190. (c)
191. (b) 192. (b) 193. (a) 194. (a) 195. (d) 196. (c) 197. (b) 198. (d) 199. (c) 200. (a)

125

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02.
Heat and Thermodynamics
(1) Thermal Properties of Matter
■ Temperature and Heat
Temperature:- Temperature is a relative measure or indication of hotness or coldness of the body.
•The SI unit of temperature is Kelvin (K)
• Commonly used unit of temperature is degree Celsius (ºC)
Heat:- Heat is a form of energy that flows between a body and its surrounding medium by virtue of temperature
difference between them.
• The SI unit of heat energy transferred is expressed in Joule (J).
■ Types of Temperature scale

Name of the scale Symbol for each Lower fixed Upper fixed point Number of Divisions
scale point (LFP) (UFP) on the scale
Celsius ºC 0ºC 100 ºC 100
Fahrenheit ºF 32 ºF 212 ºF 180

Y
Kelvin K SP 273.15K 373.15K 100

■ Relationship among different Temperature scale.

100
am

C−0 F − 32 K − 273.15 X − LFP

= = =
100 − 0 212 − 32 373.15 − 273.15 UFP − LFP

• Two familiar temperature scales are the Fahrenheit temperature scale and the Celsius temperature scale.
Te

• The Celsius Temperature (tC) and the Fahrenheit temperature (tF) are related by
9
t F = t C + 32
5
•Absolute Zero Temperature (–273.15K)
Absolute zero is the temperature at which a system is in the state of lowest possible energy. It is also known
as thermodynamic temperature.
■ Measurement of Temperature
•Thermometer:- The instrument used to measure the temperature is called thermometer. The thermometers
work on the thermometric property, i.e the property which changes with temperature like any physical quantity
such as length, volume pressure and resistance etc. These vary varies linearly with a certain range of temperature.
Common liquids used in glass thermometers are mercury, alcohol etc. whose volume varies linearly with
temperature over a wide range.

■ Different types of thermometers

(1) Mercury thermometer:-
In these thermometers the length of mercury thread is taken as thermometric property if length of mercury column
at 0º and 100º are ℓ 0 and ℓ100 respectively.
(2) Gas Thermometer:-
In such thermometers, the pressure of a given mass of an ideal gas (at constant volume) or volume of a given mass
of an ideal gas (at constant pressure) is the thermometric property. The reference temperature is taken as 0ºC (ice
point) and 100ºC (Boiling point). The unknown temperature can be calculated as

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126
  P − P0 
t(ºC) =  t  × 100 (Constant volume gas thermometer)
 P 100 − P0 
 V − V0 
t(ºC) =  t  × 100 (Constant pressure gas thermometer)
 V 100 − V0 
(3) Platinum Resistance Thermometer
In this thermometer, the resistance of platinum wire is taken as thermometric property. The reference temperatures
are ice point (0ºC) and steam point (100ºC). The unknown temperature in ºC is given by.
 Rt – R 
t(º C) =  0 ×100  º C =  R t × 273.16  K
R –R  R 
 100 0   tr 
Here, temperature coefficient of Resistance (α) is given by
 R − R0 
α =  100 
 R 0 × 100 

S. No. Thermometer Thermometric property Principle

1. Constant volume gas Pressure Ideal gas equation
thermometer
2. Constant pressure gas Volume Idea gas equation
thermometer

Y
3. Electrical resistance Resistance Wheat- stone bridge
thermometer
4.
5.
Thermocouple
Liquid- in- glass
thermometer
SP Thermal E.M.F.
Length
Seebeck effect
Volumetric expansion

6. Pyrometer Infrared radiation flux Radiation

7. Magnetic thermometer Paramagnetic Curie's law
m
■ Thermometry:- The branch of physics which deals with the measurement of temperature is called
thermometry.
Few Terms used in Thermometry:-
• Melting: - Conversion of solid into liquid state at constant temperature is called melting.
a

• Fusion and Freezing point:- The process of change of state from liquid to solid is called fusion. The
temperature at which liquid starts to freeze is known as the freezing point of the liquid.
• Evaporation: - Conversion of liquid into vapour at all temperatures (even below its boiling point) is called
Te

evaporation
• Sublimation: - The conversion of a solid into vapour state is called sublimation.
• Hoar - Frost:- The conversion of vapour into solid state is called Hoar frost.

■ Thermal Expansion
Almost all substances (solids, liquids and gases) expand on heating and contract on cooling.
The expansion of a substance on heating is called thermal expansion of substance.
Note:- Water from 0ºC to 4 ºC and silver iodide from 80ºC to 141ºC. Which contract on heating and expand on
cooling.

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127
(i) Linear expansion:- By Experiments it is observed that on heating a rod, the increase in its length is directly
proportional to its original length, as increase in its temperature.
∆ℓ
∆ℓ = ℓα∆T ⇒ α =
ℓ × ∆.T
Where,
∆ℓ = Increase in length
ℓ = Original length
α = Coefficient of linear expansion
∆T = Change in Temperature

S. No. Materials Coefficient of linear expansion (α) in K-1

1. Aluminium 2.5×10-5
2. Brass 1.8×10-5
3. Iron 1.2×10-5
4. Copper 1.7×10-5
5. Silver 1.9×10-5
6. Gold 1.4×10-5
7. Glass (pyrex) 0.32×10-5
8. Lead 0.29×10-5

(ii) Superficial Expansion:- Superficial expansion of the material of a lamina is equal to the increase in unit
area of the lamina when its temperature rises to 1ºC.
∆A

Y
∆A = Aβ∆T ⇒ β =
A × ∆T
Where,

A
∆A = Change in Area
= Original Area
SP
∆T = change in Temperature
β = Coefficient of superficial expansion

(iii) Cubical (volumetric) Expansion:- Expansion in volume on heating is called cubical expansion.
am
∆V
∆V = Vγ∆T ⇒ γ =
V∆T
Where,
∆V = Increase in Volume
V = Original Volume
γ = Coefficient of cubical expansion
∆T = Increase in temperature.
Te

• Relation between α , β and γ are

β = 2α and γ = 3α
α : β : γ = 1 : 2: 3
• Dimension of α, β and γ are [θ-1] and units are k-1 or (ºC)-1

(i) Apparent Expansion of Liquids:-

When expansion of the container containing liquid, on heating is not taken into account, then observed expansion
is called apparent expansion of liquids.
Coefficient of apparent expansion of a liquid.
apparent (or observed) increase in volume
γa =
original volume × change in temperature
 ∆Va  −1
γa =  ºC
 V × ∆T 

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128
 (ii) Real Expansion of Liquids
When expansion of the container, containing liquid, on heating is also taken into account then observed expansion
is called real expansion of liquids.
Real Expansion of Liquid = Apparent expansion of liquid + volume expansion of vessel.
Coefficient of real expansion of a liquid
realincreasein liquid
γr =
original volume × changein temperature
 ∆Vr  −1
=  ºC
 V × ∆T 
Relation between coefficient of real and apparent expansions-
γ r = γ a + Yg

■ Anomalous Expansion of water

When temperature of water is increased from 0ºC, then its volume decreases upto 4ºC, becomes minimum at 4ºC
and then increases. Hence density of water is maximum at 4ºC because at this point volume is minimum. This
behaviour of water around 4ºC is called anomalous expansion of water.

Y
SP
■ Thermal Expansion of Gases
m
There are two types of coefficient of expansion in gases.
(i) Volume Coefficient (γv) : At constant pressure, the change in volume per unit volume per degree Celsius is
called volume coefficient.
∆V
a

γv =
V0 × ( ∆T )
Where,
Te

∆V = change in volumes of the gas

V0 = original volume
∆T = change in Temperature.
(ii) Pressure coefficient (γP)
At constant volume, the change in pressure per unit pressure per degree Celsius is called pressure coefficient.
∆P
γP =
P0 × ( ∆T )
Where,
∆P = change in pressure
P0 = original pressure
∆T = change in Temperature
■ Practical Applications of Thermal Expansion
(i) A glass stopper Jammed in the neck of a glass bottle can be taken out by heating the neck of the bottle.
(ii) When rails are laid down of the ground space is provided between the ends of two rails.
(iii) The transmission cable are not tightly fixed to the poles.
■ Triple point of water-
The values of pressure and temperature at which water coexists in equilibrium in all three states of matter, i.e. ice,
water and vapour is called triple point of water.
Temperature at triple point = 0.01ºC = 273.16 K.

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129
 Pressure at triple point = 0.006 Patm = 4.58 mm of Hg

■ Specific Heat:-
Specific heat of a substance is the amount of heat required to raise the temperature of the unit mass of the
substance through a unit degree (1º C or 1K). It is denoted by C or S.
• Its SI unit is Joule/kilogram- ºC or J kg–1 K–1 and its dimensional formula is [L2T-2θ-1]
The value of specific heat (S) will depend upon nature of the substance, and will obviously be different for
different substances.

Y
Q
S=
m∆T
• The specific heat of water = 4180 J kg-1 K-1
SP
• Specific heat for Hydrogen is maximum (3.5 cal/(gºC)) and for water 1 cal g-1 ºC–1.
• For Radon and Actinium, specific heat is minimum (= 0.022 cal g-1 ºC-1)
• Specific heat of a substance depends also on the state of the substance i.e solid, liquid or gas. For example
Specific heat of ice = 0.5 cal g-1 ºC-1,
Specific heat of water = 1 cal g-1 ºC-1
Specific heat of steam = 0.47 cal g-1 ºC-1
am
Te

• Gases have two types of specific heat such as specific heat capacity at constant volume Cv and at constant pressure
Cp.
For molar specific heats Cp - Cv = R where R = gas constant and this relation is called Mayer's formula.
• Specific heat ratio of adiabatic index is given as,
Cp
γ=
Cv
The value of γ depends on atomicity of the gas.
■ Debye Model
• Debye model is a method developed by Peter Debye in 1912 for estimating the Phonon contribution to the
specific heat (heat capacity) in a solid. This model correctly explains the low temperature dependence of the heat
capacity.
• According to Debye model, the lattice heat capacity at low temperature varies as proportional to T3.
The low temperature heat capacity,
dU 16π5 K B 4 3
C= = T
dT 5h 3 C53
■ Heat capacity or Thermal Capacity
The capacity of a body is defined as the amount of heat required to raise the temperature of the (whole) body
through 1ºC or 1K.
∆Q = ms∆T

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130
 When,
∆T = 1
∆Q = ms
∆Q = Thermal capacity
Hence thermal capacity of a body is the product of mass and specific heat of the body.
Its unit is Jk-1 or Cal ºC-1
■ Water Equivalent:-
It is the quantity of water whose thermal capacity is same as the heat capacity of the body. It is denoted by W
W = ms = heat capacity of the body.
Its expressed in the unit gram.
■ Latent Heat:-
Latent heat of a substance is the amount of heat energy required to change the state of unit mass of the substance
from solid to liquid and from liquid to gas/vapour without any change in Temperature.
Quantity of heat (Q)
Latent heat (L) =
Mass of substance (M)
• Its unit is measured in J kg-1 or Cal g-1
• Latent heat of fusion of ice = 80 cal. g-1 = 3.33×105 J/kg
• Latent heat of vaporisation of water is 540 cal g-1 or 22.6 × 105 J/kg.
■ Few examples to understand Latent heat
• It is more painful to get burnt by steam rather than by boiling water at 100ºC.
• Steam converted to water at 100ºC , then it gives out 536 cal of heat, so it is clear that steam at 100ºC has more
heat than water at 100ºC (i.e boiling of water).
• After snow falls, the temperature of the atmosphere becomes very low. This is because the snow absorbs the heat

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from the atmosphere to melt down. So in the mountains, when snow falls, one does not feel too cold but when ice
melts he feels too cold.
• There is more shivering effect of ice-cream on teeth as compared to that of water (obtained from ice). This is

■ Joule's Law:-
SP
because when ice-cream melts down, it absorbs large amount of heat from teeth.

According to Joule, when ever heat is converted into work or work is converted into heat, then the ratio between
work and heat is constant.
W
= J, Where J is mechanical equivalent of heat and J = 4.2 J. Cal–1
m
Q
■ Calorimetry
This is the branch of heat transfer that deals with the measurement of heat. The heat is usually measured in
calories or kilo calories.
a

■ Principle of calorimetry:-
When a hot body is mixed with a cold body, then heat lost by hot body is equal to the heat gained by cold body.
Heat lost = Heat gained.
If two substances having masses m1 and m2, specific heats C1 and C2 kept at temperature T1 and T2 (T1 > T2) are
Te

mixed, such that,

Temperature of mixture at equilibrium is Tmix, then
m1C1 (T1 –Tmix ) = m2C2 (Tmix –T2 ) or
m C T + m 2 C 2 T2
Tmix = 1 1 1
m1C1 + m 2 C 2
Note:- Principle of calorimetry follows the law of conservation of heat energy.
■ Heating curve:-
When a substance is given the heat, it undergoes rise in temperature and change of state at specific temperatures.
The graph showing the change in temperature and state of the substance with time is called the heating curve.

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131
 1
• Specific heat (or thermal capacity) ∝
Slope of curve
• Latent heat ∝ Length of horizontal line
■ Heating curve of water:-

(2) Modes of Heat transfer

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■ Transfer of Heat
Heat is a form of energy which can be transferred from one part of the system to another part of system due to
temperature difference.
■ There are three modes of heat transfer
(I) Conduction
SP
(II) Convection
(III) Radiation
(I)Conduction:- In conduction, heat is transferred from one point to another point without the actual motion of
am
heated particles.
Key points:-
(i) Heat Transfer due to Temperature difference.
(ii) Heat transfer due to free electron or vibration of molecules.
(iii) Heat transfer in solid body (in mercury also)
(iv) It is slow process.
(v) In conduction irregular path follows
Te

■ Fourier law of heat Conduction-

kAdT
Rate of heat flow Q = −
dx
■ Thermal conductivity:-
Thermal conductivity of a solid is a measure of the ability of the solid to conduct heat through it. It is denoted by
'k'

dQ T2
T1
dt A

dQ −kAdT Q kA(T1 − T2 )
Rate of heat flow = or =
dt dx t ℓ
ℓ
Thermal resistance RH =
kA
Joule / sec
SI units of k are = Wm −1K −1
m2 k / m
CGS unit of k are cal–1cm–1ºC–1
• The value of k is large in case of good conductors and it small in the case of insulator.
• ksolid > kliquid > kgas (due to shape & size of matter or orientation of atoms in molecules)

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132
■ Variation of Thermal conductivity with Temperature -
S. No. Phase Temperature Effect Cause
1. Solid Increase Conductivity The crystal configuration of
decrease solid is affected and they start
to occupy random positions.
2. Liquid Increase Conductivity The liquids expand and try to
decrease attain gaseous configuration.
3. Gas Increase Conductivity The gas molecules collide at
Increases higher rate and momentum
transfer due to collision
increases.

■ Applications:-
(a) Rods in series

Total equivalent thermal resistance (R) is equal to sum of individual thermal resistances i.e.
 1 ℓ1   1 ℓ 2 
Req = R1 + R2 + R3 +… =  +  + .....
 k1 A1   k 2 A 2 
■ Rods in parallel:

In parallel, the total thermal resistance is given by -

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1
SP =
1
R e q R1 R 2
+
1
+ .... =
1
+
1
 1 ℓ1   1 ℓ 2 
+ .....
   
 k1 A1   k 2 A 2 
■ Ingen -Hausz experiment
m
The thermal conductivities of different materials are proportional to the square of the length of the melted wax of
the rods of these materials in the steady state.
If ℓ1 , ℓ 2 , ℓ 3 are the lengths of melted wax on the rods of different materials having coefficient of thermal
conductivities-
a

k ℓ2
k1 : k2 : k3 = ℓ12:ℓ 22:ℓ 32 or 1 = 1 2
k2 ℓ 2
■ Formation of Ice on Lakes-
Te

Time taken to form x thickness of ice on lake,

ρL 2
t= x
2kθ
Where ρ density of ice
L = Latent heat of freezing of ice.
k = coefficient of thermal conductivity of ice.
θ = Temperature above take.
Time taken to increase the thickness of ice from
x1 to x2.
ρL 2
t= (x 2 − x12 )
2kθ
(II) Convection:- It is a mode of transfer of heat from one part of the medium to another part by the actual
movement of heated particles of the medium.
Key points:-
(i) Heat transfer due to density difference
(ii) In convection actual motion of particles.
(iii) Heat transfer in fluids (Liquid & Gas)
(iv) It is slow process.
(v) It follow irregular path.
■ Newton's law of cooling:-
It states that the rate of loss of heat of a body is directly proportional to the difference in temperature of the body
and the surroundings, provided the difference in temperature is small, not more than 40ºC

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133
 dT
= k(T1 − T0 ) ⇒ T = T0 + (T1 -T0 )e-kt
dt

TºC

Where,
T = Temperature of body
T0 = Temperature of surrounding
k = constant of proportionality
When a body cools from T1 to T2 in time 't' in a surrounding of temperature T0 then,
T1 − T2  T − T2 
= k 1 − T0 
t  2 

(III) Radiation:-Radiation is the energy emitted by the matter by the mechanism of photon emission or
electromagnetic wave emission as result of changes in the electronic configuration of the atoms and molecules.
Because the mechanism of transmission is photon emission, unlike conduction and convection, there is no need of
intermediate matter to enable to transmission. In radiation, the internal energy of the object decreases.

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Electromagnetic Spectrum:-
All the electromagnetic waves are classified in terms of the wave length and are propagated at the speed of light
(c) i.e., 3×108 m/s. The difference between one form of radiation and another lies only in its frequency (f) and
SP
wavelength (λ) which is related by the given figure.
am

The emission of thermal radiation which (range are lies between wavelength of 10-5 µm and 104 µm) depends
upon the nature, temperature and state of the emitting surface. However, with gases the dependence is also upon
Te

the thickness of the emitting layer and the pressure.

Key points:-
(i) Heat transfer without any medium.
(ii) It is an Electromagnetic radiation
(iii) Radiation acts in all form (Solid + liquid + Gas)
(iv) It is fast process (with speed of light c=3×108 ms-1)
(v) Path of radiation is straight line like "light"
■ Stefan's Boltzmann law:-
Radiated energy emitted by a perfect black body per unit area second is directly proportional to fourth power of
absolute temperature.
E ∝ T 4 or E = σT 4
Where σ is a constant of proportionality and is called Stefan's constant. Its value is 5.67×10–8 Wm–2 K–4
• If the body at temperature T is surrounded by a body at temperature T0 then Stefan's law -
E = σ (T14 -T04 )
• For a general body: E = εσ (T14 -T04 )
Here 'ε' is taken as emissivity of both the body and the enclosure.
■ Prevost's theory of heat exchange:-
A body is simultaneously emitting radiations to its surrounding and absorbing radiations from the surroundings.
If surrounding temperature is T0 then
E net = εσ (T14 -T04 )

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134
■ Kirchhoff's Law
• According to Kirchhoff's law, the ratio of emissive power to absorptive power is same for all surfaces at the same
temperature and is equal to the emissive power of a perfectly black body at that temperature.
e E
• If a and e represent absorptive and emissive power of a perfectly black body then = = constant for all
a A
surface.
e
• For a perfectly black body A = 1 so, for any surface = E for the radiation of a particular wavelength
a
eλ E λ e
= ⇒ λ = Eλ .
a λ Aλ aλ
Since Eλ is constant at a given temperature hence according to this law, if a surface is a good absorber of a
particular wavelength it is also a good absorber and bad emitter.
■ Perfectly black body
•A perfectly black body is that which absorbs completely all the radiation of all wavelengths incident on it.
•A perfectly Black body maintained at a suitable temperature emits radiations of all wavelengths.
•A perfectly black body neither reflects nor transmits any radiation, it will always appear black whatever be the
colour of the incident radiation
■ Absorptive Power:-
Absorptive power of a surface is defined as the ratio of the radiant energy absorbed by it in a given time to the
total radiant energy incident on it in the same time. It is represented by 'a'
( ∆Q )absorbed
a=
( ∆Q )incident

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• For a perfectly black body absorptive power is maximum and it is unity.
• It has no units and dimension.
■ Emissive power:-
SP
• For a given surface it is defined as the radiant energy emitted per unit area of the surface.
• It is represented by 'e'
• Emissive power of a surface depends on its nature and temperature.
∞
• Emissive power (e) of given wavelengths of radiations emitted range from 0 to ∞, e = ∫0 eλ dλ
m
'e' is measured in Joule sec–1 metre–2 or wm–2
■ Rayleigh Jeans Law- The Rayleigh- Jeans Law of radiation given us the intensity of radiation released by a black
body. The law states that the intensity of the radiation emitted by a black body is directly proportional to the
temperature and inversely proportional to the wavelength raised to a power of four.
a

The Raleigh- Jeans law approximates the spectral radiance of a black body as a function of its wavelength at a
given temperature. The Rayleigh- Jeans equation can be written as:
2ck B T
Te

Bλ ( Τ ) =
λ4
Where,
B = Spectral radiance,
kB = Boltzmann constant
c = speed of light
T = Temperature in Kelvin
c
λ= wavelength  
v
■ Wein's Displacement law:-
Product of the wavelength λm of most intense radiation emitted by a black body and absolute temperature of the
black body is a constant, λmT = b = 2.89×10–3mK
where b = Wein's constant.

∞
• Area under eλ –λ graph = ∫
0
e λ dλ = σ T4

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135
■ Solar constant:-
The solar radiant energy received per unit area per unit time by a black surface held at right angles to the sun's
rays and placed at the mean distance of the earth (in the absence of atmosphere) is called solar constant. Solar
constant is represented by 's'
P 4πR s2 σT 4
s= =
4πr 2 4πr 2
2
R 
=  S  T4
 r 
Where,
RS = Radius of sun
r = average distance between Sun and Earth.
s = 2 cal cm–2 min = 1.4 kWm–2
T = Temperature of sun ≈ 5800K

(3) Kinetic Theory of Gases

It relates the macroscopic properties of gases to the microscopic properties of gas molecule.
■ Basic Postulates of kinetic theory of gases:-
• Every gas consists of extremely small particles known as molecules. The molecules of a given gas are all
identical but are different than those another gas.
• The molecules of a gas are identical, spherical rigid, and perfectly elastic point masses.

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• The size is negligible in comparison to inter molecular distance.
■ Assumptions of kinetic theory of Gases
•The space occupied by the molecules is much smaller than the volume of the gas.
SP
•There is no force of attraction among the molecules. The pressure of a gas is due to elastic collision of gas
molecules with the walls of the container.
•The time of contact of a moving molecule with the walls of the container is negligible as compared to the time
interval between two successive collisions.
•Gravitational attraction among the molecules is ineffective due to extremely small masses.
am
■ Gas Laws:-Through experiments, it was established that gases irrespective of their nature obey the following
laws-
■ Boyle's Law:- According to Boyle's Law, At constant temperature the volume (V) of given mass of a gas is
inversely proportional to its pressure (P) i.e.
Te

1
P∝ ⇒ PV = constant.
V
For a given gas,
P 1V 1 = P 2V 2
■ Charles Law:- According to this law, when pressure (P) of a certain mass of a gas is kept constant the volume
'V' occupied by the gas is directly proportional to the temperature T of the gas i.e when P is constant.
V
V ∝ T ⇒ = constant.
T
For a given gas,
V1 V2
=
T1 T2
1
At constant pressure, the volume (V) of a given mass of a gas increases or decreases by of its volume at
273.15
0ºC for each 1ºC rise or fall in temperature.

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136
 Volume of the gas at t ºC,
 t 
Vt = V0  1 + 
 273.15 
where V0 is the volume of gas at 0ºC.
■ Gay Lussac's Law or Renault's Law:-
At constant volume, the pressure 'P' of a given mass of gas is directly proportional to its absolute temperature T i.e
P
P ∝ T ⇒ = constant.
T
For a given gas,
P1 P2
=
T1 T2
1
At constant volume, the pressure P of a given mass of a gas increases or decreases by of its pressure at
273.15

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0ºC for each 1ºC rise or fall in temperature.
SP
m
Pressure of the gas at t ºC,
 t 
Pt = P0  1 + 
 273.15 
Where P0 is the volume of gas at 0ºC.
a

■ Avogadro's Law:-
It states that equal volumes of all gases under identical conditions of temperature and pressure contain the same
number of molecules this statement is called Avogadro's hypothesis. According to Avogadro's Law N1 = N2,
Te

where N1 and N2 are number of molecules in two gases respectively.

•The number of molecules present in 1 g mole of a gas is defined as Avogadro's number (NA).
NA = 6.023×1023 per gram mole.
• At STP or NTP (T = 273K and P = 1atm) 22.4 L of each gas has 6.023×1023 molecules.
• One mole of any gas at STP occupies 22.4 l of volume.
■ Dalton's Law of Partial Pressure:-
It states that the total pressure exerted by a mixture of non-reactive ideal gases is equal to sum of the partial
pressures which each would exert, if it alone occupied the same volume at the given temperature.
Hence,
P = P1 + P2 + P3 + ……
■ Ideal or Perfect Gas Equation
Gases which obey all gas laws in all conditions of pressure and temperature are called perfect gases.
■ Equation of Perfect gas
PV = nRT
Where,
P = Pressure
V = Volume
T = Absolute temperature
R = Universal gas constant
n = Number of moles of a gas
R = 8.31 J mol-1 K-1

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137
■ Graham's law of diffusion:-
It states that the rates of diffusion of two gases are inversely proportional to the square roots of their densities.
1
r∝ , which is Graham's law of diffusion
ρ
For a given gas
r1 ρ2
=
r2 ρ1
Where, r1 & r2 are the rates of diffusion and ρ1 & ρ2 are densities.
■ Real Gases:-
Real gases deviate slightly from ideal gas Laws because-
• Real gas molecules attract each other.
• Real gas molecules occupy a finite volume.
■ Real or Vander Waal's Gas equation :-
 an 2 
 P + 2  ( V − nb ) = nRT
 V 
Where, a and b are called Vander Waal's constants.
• Dimension of [a] = [ML5T-2] & [b] = [L3]
• Units of a = N – m4 – mole–2 & b = m3
Note:- Real gases obey ideal gas equation at high temperature and low pressure.
■ Pressure of a gas:-

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The pressure exerted by the gas is due to the continuous bombardment of gas molecules against the walls of the
container.
Pressure due to an ideal gas is given by
SP P=
1 mn 2
3 V
1 2
Vrms = ρVrms
3
• For one mole of an ideal gas
1M 2
P= Vrms
3V
Where,
am
m = mass of one molecule
n = number of molecules
V = Volume of gas,
Vrms = root mean square (rms) velocity of the gas molecules
M = Molecular weight of the gas.
• If P is the pressure of the gas and E is the kinetic energy per unit volume then,
Te

2
P= E
3
■ Kinetic energy of a Gas and speed of Gas molecules:-
(i) Average kinetic energy of translation per molecules of a gas is given by
3
E= kT
2
Where k = Boltzmann's constant.
(ii) Average kinetic energy of translation per mole of a gas is given by
3
E= RT
2
where R = Universal gas constant.
(iii) For a given gas kinetic energy, E ∝ T
E1 T1
⇒ =
E 2 T2
(iv) Root mean square velocity of the gas molecules is given by
3RT 3P
Vrms = =
M ρ
(v) For a given gas, Vrms ∝ T

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138
 1
(vi) For different gases, Vrms ∝
M
R
(vii) Boltmann's constant, k =
NA
where R is an ideal gas constant
NA = Avogadro Number
k = 1.38×10-23J/k
(viii) The average speed of molecules of a gas is given by

8kT 8RT
Vavg = =
πM πM
(ix) The most probable speed of molecules Vmp of a gas is given by
2KT 2RT
Vmp = =
m M
Vrms > Vavg > Vmp
(x) With rise in temperature RMS speed of gas molecules increases as- Vrms ∝ T
1
(xi) With the increase in molecular weight rms speed of gas molecule decrease as Vrms ∝
M

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(xii) RMS speed of gas molecules is of the order of km/s, e.g. at NTP for hydrogen gas
2RT 3 × 8.31 × 273
= = 1.84
SP
Vrms =
M 2 × 103
(xiii) RMS speed of gas molecules does not depend on the pressure of gas (If temperature remains constant)
because P ∝ ρ (Boyle's law). If pressure is increased n times, then density will also increase by n times but Vrms
remains constant.
■ Degree of Freedom:-
m
It is defined as the total number of co-ordinates or independent quantities required to describe completely the
position and configuration of the system.
It is denoted by f or N.
Mathematically, Degree of freedom of a system is given by
a

f or N = 3A - R
Where A = Number of particles in the system
R = Number of independent relations among the particles.
Te

■ Degree of freedom (DOF) for different atomic particles are given below.
(i) Mono-atomic gases:-
Consists only of one atom (i.e. point mass) has 3, DOF (all translatory motion only) e.g. (Neon, argon, helium etc)
(ii) Di-atomic Gases:-
consists of two atoms and shows translatory motion (3 'DOF') and rotatory motion (2 'DOF') = 5 'DOF' e.g.
(Hydrogen, Oxygen, Nitrogen etc)
(iii) Triatomic gas:-
•Linear triatomic gas = 7 DOF (3 translational, 3 rotational and 1 vibrational)
•Non-Linear triatomic gas = 6 DOF (3-translational, 3-rotational)
■ Specific heat of a gas:-
f
(a) At constant volume, Cv = R.
2
f 
(b) At constant pressure Cp =  + 1 R.
2 
(c) Ratio of specific heats of a gas all-constant pressure and at constant volume is given by
2 Cp
γ = 1+ =
f Cv
Specific heat of solids, C = 3R = 24.93 Jmol-1k-1
Specific heat of water, C = 9R =C = 74.97 Jmol-1k-1
Where, R = 3.31 Jmol-1k-1

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139
 u= f RT C v=
du f
= R
CP = CV + R Cp 2
γ= = 1+
Nature of gas 2 dT 2 Cv f

Monoatomic 3 3 5 1.67
RT R R
2 2 2
Dia-and linear poly 5 5 7 1.4
RT R R
atomic 2 2 2
Non-linear 3RT 3R 4R 1.33
polyatomic
■ Law of Equipartition of energy:-
According to this law, for any dynamical system in thermal equilibrium at temperature T (Kelvin), the total
energy (translational, rotational and vibrational) is distributed equally amongst all the degrees of freedom, and
1
energy associated with each molecule per degree of freedom is kT , where k is Boltzmann constant.
2
■ Mean Free Path:-
The average distance travelled by a molecule between two successive collisions is called mean free path (λ)
Mean free path is given by
kT
λ=
2πσ 2 P
where σ = diameter of the molecule
P = pressure of gas
T = Temperature

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k = Boltzmann constant
λ = Mean free path.
Note:-
(1) Mean free path, λ ∝ T and λ ∝
1
P
SP
R
(2) Use Ideal gas equation (PV = nRT) and =k
NA
am
1
λ=
2nπ(σ)2
■ Kinetic interpretation of pressure:-
1 2
P×V = mNVrms
3
Where,
Te

m = mass of molecule
N = no. of molecule.
■ Kinetic interpretation of Temperature
According to kinetic theory of gases, for 1 mole of an ideal gas
1M
P= (Vrms )2
3V
1
PV = M(Vrms ) 2 (here M = Total mass)
3
3PV 3RT
So, (Vrms)2 = = (PV = nRT , n = 1 mole)
M M
3RT
Vrms =
M
Vrms ∝ T
The absolute temperature of an ideal gas is directly proportional to mean square velocity of its molecule.
1
Also MVrms 2
= RT (n = 1)
3
1 M 2 R
⇒ Vrms = T
3 N0 N0

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140
 1 3 R
⇒ 2
MVrms = kT (k = = Boltzmann constant)
2 2 NA
3
⇒ (K.E)Trans = kT
2

⇒ (K.E)Trans ∝ T
1 2
Where MVrms is average translational energy per molecules.
2
■ Critical Temperature:-
The Maximum temperature below which a gas can be liquefied by pressure alone it is represented by 'TC'
8a
TC =
27Rb
Where a & b are Vander Waal constant and R is Gas constant.
■ Critical Volume:-
The volume of one mole of a gas liquefied at critical temperature is known as critical volume.
It is represented by VC.
Critical volume VC = 3b
■ Critical Pressure is the maximum pressure required for the liquefaction of gases at the critical temperature. It is
represented by PC.

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a
PC =
27b 2
P V 3
SP
Note:- For real gas C C = is called critical coefficient and is same for all gases.
R TC 8

(4) Thermodynamics
It is the branch of physics which deals with conversion of thermal energy to mechanical energy or other forms of
m
energy, and vice versa,
Thermodynamic Terms:-
In order to understand these transformations we need to understand the terms given below-
■ Thermodynamics System:- A thermodynamics system defined as finite quantity of matter of a prescribed region
a

of space on which analysis is focused.

Te

Example:- Quantity of steam mixture of vapour and gas in I.C. engine.

■ Thermodynamic state Variables and Equation of state:-
•Thermodynamic state variables of a system are the parameters which describe equilibrium states of the system.
•A thermodynamic system can be completely specified by the variables like pressure (P), volume (V),
temperature (T), internal energy (u).
•The variables P, V, T and u whose knowledge specifies the state of a thermo-dynamical system, are called as
thermodynamic variables /parameters.

■ Different Thermo dynamical Processes

(1) Isobaric Process
V
(a) It is thermodynamic process in which pressure is kept constant i.e = constant
T
(b) The amount of heat energy transferred is given by ∆Q = n CP ∆T (n = number of moles)

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141
 (c) In the adjoining figure, graphs I and II represent Isobaric expansion and compression respectively.

■ Isochoric (Isometric) process:-

(a) It is thermodynamic process in which the volume of the system remains constant (P/T = constant).
(b) The amount of heat energy transferred is given by ∆Q = n CV ∆T (n = number of moles)
(c) In the adjoining figure, graphs I and II represent Isochoric processes.

■ Isothermal Process:-

Y
• It is a thermodynamic process in which the temperature of the system remains constant (PV = Constant).
• It is very slow process SP
am

■ Adiabatic Process:-
• It is a process taking place in a thermodynamic system for which there is no exchange of heat between the
system and its surroundings.
• Adiabatic processes are very fast processes.
Tγ
• This process follows Poisson's law, according to which PVγ = TVγ-1 = γ = constant.
Te

P −1
• From dQ = nCdT, Cadi = O as dQ = 0 i.e Molar heat capacity for Adiabatic process is Zero.
■ Cyclic process:-
When a thermodynamic system returns to its initial state after passing through several states, then it is called a
cyclic process.
For cyclic process dU = o
or dQ = dW
Efficiency of the cycle is given by
Work done
η=
Heat supplied
work done by the cycle can be computed from area enclosed by cycle on P-V curve.

■ Polytropic Process
Polytropic is a thermodynamic process that obeys the relation
PVn = C

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142
 The polytopic index will take any value between 0 to ∞, depending on the process
Process Value of n (PVn = C)
Isobaric (dP = 0) n=0
Isothermal (dT = 0) n=1
Polytropic n=n
Adiabatic (δQ = 0) n = γ = 1.4
Isochoric (dV = 0) n=∞

• Graphical Comparison of thermodynamic process

From the graph Workdoneadiabetic < WorkdoneIsothermal < WorkdoneIsobaric

■ Zeroth law of thermodynamics

Y
When a body 'A' is in thermal equilibrium with another body 'b' and also separately in thermal equilibrium with a
body 'C', then body 'B' and 'C' will also be in thermal equilibrium with each other.
SP
• Temperature measurement is based on Zeroth law of thermodynamics
■ First law of Thermodynamics:-
m
(i) First law of thermodynamics is equivalent to law of conservation of energy.
(ii) According to this law, If heat ∆Q is added to a system then it will be used either as change in internal energy
∆U of the system or as work ∆W performed by the system i.e
a

δQ = dU + δW
W = ∫PdV
du = nCv∆T
Te

■ Sign Convention:-
• Heat absorbed by the system → positive
• Heat rejected by the system → negative
• Work done by the system → positive
• Work done on the system → negative
• When temperature. rise, internal energy increases. → positive
• When temperature. fall, internal energy decreases → negative
■ Applications of the First law of Thermodynamics
• For Isobaric Process:-
P = constant ⇒ V ∝ T
Q = mCP∆T, dU = mCV∆T
W = P(V2 – V1) = mCV∆T
• For Isothermal Process:-
Temperature = Constant ⇒ dU = 0
The first law of thermodynamics
δQ = dU + δW
δQ = 0 + δW = δW
δQ = δW
i.e Heat supplied in an isothermal process is used entirely to do work against the external surroundings.

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143
 • For Adiabatic process:-
δQ = 0
The first law of thermodynamics
δQ = dU + δW = 0 or dU = – δW
• For cyclic process:-
dU = 0
The first law of thermodynamics
δQ = dU + δW
δQ = δW
• For Melting process:-
When a substance melts, the change in its volume (dv) is very small therefore, it can be neglected.
δW = pdV = p× 0 = 0
First law of thermodynamics
δQ = dU + δW
mL = dU + 0 (∴δQ = mL)
Where L = Latent heat.
• For Boiling Process:-
Work done in expansion δW = pdV = P(V2 –V1)
δQ = mL
According to first law of thermodynamics.
δQ = dU + δW

Y
mL = dU + P(V2 – V1)
Where L = Latent Heat.
■ Second Law of The Thermodynamics:-
SP
The second law of thermodynamic can be stated in number of ways, out of which the following two forms are
important-
• Kelvin Planck Statement:-
It is impossible for an engine operating in a cyclic process to extract heat from a reservoir and convert it
completely into work.
• Clausius Statement:-
am
It is impossible for a self acting machine unaided by any external agency to transfer of heat from cold to hot
reservoir i.e heat by itself cannot pass from a colder to hotter.
■ Entropy:-
Entropy is related to the disorder in the system. Greater the randomness or disorderness, greater the entropy.
dQ
Change in entropy is given by ds =
T
Te

Where dQ = heat supplied to the system

T = absolute Temperature.
Note :-
(i) Entropy is a physical quantity that remains constant during a reversible adiabatic change.
(ii) Entropy of a system increases in an irreversible process.
(iii) Entropy of universe never decreases i.e. ds ≥ 0.
■ Clausius Equality & Inequality
According to Clausius theorem for a cyclic process-
∂Q
1. ∫ =0 Reversible process
T
∂Q
2. ∫ <0 Irreversible process
T
∂Q
3. ∫ >0 Impossible
T
■ Change in Entropy for solids and liquids
•When heat is supplied to a solid and its state changes such that temperature remains constant, then change in
∆Q
entropy, ∆S =
T
∆Q ± mL
dS = =
T T

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144
 • Heat absorbed → Positive sign
• Heat rejected → Negative sign.
•When temperature of a substance changes from T1 to T2 then
dQ T2 dT T 
dS = ∫ = mC ∫ = mCℓn  2 
T T1 T
 T1 
T 
= 2.303 mC log10  2 
 T1 
Where M = mass of the substance
C = specific heat of the substance.
■ Heat engine:-
A heat engine is a device which converts heat energy into mechanical energy.
A heat engine essentially consists of three parts.
(1) Source of heat at higher temperature
(2) Working substance.
(3) Sink of heat at lower temperature.

Y
W = Q1 – Q 2
■ Thermal efficiency of heat engine is given by-
η=
Net work done / cycle (w)
SP
Total amount of heat absorbed / cycle (Q1 )
Q1 − Q 2
η=
Q1
Q T
m
η = 1− 2 = 1− 2
Q1 T1
Q1 = Heat absorbed from source.
Q2 = Heat is rejected to the sink.
a

T1 and T2 are Temperatures of source and sink.

Te

(1) External Combustion Engine:-

Heat is produced by burning fuel in a chamber outside the main body of the engine e.g. steam engine.
Note:- Thermal efficiency of a steam engine varies 12% to 16%.
(2) Internal Combustion Engine:-
Heat is produced by burning the fuel inside the main body of the engine e.g. Petrol engine, Diesel engine
Note:- The theoretical value of thermal efficiency of an internal combustion engine is about 52%
■ Carnot's cycle:-
Carnot devised an ideal cycle of operation for a heat engine called Carnot's cycle.
Carnot cycle consists of the following four stages.
1. Isothermal expansion
2. Adiabatic expansion
3. Isothermal compression
4. Adiabatic compression.

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145
 AB = Isothermal expansion (AB)
BC = Adiabatic expansion
CD = Isothermal compression
DA = Adiabatic compression
The network done per cycle by the engine is numerically equal to the area of the loop representing the Carnot's
cycle.
From the Carnot cycle for doing the calculations for different processes,
Q 2 T2
=
Q1 T1
Therefore, efficiency of the cycle is
T Q
η = 1 − 2 or 1 − 2
T1 Q1
■ Refrigerator or Heat pump:
(1) A refrigerator or heat pump is basically a heat engine running in reverse direction. In it working substances
takes heat Q2 from a body at lower temperature T2 has a net amount of work done on it by an external agent
(usually compressor) and gives out a larger amount of heat Q1 to a hot body at temperature T1 usually
atmosphere.
(2) A refrigerator or heat pump transfers heat from a cold to a hot body at the expense of mechanical energy
supplied to it by an external agent.
The working substance here is called Refrigerant and works in cyclic process.
(3) Efficient of Performance of refrigerator

Y
is defined as
Heat extracted from the reservoir at low temperature (T2 )
β=

β=
Q2
=
Q2 1 Q
⇒ = 1 −1
SP
work done to transfer the heat

W Q1 − Q 2 β Q2
(4) A perfect refrigerator is one which transfers heat from cold to hot body without doing any work i.e w =0
So, that Q1 = Q2 and hence for it β → ∞.
am
Te

■ Gibbs function (G)

G = H – TS
G = U + pV – TS
For two equilibrium states at constant pressure and temperature,
(G1 – G2) = (U1 – U2) + p(V1 – V2) – T (S1 – S2)
Wmax = (G1 – G2) p,T = C
W ≥ (G1 – G2) p,T = C
It is applicable for open system.
■ Helmholtz function (F) :
F = U – TS
For two equilibrium states 1 and at constant (T),
(F1 – F2)T = C = (U1 – U2) T = C – T(S1 – S2) T = C
(W T = C)max = (F1 – F2)T = C
∴ WT = C ≤ (F1 – F2) T = C
It is applicable for closed system.
Note: Gibbs function (G) and Helmholtz function (F) are used in chemical reaction.
■ Maxwell's thermo dynamical Relations
It is based on first and second law of thermodynamics in the equilibrium conditions.

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146
 There are four-Maxwell's thermo dynamical relations.
 ∂T   ∂P   ∂S   ∂P 
(i)   = −  (ii)   = 
 ∂V S  ∂S  V  ∂V T  ∂T V
 ∂T   ∂V   ∂S   ∂V 
(iii)   =  (iv)   = −  
 ∂P S  ∂S P  ∂P T  ∂T  P
Two other Maxwell's relation can be given as,
 ∂T   ∂S   ∂T   ∂S 
(v)     −    =1
 ∂P  V  ∂V P  ∂V  P  ∂P  V
 ∂P   ∂V   ∂P   ∂V 
(vi)     −    =1
 ∂T S  ∂S T  ∂S T  ∂T S
■ Clausius - clapeyron equation.
The equation which deals with the change in the boiling point or the freezing point of a substance with increase in
pressure is called clausius -clapeyron equation.
Mathematically-
dP L
=
dT T(V2 − V1 )
where P = Pressure

Y
T = Temperature
L = Latent Heat
V = Volume.
SP
Note:- This equation use the concept of Carnot cycle and work on P-V diagram.
■ Joule- Thomson effect:-
The phenomena of change of temperature produces when a gas is made to expand adiabatically from a region of
high pressure to a region of low pressure is known as Joule Thomson effect.
m
It is also known as Kelvin - Joule effect or Joule - Kelvin effect or Isenthalpic effect.
a
Te

AB = Cylindrical non conducting walls

A and B are Piston
P1 > P2
G = Porous Plug

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147
 Note:- (i) In Joule-Kelvin expansion, the enthalpy
remains constant.
(ii) For an ideal gas there is no Joule Thomson effect.
(iii) Joule Thomson coefficient is given by
 ∂T  1   ∂v  
µ   = T   − V
 ∂P  H CP   ∂T P 
(iv) For Ideal gas µJT = 0 because gases neither warm
not cool upon being expanded at constant
(v) The necessary condition of the Joule-Kelvin
expansion in the porous plug experiment is
'U+PV' must remain constant.
(vi) In Joule - Thomson coefficient porous plug
∂P
expansion for cooling should be negative.
∂T
(vii) If 'µ' is positive then the temperature will fall
during throttling.
(viii) If µ is negative then the temperature will rise
during throttling.
■ Inversion Temperature:-
The temperature at which there is no change in temperature of gas during Joule - Thomson expansion of gases is

Y
called inversion temperature.
2a
Ti =

•
Rb

Bayle's temperature - TB =
SP a
⇒ Ti = 2TB
Rb
For Real Gas -
1  2a 
µ=  − b
CP  RT 
am
Case i : If µ = 0 then there will be neither heating nor cooling.
1  2a 
0= − b
CP  RT 
2a
b= (Where a and b are Vander Waal constant)
RT
Te

2a
= Ti Inversion temperature.
Rb
2a
Case ii : If > b then µ = Positive → (gas cooling)
RT
2a
Case iii If < b then µ = Negative → (gas warm up)
RT
■ Peltier effect :-
The Phenomenon of evolution or absorption of heat at Junction of thermo couple when current is made to pass
through it, is called as Peltier effect.

(i) Heat is evolved or absorb

(ii) Heating or cooling is determined by direction of
current.
Fe → Cu → Heat evolved → Hot junction
Cu → Fe → Heat absorbed → Cold Junction

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148
■ Peltier Coefficient:-
The Peltier effect may be defined as the amount of heat evolved and absorbed per unit charge flowing across the
Junction. It is represented by π
Q ∝ I (current)
∝ t (time)
Q = π It
Q
π=
It
Unit of π = JA-1 S-1 or JC-1
■ Seebeck effect:-
The Phenomenon of production of current in a thermocouple due to temperature difference between two Junction
of thermocouple is called as See back effect.
■ Seebeck Series:-
Bi, Ni, Co, Pt, Cu………Fe, As, Sb
The amount of Emf generated in thermocouple depend upon on following terms,
Emf ∝ Separation between metal
∝ nature of metals
∝ Temperature difference of Junction

Y
Key points
(1) A P-V diagram for a system is called an indicator diagram. Each dot in a P-V diagram represents a possible
state of the system.
SP
(2) A curve drawn between two points on the indicator diagram shows a thermodynamic process obeying some
rule.
(3) The super fluidity is the characteristic property of a fluid with zero viscosity which therefore flows without
any loss of kinetic energy.
m
(4) The super fluid component has zero viscosity and zero entropy.
(5) When P and V, the relation Pvx = Constant. Where x ≠ 1 or γ the process is called a polytropic one
In this process the molar heat capacity is–
R R R
a

C = Cv + = +
1− x γ −1 1− x
(6) Enthalpy-: Four Quantities called "thermodynamic potentials" are useful in the chemical thermodynamics of
Te

reactions and non-cyclic processes.

They are internal energy, the enthalpy, he Helmholtz free energy and the Gibbs free energy.
Enthalpy is defined by-
H = U + Pv
Where P and V are the pressure and volume and U is internal energy.
(7) If temperature of a body become θ1 to θ2 in t time and it becomes θ2 to θ3 in next time then use
θ2 -θ0 θ -θ
= 3 0 ( θ0 = temperature of environment.)
θ1 -θ0 θ2 -θ0
(8) Newton's law of cooling can be used to compare the specific heat of the two liquids.
(9) Radiations from sun take 8 min and 20 sec to reach earth.
(11) Suppose temperature of a body decreases θ1ºC to θ2ºC in time t1 and θ2ºC to θ3ºC in time t2 in the same
environment.
if (θ1 – θ2) ≥ (θ2 – θ3) then t2 > t1
(12) Green glass is a good absorber of red light and a good reflection of green light. Consequently at lower
temperature it is a good emitter of red light.
Hence,
Green ⇌ Red
Also Yellow ⇌ Blue

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149
 Exemplar Problems
Heat & Thermodynamics
6. A calorimeter of thermal capacity 5 cal/0C
Thermal Properties of Matter contains 10 gm of water at 250C. If 10 gm of ice
1. A solid metallic cube having total surface area at 00C is dropped into the calorimeter what will
24 m2 is uniformly heated. If its temperature is be the final temperature?
increased by 0ºC, calculate the increase in [Latent heat of ice = 80 cal/gm]
volume of the cube (Given : α = 5.0 × 10–4ºC–1) 50 0
(a) 2.4×106 cm3 (b) 1.2×105 cm3 (a) 00C (b) C
4 3
3
(c) 6.0×10 cm (d) 4.8×105 cm3 (c) 12.50C (d) 250C
JEE MAIN 2022 UPTGT Science - 2021
2. A copper block of mass 5.0 kg is heated to a 7. At low temperature the lattice specific heat of
temperature of 500ºC and is placed on a large solids varies as -
ice block. What is the maximum amount of ice
that can melt? [Specific heat of copper: 0.39 J 3 1
(a) T (b)
g–1 and latent heat of fusion of water : 335 J g–1] T
3

(a) 1.5 kg (b) 5.8 kg

1
(c) 2.9 kg (d) 3.8 kg (c) T (d)

Y
JEE MAIN 2022 T
3. A bimetallic strip consists of metals A and B. It UPPSC Poly. Lect. 2021 Paper - II
UPPSC GDC - 2021
SP
is mounted rigidly as shown. The metal A has
higher coefficient of expansion compared to
that of metal B. When the bimetallic strip is 8.
RPSC School Lect. 26.07.2016
Which of the following is a reversible process?
placed in a cold both, it will : (a) Production of heat by the passage of current
through an electrical resistance
(b) Conduction of heat from a hot body to a
colder body
am
(c) The changes in the pressure and volume of
the working substance take place at infinitely
slow rate
(d) Forcing of a real gas or liquid through a valve
(a) Bend towards the right of porous plug while keeping them insulated
with the environment
(b) Not bend but shrink
UP PGT - 2021
Te

(c) Neither bend nor shrink 9. Which of the following is path dependent?
(d) Bend towards the left Where, U = internal Energy, P = Pressure, V =
JEE MAIN 2021 Volume
4. A copper rod of 88 cm and an aluminium rod (a) U (b) PdV
of unknown length have their increase in length (c) P (d) V
independent of increase in temperature. The UP PGT - 2021
length of aluminium rod is (aCu = 1.7 × 10–5 K– 10. Specific heat at constant pressure is Cp and at
1
, aAl = 2.2 × 10–5 K–1) constant volume is Cv. Why is the ratio Cp/Cv
(a) 68 cm (b) 6.8 cm greater than one?
(c) 113.9 cm (d) 88 cm (a) For constant pressure external work has to be
NEET 2019 done
5. The quantities of heat required to raise the (b) Cp includes rotational energy
temperature of two solid copper spheres of (c) Cp includes vibrational energy
radii r1 and r2 (r1 = 1.5r2) through 1 K are in the (d) Cp/Cv>1 only for ideal gases, not for real ones
ratio UPTGT Science - 2021
27 9 11. The mechanical equivalent of heat
(a) (b) (a) has same dimension as work
8 4
(b) has same dimension as heat
3 5 (c) has same dimension as rate of doing work
(c) (d)
2 3 (d) Dimensionless
NEET 2020 UPTGT Science - 2021
150

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12. An ideal material for making handle of cooking 20. On a new scale of temperature called W scale,
vessels must have : the freezing and boiling points of water are 390W
(a) Large heat capacity and small conductivity and 2390W respectively. What will be the
(b) Small Heat capacity and large conductivity temperature on the new scale, corresponding to
(c) Small heat capacity and small conductivity a temperature of 390C?
(d) Large heat capacity and large conductivity (a) 2000W (b) 1390W
0
UP TGT Physics 2016 (c) 78 W (d) 1770W
13. Which one of the following statements is not UP TGT Physics 2016
true? 21. Which thermometer is preferred for rapidly
(a) Water freezes at 273 K. changing temperature ?
(b) Ice melts above 0OC (a) Liquid in glass
(c) Water boils at 100 K. (b) Gas thermometer
(d) The normal temperature of healthy man is (c) Resistance thermometer
37OC (d) Thermo couple thermometer
UP LT Grade Science 2018 (Exam : 29.07.2018) UP TGT Physics 2016
14. A 10 KW drilling machine is used to drill a bore 22. An object's temperature is raised by 1500C. The
in a small aluminium block of mass 8 kg. Find resulting increase in its absolute temperature is :
the rise in temperature of the block in 2.5 (a) 32K (b) 150K
minutes, assuming 50% power is used up in the (c) 180K (d) 373K
heating machine itself or lost to the UP TGT Physics 2016
surroundings. (Specific heat of aluminium = 0.91 23. Two metallic blocks M1 and M2 of same area
Jg°C–1) : of cross-section are connected to each other (as
(a) 1030C (b) 1500C shown in figure). If the thermal conductivity of
(c) 2060C (d) 1550C M2 is K then the thermal conductivity of M1
will be : [Assume steady state heat conduction]

Y
UP TGT Physics 2016
15. Under steady state, the temperature of body−
(a) increases with time
(b) decreases with time
SP
(c) does not change with time and is same at all
points of body
(a) 10K (b) 8 K
(d) does not change with time but is different at
different cross-section of the body (c) 12.5 K (d) 2K
(UPPGT 2011) JEE MAIN 2022
m
16. Which of the following is not a thermodynamical 24. A 100 g of iron nail is hit by a 1.5 kg hammer
variable− striking at a velocity of 60 ms–1. What will be
(a) Pressure (b) Volume the rise in the temperature of the nail if one
(c) Temperature (d) Stress fourth of energy of the hammer goes into
a

(UPPGT 2011) heating the nail? [Specific heat capacity of iron

17. A mercury thermometer has equally spaced = 0.42 Jg–1 °C–1]
markings from 0 to 100. In melting ice the (a) 675°C (b) 1600°C
mercury is at the 10th mark, while in boiling (c) 160.7°C (d) 6.75°C
Te

water it is t the 80th mark. What is the JEE MAIN 2022

temperature in degrees centigrade when the
mercury is at 45th mark? 25. A cup coffee cools from 90°C to 80°C in t
minutes, when the room temperature is 20°C.
(a) 450C (b) 350C The time taken by a similar cup of coffee to
0
(c) 50 C (d) 640C cool from 80°C to 60°C at a room temperature
UPTGT Science - 2021 same at 20°C is
18. At what temperature of a body, the Fahrenheit 5 13
and Kelvin thermometer scales give equal (a) t (b) t
13 10
numerical values?
13 10
(a) 40° (b) 180° (c) t (d) t
5 13
(c) 435° (d) 574°
NEET 2021
UP PGT - 2021
UP PGT Physics 2016 (Exam : 02.02.2019) 26. Transport phenomena is gases represent the
transport of certain quantities. Which of the
19. A faulty thermometer has its fixed points
following is not correctly matched?
marked as 5ºC and 95ºC. The temperature of a
body as measured by the faulty thermometer is Transport Phenomenon Quantity
59ºC. What is the correct temperature of the (a) Viscosity Mass
body on Celsius scale? (b) Conduction Momentum
(a) 59ºC (b) 62.1ºC (c) Diffusion Energy
(c) 56.05ºC (d) 60ºC (d) None of the above
UPTGT Science - 2021 UPPSC Poly. Lect. 2021 Paper - I
151

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27. Thermal conductivity of bad conductors is (Given, σ = 5.67 ×10-8 J/m2secK 4 )
measured by (a) 182 Watt (b) 282 Watt
(a) Searle's method
(c) 242 Watt (d) None of the above
(b) Lee's disc method
UPPSC Poly. Lect. 2021 Paper - I
(c) Callendar and Barne's method
35. Surface temperature of an object is 34oC. What
(d) None of the above is the wavelength of most intense radiation
UP PGT - 2021 from this object? Wien's constant is
28. Transmission of heat by molecular collision is 2.898×10-3 mK .
(a) Conduction (b) Convenction (a) 6.44µm (b) 7.44µm
(c) Radiation (d) Scattering
(c) 8.44µm (d) 9.44µm
UPTGT Science - 2021
29. If σ and K are electrical and thermal UPPSC Poly. Lect. 2021 Paper - I
conductivity of metals, respectively at absolute 36. Assume that the surface of the Sun emits as a
temperature T. Then correct Wiedemann- black body at the temperature of 6000 K. If the
Franz law in term of Lorentz number L is light from the Sun has maximum intensity for

(a)
Kσ
=L (b)
K
=L the wavelength 4800 A° , What is the value of
T σT Wien's constant?
T KT (a) 0.288 cm-K (b) 0.360 cm-K
(c) =L (d) =L
Kσ σ (c) 0.480 cm-K (d) 0.600 cm-K

Y
RPSC School Lect. 08.01.2020 UPPSC GDC - 2021
30. Coefficient of thermal conductivity of a gas is 37. The wavelength of the radiations for which the
SP
(a) independent of the pressure of gas
(b) proportional to the pressure of gas
energy is maximum in the spectrum is 490 nm.
The effective temperature of the sun is
(a) 6920 K (b) 6000 K
(c) inversely proportional to the pressure of gas
(c) 5914 K (d) 5820 K
(d) proportional to the square of the pressure of UP LT Grade Science 2018 (Exam : 29.07.2018)
gas 38. Wien's displacement law is :
am
RPSC School Lect. 26.07.2016
(a) λ m T = constant
1/ 3
(b) λ m = constant
31. Which of the following has least surface area
for a given volume? (c) λ m T
4/3
= constant (d) λ 2m T = constant
(a) Cube (b) Cone UPPCS Pre 2010
(c) Sphere (d) Cylinder UPPGT 2011
UPPSC Poly. Lect. 2021 Paper - I 39. The colour of a star predicts:
Te

32. A spherical body with radius 12 cm radiates (a) its weight (b) its size
450 W power at 500 K. If the radius were (c) its temperature (d) its distance
halved and the temperature doubled, what UPPCS (Pre) 2006, 2003
would be the power radiated? (UPPGT 2013)
UPTGT 2013
(a) 900 W (b) 7200 W
40. According to Rayleigh-Jeans law, the energy of
(c) 3600 W (d) 1800 W wavelength λ radiated by a black-body at
UP PGT - 2021 temperature T is proportional to
33. The light from the sun has maximum intensity T T
for the wavelength of 470 nm. Assuming that (a) 3 (b) 4
the surface of the sun emits as a blackbody, λ λ
calculate the temperature of the sun. T T
(c) 5 (d) 2
(Wien's constant = 0.288 cm. °K) λ λ
(a) 8000°K (b) 7000°K (UPPGT 2005)
41. A body at 3000 C radiates energy at the rate of
(c) 6128°K (d) 5000°K
105 Watt/m2. If the sun radiates energy at the
UP PGT - 2021
rate of 109 Watt/m2, its temperature is
34. A metal ball has a surface area of 200 cm2 and
temperature is 527oC. The ball is kept in a (a) 35170C (b) 52800C
0
vessel at 27oC. If the emissivity of metal is 0.4, (c) 5457 C (d) 57300C
then rate of loss of heat is - UPPSC Ashram Paddhati PGT - 2021
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42. Two identical spheres A and E are at 49. A body cools from 610C to 590C in 4 minutes and
0
0 0
temperature 7 C and 17 C respectively. In from 51 C to 490C 6 minutes, then temperature
what ratio will they emit thermal radiation? of the room is :
(a) 300C (b) 250C
(a) 1 : 1.143 (b) 7 : 17 (c) 35 C0
(d) 200C
4 4
(c) 49 : 289 (d) 7 : 17 UP TGT Physics 2016
UPTGT Science - 2021  CP 
43. For emission of maximum radiation, the ratio 50. The ratio of specific heats  C  in terms of
of wavelengths of two stars A and B is 4:5. If  V
degree of freedom (f) is given by:
temperature of star B is 6800 K, then
temperature of star A will be :  f  2
(a) 1 +  (b) 1 + 
(a) 8500 K (b) 7500 K  3  f
(c) 7200 K (d) 8550 K
 f  1
(UPPGT 2004) (c) 1 +  (d) 1 + 
 2   f
44. The Rayleigh scattering is proportional to : JEE MAIN 2022
1 1 51. A mixture of hydrogen and oxygen has volume
(a) 4 (b) 3 2000 cm3, temperature 300 K, pressure 100 kPa
λ λ and mass 0.76 g The ratio of number of moles
1 1 of hydrogen to number of moles of oxygen in
(c) 2 (d) the mixture will be :
λ λ
(UPPGT 2013, 2009) 1 3 1 16
(a) (b) (c) (d)

Y
0 0
45. A body cools from 70 C to 50 C in 4 minutes, 3 1 16 1
in a room at temperature 300C. The time taken JEE MAIN 2022
by the body to cool from 500 C to 400 C will be 52. For a perfect gas, two pressures P1 and P2 are
(a) 4 minutes
(c) 6 minutes
SP
(b) 8 minutes
(d) 2 minutes
shown in figure. The graph shows:

UPPSC Ashram Paddhati PGT - 2021

46. Newton's law of cooling is a special case of
m
(a) Stefan's law
(b) Kirchhoff's law
(c) Planck's law
(d) Wien's displacement law (a) P1 > P2
a

UP PGT - 2021, 2013 (b) P1 < P2

UPPCS (Pre) 2007, 2004 (c) P1 = P2
(d) Insufficient data to draw any conclusion
Te

47. A block of steel heated to 100°C is left in a

room to cool. Which of the curves shown in JEE MAIN 2022
figure, represents the correct behaviour? 53. Starting with the same initial conditions, an
ideal gas expands from volume V1 to V2 in
three different ways. The work done by the gas
is W1 if the process is purely isothermal. W2. if
the process is purely adiabatic and W3 if the
process is purely isobaric. Then, choose the
coned option
(a) W1 < W2 < W3 (b) W2 < W3 < W1
(c) W3 < W1 < W2 (d) W2 < W1 < W3
(a) A (b) B JEE MAIN 2022
(c) C (d) None 54. What will be the average value of energy along
UP PGT - 2021, 2000 one degree of freedom for an ideal gas in
48. Newton's Law of cooling is an approximate thermal equilibrium at a temperature T? (kB is
form of Boltzmann constant)
(a) Wien displacement law 1 2
(a) k B T (b) k B T
(b) Stefan's law 2 3
(c) Kirchoff's law 3
(c) k BT (d) kBT
(d) Jeans's law 2
UPTGT Science - 2021 JEE MAIN 2021
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55. The volume occupied by the molecules 62. The mean Kinetic energy of one mole of gas per
contained in 4.5 kg water at STP, if the degree of freedom (on the basis of Kinetic
intermolecular forces vanish away is theory of gases) is
(a) 5.6 m3 (b) 5.6 × 10−6 m 3 1 3
(a) KT (b) KT
2 2
(c) 5.6 × 103 m 3 (d) 5.6 × 10−3 m 3
3 1
NEET 2022 (c) RT (d) RT
2 2
56. The mean free path for a gas, with molecular
UP PGT - 2021
diameter d and number density n can be
63. The ratio of most probable speed and average
expressed as : speed of a gas enclosed in a vessels is
1 1
(a) (b) π
2nπd 2
2n 2 πd 2 (a) (b) 1
4
1 1
(c) (d) π 2
2n 2 π2 d 2 2nπd (c) (d)
2 π
NEET 2020 UP PGT - 2021
57. The average thermal energy for a mono-atomic 64. For a van der Waals gas the inversion
gas is : (kB is Boltzmann constant and T, temperature at low pressure is
absolute temperature) 27a a
3 5 (a) (b)
(a) k B T (b) k B T bR 8Rb
2 2

Y
ab 2a
7 1 (c) (d)
(c) k B T (d) k B T 8R Rb
2 2

58.
SP NEET 2020 65.
Increase in temperature of a gas filled in a
UP PGT - 2021
The mean square speed of the molecules of a
gas at absolute temperature T is proportional
container would lead to to :
(a) decrease in intermolecular distance (a) T (b) T
(b) increase in its mass 1
am
(c) increase in its kinetic energy (c) T2 (d)
T
(d) decrease in its pressure
UKPSC Lecturer (Mains) 2020
NEET 2019 66. For van der Waal's gases, the correct relation
PV is
59. The gas law = constant is true for : (a) Cp – Cv = R (b) Cp – Cv < R
T
(c) Cp – Cv > R (d) Cp – Cv = 0
Te

(a) Isothermal changes only

UPPSC Ashram Paddhati PGT - 2021
(b) Adiabatic changes only 67. According to law of equipartition of energy, the
(c) Both Isothermal and adiabatic changes average kinetic energy per molecule associated
(d) None of these with each degree of freedom is :
UKPSC Lecturer (Mains) 2020 3 5
60. The Kinetic energy per unit volume of a perfect
(a) kT (b) kT
2 2
gas is equal to
Where P is pressure.
1
(c) kT (d) kT
2 3 2
(a) P (b) P UKPSC Lecturer (Mains) 2020
3 2
68. The relation between Pressure (P) of the gas
P 1 and its total translational kinetic Energy (E) of
(c) (d) P
3 2 the molecules per unit volume is:
UP PGT - 2021 2 3
(a) P = E (b) P = E
61. At constant pressure the temperature of gas T, 3 2
at which root – mean – square velocity is 3 4
(a) 819° K (b) 900° K (c) P = E (d) P = E
4 3
(c) 980° K (d) 819° C UKPSC Lecturer (Mains) 2020
UP PGT - 2021 UPPCS Pre 2010
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69. According to Maxwell, the value of mean free (a) 3 (b) 9
path is given by: 1
(c) (d) 3
1 1 3
(a) λ = (b) λ =
πσ n
2
2πσ 2 UPPCS Pre 2008
76. In the figure N(x) is the number of particles
1 1
(c) λ = (d) λ = whose mean free path exceeds a certain value of
2 ( πσ n )
2 πσ 2 n x. Mean free path λ will be :

UKPSC Lecturer (Mains) 2020

70. A gas of molecules, each having mass m, is at
rest in thermal equilibrium at the absolute
temperature T. If vx and vy are cartesian
components of velocity of a molecule. what is (a) log N0/a (b) a
the mean value of (vx + bvy)2, where b, is a (c) 1/a (d) log N0–a
constant ? UPPCS PRE 1996
(a)
3kT
m
(1+ b )2
(b)
8kT
πm
(1+ b )
2 77. Critical temperature of carbondioxide gas is
31°C. If gas obeys Vander Waals equation of
kT state. the Boyle temperature will be :
3kT
(1+ b )
2
(c) (d) (a) 1026°C (b) 753°C
m m
(c) 300°C (d) 500°C
RPSC School Lect. 08.01.2020 (UPPGT 2004)

Y
71. If the root mean square velocity of hydrogen 78. Mean free path of a molecule of a gas at pressure
molecules at NTP is1.84km/sec, what will it be P and temperature T is 2 ×10–5cm. At pressure
for oxygen molecules at NTP ?
(a) 0.42 km/sec
(c) 0.38 km/sec
SP
(b) 0.40 km/sec
(d) 0.46 km/sec
P×10–6 N/m2 and temperature T, the mean free
path of the same molecule of gas will be :
(a) 2 cm (b) 20 cm
UP PGT Physics 2016 (Exam : 02.02.2019) (c) 3 cm (d) 10 cm
72. The rms speed of oxygen molecule at a certain (UPPGT 2004)
temperature is v. If the temperature is doubled 79. A vessel contains a mixture of different types of
m
and oxygen gas dissociates into atomic oxygen, gases. Which of the following statements is
the rms speed will become correct?
v (a) On the average the heavier molecules have
(a) v (b)
a

2 higher speed
(b) The average speed of different molecules is the
(c) 2v (d) 2v
same
RPSC School Lect. 26.07.2016
Te

(c) The average translational energy of different

73. If the pressure in a clossed vessel is reduced by types of molecules is the same.
allowing some gas to escape, then the mean free (d) On the average the heavier molecules have
path of the gas molecules in the vessel higher translational energy.
(a) decreases (UPPGT 2003)
(b) increases 80. At a given temperature, mean free path of a gas
(c) remains the same is
(d) nothing can be predicted (a) Directly proportional to the pressure
RPSC School Lect. 26.07.2016 (b) Independent of pressure
74. Boyle’s temperature TB of a Vander Waals gas (c) Inversely proportional to the pressure
is given by : (d) None of the above
a 8a UPPSC Ashram Paddhati PGT - 2021
(a) TB = (b) TB =
bR 27Rb 81. At what temperature the oxygen molecules will
have same r.m.s. velocity as the hydrogen
apV aR
(c) TB = (d) TB = molecule at 1500C (molecular weight of O2 = 32
bR bpV and H2 = 2)
UPPCS Pre 2010 (a) 55000C (b) 58000C
0
75. The absolute temperature of a gas is increased (c) 6495 C (d) 64000C
three times. The r.m.s. velocity of its molecules UPPCS Pre 2013
will increase by a factor : (UPPGT 2002)
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82. The mean free path of air molecules at N.T.P. is 91. The relation between the pressure P and
of the order: translational kinetic energy E of an ideal gas, is
(a) 10–6cm (b) 10cm given by :
(c) 10–8cm (d) 10–2cm 1 3
UPPCS Pre 1995 (a) E = PV (b) E = PV
2 2
83. If c C and α represent the mean velocity, root 1 PV 3
mean square velocity and the most probable (c) E = (d) E = P 2 V
2 T 2
velocity respectively at a temperature T, then, UPPCS Pre 2009
(a) α > c > C (b) α < C < c
92. The mean free path 'λ' of a gas molecule, as
(c) α > C > c (d) α < c < C given by Maxwell, is related to its radius 'a' as :
UPPCS Pre 2006, 2008
1 1
84. The diffusivity D and the mobility µ are related (a) λ = (b) λ =
2 2
to each other by a relation, 2.4 πa n 2.πa n
(Where symbols have their usual meanings) 1 1
D p D n K BT D p D n K BT (c) λ= 2 2 (d) λ = 2
(a) = = (b) × = 2.2 π a n 2.2 πa n
µp µn e µp µn e UPPCS Pre 1994
Dp D n K BT Dp D n K BT 93. In a Maxwellian gas, if vrms is the root mean
(c) + = (d) − = square velocity, then the most probable velocity
µp µn e µp µn e
vp is :
85. For hydrogen the value of Boyle temperature is:
1 2

Y
(a) 500 C (b) –1640 C (a) .v rms (b) .v rms
0
(c) –102 C (d) –2500 C 3 3
UPPCS Pre 2001

molecule is given by:

SP
86. In a gas the expression for the average speed of (c)
3
2
.v rms (d) none of these

(The terms have their usual meanings) UPPCS Pre 1994

3KT 2 KT 94. A sample of an ideal gas is taken through the
(a) (b) cyclic process ABCA as shown in figure. It
m m
am
absorbs, 40 J of heat during the part AB, no
8KT 3KT heat during BC and rejects 60J of heat during
(c) (d)
πm 2m CA. A work 50J is done on the gas during the
UPPCS Pre 2010, 2005, 2001 part BC. The internal energy of the gas at A is
87. The RMS speed of a molecule of hydrogen at 1560J. The work done by the gas during the
STP will be [given ρ = 0.09 kg/m3] part CA is:
(a) 4.84 × 103 m/s (b) 3.84 × 103 m/s
Te

3
(c) 2.84 × 10 m/s (d) 1.84 × 103 m/s
UPPCS Pre 2007
88. Which of the following physical quantities has
same value for molecules of all gases at a given
temperature?
(a) Mass (b) Speed
(c) Momentum (d) Kinetic energy
UPPCS Pre 2005
89. The rms speed of hydrogen molecules at room (a) 20 J (b) 30 J
temperature is 2000 m/s. The rms speed of (c) –30J (d) –60J
oxygen molecules at the same temperature will
JEE MAIN 2022
be:
(a) 1000 m/s (b) 500 m/s 95. A Carnot engine whose heat sinks at 27°C, has
(c) 125 m/s (d) 31 m/s an efficiency of 25%. By how many degrees
UPPCS Pre 2005 should the temperature of the source be
90. On increasing the temperature of gas, the mean changed to increase the efficiency by 100% of
free path of molecules : the original efficiency ?
(a) increases (b) decreases (a) Increases by 18°C (b) Increase by 200°C
(c) remains unchanged (d) nothing can be said (c) Increase by 120°C (d) Increase by 73°
UPPCS Pre 2005 JEE MAIN 2022
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96. In thermodynamics, heat and work are : 102. 20 grams of ice at 0°C melts to water at 0°C.
(a) Path functions The entropy change in this process, is (Latent
(b) Intensive thermodynamic state variables heat of water is 80 cal/gm)
(c) Extensive thermodynamic state variables (a) 24.5 J/°K (b) 30.2 J/°K
(d) Point functions (c) 35.7 J/°K (d) 49.2 J/°K
UP PGT - 2021
JEE MAIN 2021
103. Entropy of a system in reversible cycle -
97. An ideal gas undergoes four different processes
(a) Increases (b) Decreases
from the same initial state as shown in the
(c) Remain unchanged (d) Always remain zero
figure below. Those processes are adiabatic,
isothermal, isobaric and isochoric. The curve UPPSC Poly. Lect. 2021 Paper - I
which represents the adiabatic process among 104. Super fluid has
1, 2, 3 and 4 is (a) Zero Entropy (b) Infinite Entropy
(c) Positive Entropy (d) Negative Entropy
UPPSC GDC - 2021
105. An adiabatic process is also known as
(a) isothermal (b) isobaric
(c) isentropic (d) isochoric
UP PGT - 2021
UP PGT Physics 2016 (Exam : 02.02.2019)

Y
106. The concept of internal energy was first
(a) 4 (b) 1 introduced by
(c) 2 (d) 3
SP NEET 2022
98. A cylinder contains hydrogen gas at pressure of
(a) First law of thermodynamics
(b) Second law of thermodynamics
(c) Stefan's law
249 kPa and temperature 27°C. (d) Wien's law
Its density is : (R = 8.3 J mol–1 K–1) UPPSC Ashram Paddhati PGT - 2021
m
(a) 0.2 kg/m3 (b) 0.1 kg/m3 UPPCS (Pre) 2009, 2003
(c) 0.02 kg/m 3
(d) 0.5 kg/m 3 107. The first law of thermodynamics for an
adiabatic process is :
NEET 2020
(a) dU = δW (b) dU = 0
a

99. A sample of 0.1 g of water at 100°C and normal (c) dU = – δW (d) dU = –δQ + 2δW
pressure (1.013 × 105 N m–2) requires 54 cal of
UPTGT Science - 2021
heat energy to convert to steam at 100°C. If the
UP PGT Physics 2016 (Exam : 02.02.2019)
Te

volume of the steam produced is 167.1 cc, the UP LT Grade Science 2018 (Exam : 29.07.2018)
change in internal energy of the sample, is UP TGT Physics 2016
(a) 1.4.3 J (b) 208.7 J 108. The first law of thermodynamics is equivalent
(c) 42.2 J (d) 84.5 J to
NEET 2018 (a) Conservation of temperature
100. Which of the following states Clausius theorem (b) Conservation of heat
for a reversible Carnot cycle? (c) Conservation of energy
dQ dQ (d) Conservation of mass
(a) ∫ >0 (b) ∫ <0 UPPSC GDC - 2021
T T
dQ dQ UPTGT Science - 2021
(c) ∫ =0 (d) ∫ = constant UP PGT Physics 2016 (Exam : 02.02.2019)
T T
109. A system absorbs 45 J of heat and in the
UPPSC Poly. Lect. 2021 Paper - I process it does 11J of work. The system follows
(UPPGT 2013) a different thermodynamic path to the same
UPPCS Pre 2008 initial and final states and does 16 J work, the
101. The internal energy of a system changes in - heat transferred in the process is
(a) Isothermal change (b) Adiabatic change (a) 45 J (b) 18 J
(c) Free expansion (d) Cyclic process (c) 29 J (d) 50 J
UPPSC Poly. Lect. 2021 Paper - I RPSC School Lect. 08.01.2020
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110. A gas is kept in a rigid container. Heat equal to 117. A system in contact with a heat reservoir can
500 J is supplied to the gas. Change in the most suitably be represented by
internal energy of the gas is: (a) Canonical ensemble
(a) 50 J (b) 500 J (b) Micro canonical ensemble
(c) 23.8 J (d) 11.9 J (c) Grand canonical ensemble
UKPSC Lecturer (Mains) 2020 (d) Coulomb ensemble
111. The thermodynamical probability of a system UPPSC GDC - 2021
in equilibrium should be 118. A Carnot engine operates between 270C and
(a) Zero 327 0C. If it does a net work of 800 joule, how
(b) Minimum much heat provided to the engine from source is :
(c) Maximum (a) 8800 joule (b) 1600 joule
(d) Can be either maximum or minimum (c) 873 joule (d) 800 joule
UP LT Grade Science 2018 (Exam : 29.07.2018)
RPSC School Lect. 26.07.2016
119. A heat engine is operating between
112. A Carnot cycle is represented on an entropy- termperatures 500 K and 400 K. What is the
temperature diagram by which one of the efficiency of the engine?
following figures? (a) 0.20 (b) 0.80
(c) 1.25 (d) 0.50
UP LT Grade Science 2018 (Exam : 29.07.2018)
120. Which of the following is NOT a Maxwell's
(a) (b) thermodynamic relation?

Y
 ∂S   ∂P   ∂S   ∂V 
(a)  =   (b)   = −
 ∂V   ∂T   ∂P  
 ∂T P
T v T
SP  ∂T   ∂V 
(c)   =  
 ∂P S  ∂S P
 ∂P 
(d) 
 ∂V 
T
 ∂S 
=  
 ∂T 
v
(c) (d)
UPPSC Ashram Paddhati PGT - 2021
121. Which of the following is not Maxwell's
thermodynamic relation?
am
UP PGT - 2021
113. The efficiency of a Carnot engine is 25%, if the  ∂S   ∂P   ∂T   ∂P 
(a)   =  (b)   = − 
temperature of its source is 327°C, the  ∂V  T  ∂T  V  ∂V  S  ∂S V
temperature of the sink must be
 ∂T   ∂V   ∂V   ∂S 
(a) 82°C (b) 127°C (c)   =  (d)   = − 
 ∂P S  ∂S P  ∂P T  ∂T P
(c) 177°C (d) 227°C
UPPSC Poly. Lect. 2021 Paper- I
Te

UP PGT - 2021
114. The thermodynamic scale of temperature is 122. Gibbs paradox in Statistical Mechanics is
based on - related to the additive property of -
(a) Expansion of gas (a) Energy (b) Entropy
(b) Change in pressure (c) Momentum (d) Temperature
(c) Carnot cycle UPPSC Poly. Lect. 2021 Paper- I
(d) Change in vapour pressure 123. Which of the following is not a correct
relation?
UPPSC Poly. Lect. 2021 Paper - I
(UPPGT 2011) (a) dU = TdS − PdV (b) dG = VdP − SdT
115. The efficiency of a Carnot engine operating (c) dF = − PdV − SdT (d) dH = TdS − VdP
between 1370 C and 170 C is UPPSC Poly. Lect. 2021 Paper- I
(a) 27.6% (b) 29.3% 124. The first derivative of Gibbs function is
(c) 33.3% (d) 41.2% continuous in
UPPSC Ashram Paddhati PGT - 2021 (a) First order phase transition
116. In a carnot engine, the temperature of sink is (b) second order phase transition
27ºC. If efficiency of engine is 40%, then the (c) Both in first order and second order phase
temperature of source will be - transition
(a) 2770oC (b) 227 oC (d) Neither in first order nor in second order
(c) 453 oC (d) 108 oC phase transition
UPPSC Poly. Lect. 2021 Paper - I UPPSC GDC - 2021
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125. Choose the wrong Maxwell's relations for 133. Which of the following is not a Maxwell's
thermodynamical variables thermodynamic relation?
 ∂ T  ∂
  P  ∂ S  ∂
  P  ∂S   ∂P   ∂P   ∂S 
(a)   = – 
 ∂V S  ∂S V
(b) 
 ∂V T
 = – 
 ∂T  V
(a)   =   (b)   =  
 ∂V T  ∂T  V  ∂T  V  ∂V T
 ∂T   ∂V   ∂S   ∂V 
(c)   =  (d) −   =    ∂T   ∂V   ∂S   ∂V 
 ∂P S  ∂S P  ∂P T  ∂T  P (c)   =   (d)   = −  
RPSC School Lect. 08.01.2020  ∂P S  ∂S  P  ∂P  V  ∂T  V
126. Choose wrong Maxwell's thermodynamic UPPCS Pre 2010
equation 134. In Joule-Kelvin expansion, the quantity
remaining constant is
 ∂T   ∂P   ∂S   ∂P 
(a)   = –  (b)   =  (a) Internal energy (b) Entropy
 ∂V S  ∂S  V  ∂V T  ∂T  V
(c) Enthalpy (d) Work
 ∂T   ∂V   ∂S   ∂V  UPPSC Ashram Paddhati PGT - 2021
(c)   = –  (d)   = –  
 ∂P S  ∂S  P  ∂P T  ∂T  P UP PGT Physics 2016 (Exam : 02.02.2019)
RPSC School Lect. 26.07.2016 135. The enthalpy of a gas before and after Joule-
127. Which one of the following is not a Maxwell's Thompson expansion are 80 cal and 120 cal
thermodynamic relation? respectively. If enthalpy of emergent liquid is
 ∂T   ∂P   ∂S   ∂P  40 cal, then what fraction of gas will liquefy ?
(a)   = −  (b)   =  (a) 25% (b) 43%
 ∂V  S  ∂S V  ∂V T  ∂T V
(c) 50% (d) 63%

Y
 ∂T   ∂V   ∂S   ∂T 
(c)   =  (d)   = −  RPSC School Lect. 08.01.2020
 ∂P  S  ∂S  P  ∂P T  ∂V  P
136. The enthalpies of certain gas before and after
SP
UP LT Grade Science 2018 (Exam : 29.07.2018)
128. The Maxwell's relation in thermodynamics that
can be derived from enthalpy is :
suffering Joule-Thomson expansion through a
throttle valve are 77.2 cals and 106.8 cals
respectively. The fraction of the gas liquefied, if
 ∂T   ∂P   ∂T   ∂V 
(a)   = −   (b)    =  the enthalpy of emerging liquid be 55.4
 ∂V S  ∂S V  ∂P S  ∂S P calories, is
 ∂P   ∂S   ∂V   ∂S 
m
(a) 0.32 (b) 0.44
(c)   =  (d)   = − 
∂
 V 
T ∂ V T  ∂T P ∂
 TP (c) 0.57 (d) 0.71
UPPCS Pre 2009 RPSC School Lect. 26.07.2016
129. Which one is correct relation? 137. For an ideal gas Joule-Thomson coefficient is :
a

(a) dU = TdV – PdS (b) dF = –PdV +SdT (a) (+)ve

(c) dH = VdT +SdV (d) dG = VdP – SdT
(b) (-) ve
(UPPGT 2009)
(c) Zero
Te

130. Gibbs function 'G' and Helmholtz function 'H'

may be expressed as : (d) Dependent upon molecular weight
(Symbols have their usual meanings) TGT 2009
138. In a Vander waals gas Joule-Thomson expansion
PV H produces heating only for :
(a) G = (b) G =
H PV 2a 2a
(c) G = H – PV (d) G = H + PV (a) T > (b) T <
Rb Rb
UPPCS Pre 2009
2a a
131. The thermo dynamical relation expressing the (c) T = (d) T =
change of temperature with volume at constant Rb Rb
entropy is : UPPCS Pre 1996, 2009
where symbols have their usual meaning. 139. In Joule Thomson expansion, the inversion
temperature is the temperature below which gas :
 dT   dP   dT   dP 
(a)   = − T   (b)   = T   (a) shows cooling (b) obeys Boyle's law
 dV S  dQ  V  dV S  dQ  V (c) shows heating (d) none of the above
 dT   dP   dT   dP  UPPCS Pre 2010
(c)   = −V   (d)   = T  140. In Joule–Thormon porus plug expansion for
 dV S  dQ T  dV S  dQ T
∆P
UPPCS Pre 1995 cooling should be :
132. The enthalpy of unit mass for any system is : ∆T
(a) H = U + PV + S (b) H = U + PV–S (a) negative (b) positive
(c) H = U + PV (d) None of these (c) zero (d) constant
UPPCS Pre 1994 UPPCS (Pre) 2004
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141. If a current is allowed to pass through a circuit 146. In the 'throttling' process through a porous
consisting of two dissimilar metals, there is plug, the physical quantities which remains
either evolution or absorption of heat at the conserved, is
junctions; depending upon the direction of the (a) Entropy (b) Internal energy
current. The effect is known as– (c) Enthalpy (d) Temperature
(a) Seebeck effect (b) Joule's effect
UPPCS Pre 2008
(c) Peltier's effect (d) Thomson's effect
147. According to third law of thermodynamics :
UPPCS (Pre) 1998
142. The value of Joule-Thomson coefficient during (a) Entropy of system is zero at absolute zero
an isothermal expansion of an ideal gas is : temperature
(a) > 1 (b) < 1 (b) Heat capacity of system is zero at absolute zero
(c) 0 (d) none of these temperature
(UPPGT 2013) (c) Volume expansion coefficient of system is zero
143. The Clausius-Clapeyron equation is : (d) All of the above
dP L dP T (UPPGT 2004)
(a) = (b) = 148. The physics underlying the operation of a
dT T(V2 − V1 ) dT L(V2 − V1 )
refrigerator most closely resembles the physics
dP L2 dP L underlying
(c) = (d) =
dT T(V2 − V1 ) dT LT(V2 − V1 ) (a) Heat engine
UP LT Grade Science 2018 (Exam : 29.07.2018) (b) Melting of ice
144. If C1 and C2 represent the specific heat of a (c) The freezing of water
liquid and its saturated vapour and L is its (d) The vaporisation of water

Y
latent heat then C2–C1 is given by : (UPPGT 2003)
dL L dL L 149. Which of the following statements does not
(a) − (b) +
dT T dT T represent second law of thermodynamics

(c)
dL  L 
+ 
2
(d)
SP
dL  L 
− 
2 (a) It is impossible to obtain work by cooling a
body below the coldest to its surroundings.
dT  T  dT  T  (b) It is impossible for a self acting machine to
UPPCS Pre 2006, 2004, 2001 transfer heat from a body at a lower
145. The clausius-clapeyron equation can be
temperature to a body at a higher temperature
derived with which of the following relations?
am
where P, V, T and S are pressure, volume, without taking energy from an outside source.
temperature and entropy respectively. (c) It is impossible to construct a perpetual motion
machine, which takes heat from a system and
 δS   δP   δS   δV 
(a)   =  (b)   = −   converts into work in a cycle without producing
 δV T  δT v  δP T  δT P any change in the system.
 δT   δV   δP   δT  (d) Only such changes in nature take place in
(c)   =   (d)   = −  
 δP S  δS P  δS V  δV S which entropy decrease.
Te

(UPPGT 2004) (UPPGT 2000)

Answer Key
1. (b) 2. (c) 3. (d) 4. (a) 5. (a) 6. (a) 7. (a) 8. (c) 9. (b) 10. (a)
11. (d) 12. (a) 13. (c) 14. (a) 15. (d) 16. (d) 17. (c) 18. (d) 19. (d) 20. (d)
21. (d) 22. (b) 23. (b) 24. (c) 25. (c) 26. (d) 27. (b) 28. (a) 29. (b) 30. (a)
31. (c) 32. (d) 33. (c) 34. (a) 35. (d) 36. (a) 37. (c) 38. (a) 39. (c) 40. (b)
41. (c) 42. (a) 43. (a) 44. (a) 45. (a) 46. (a) 47. (a) 48. (b) 49. (a) 50. (b)
51. (b) 52. (a) 53. (d) 54. (a) 55. (a) 56. (a) 57. (a) 58. (c) 59. (c) 60. (b)
61. (d) 62. (d) 63. (c) 64. (d) 65. (b) 66. (c) 67. (c) 68. (a) 69. (c) 70. (c)
71. (d) 72. (c) 73. (b) 74. (a) 75. (d) 76. (a) 77. (b) 78. (b) 79. (c) 80. (c)
81. (c) 82. (a) 83. (d) 84. (a) 85. (b) 86. (c) 87. (d) 88. (d) 89. (b) 90. (a)
91. (b) 92. (a) 93. (b) 94. (b) 95. (b) 96. (a) 97. (c) 98. (a) 99. (b) 100. (c)
101. (b) 102. (a) 103. (c) 104. (a) 105. (c) 106. (a) 107. (c) 108. (c) 109. (d) 110. (b)
111. (c) 112. (b) 113. (c) 114. (c) 115. (b) 116. (b) 117. (a) 118. (b) 119. (a) 120. (d)
121. (d) 122. (b) 123. (d) 124. (b) 125. (b) 126. (c) 127. (d) 128. (b) 129. (d) 130. (d)
131. (a) 132. (c) 133. (d) 134. (c) 135. (c) 136. (c) 137. (c) 138. (a) 139. (a) 140. (a)
141. (c) 142. (c) 143. (a) 144. (a) 145. (a) 146. (c) 147. (d) 148. (c) 149. (d)
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03.
Ray Optics
(1) Light
• Light is a form of energy which produces the sensation of sight in our eyes. Sources of light are of three
types-thermal sources, gas discharge sources and luminescent sources.
• Photometry is a branch of ray optics which deals with the measurement of light energy.
■ Characteristic of light :-
• Light waves are electromagnetic waves whose nature is transverse. The speed of light in vacuum is 3×108 m/s
but it is different in different medium. The speed and wavelength of light changes when it travel from one
medium to another but its frequency remains unchanged.
■ Important terms:-
• Luminous object:-The object which emits its own light are called luminous objects e.g.- sun, other stars,
an oil lamp etc.
• Non-luminous object:- The object which does not emits its own light but become visible due to the

Y
reflection of light falling on them are called non-luminous object e.g.- moon, table, chair, bat etc.
• Ray of light- A straight line drawn in the direction of propagation of light is called a ray of light.
•
SP
Beam of light- A bundle of the adjacent light rays is called a beam of light.
m
• Image:- If light ray coming from an object meets or appear to meet at a point after reflection or refraction,
a

then this point is called image of the object.

• Real Image:- The image obtained by the actual meeting of light rays is called a real image. Real image can
be obtained on a screen.
Te

• Virtual Image:- The Image obtained when light rays are not actually meeting but appears to meet only.
(2) Reflection of light
The re-bouncing back of light rays into the same medium on striking the surface of any object is called
reflection. In reflection, path of light rays changes without any change in medium.
■ Laws of Reflection of light:-

• First law- The incident ray, the reflected ray and the normal (at the point of incidence) all lies in the same
plane.
• Second law:- The angle of reflection (r) is always equal to the angle of incidence (i). It means that a ray of
light incident normally on the mirror, retraces its path on reflection.
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■ Types of reflection:-
Regular reflection Irregular reflection

• When the reflecting surface is smooth and well • When the reflecting surface is rough, the parallel
polished, the parallel rays falling on it are rays falling on it are reflected in different
reflected parallel to one another. The reflected directions. Such a reflection is known as diffuse
light goes in one particluar direction. This is reflection or irregular reflection or even scattering
regular reflection. of light.

(3) Mirrors
A Smooth and highly polished reflecting surface is called a mirror.
■ Types of Mirrors :-

Y
(1) Plane mirror:- A highly polished plane surface is called a plane mirror.

• Size of image = size of object

SP
Different properties of Image formed by plane mirror are given below:-

• Magnification = unity
• Distance of image from the mirror= Distance of object from the mirror
• A plane mirror always forms a virtual image of a real object.
am
• A man may see his full image in a mirror of half height of man.
• Focal length as well as radius of curvature of a plane mirror is infinity.
• Power of a plane mirror is zero.
Deviation (δ) produced by a plane mirror and by two inclined plane mirrors.
Te

Images formed by two inclined plane mirrors:-

• When two plane mirrors are inclined to each other at an angle θ, then number of images (n) formed of an
object which is kept between them.
 360º  360º
• n= – 1 ; if = even integer
 θ  θ

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 360º
• If = odd integer then there are two possibilities-
θ

Important points: -
• When the object moves with speed u towards (or away) from the plane mirror then image also move towards
(or away) with speed u, but relative speed of image with respect to object is 2u.
• When mirror moves towards the stationary object with speed u, the image will move with speed 2u in same
direction as that of mirror.
•

Y
A man of height h requires a mirror of length at least equal to h/2 to see his own complete image.
• To see complete wall behind himself a person requires a plane mirror of at least one third the height of wall.
SP
It should be noted that person is standing in the middle of the room.
a m
Te

(2) Spherical mirror

A highly polished curved surface whose reflecting surface is a cut part of a hollow glass sphere is called a
spherical mirror. Spherical mirrors are of two types.
• Concave mirror- A spherical mirror whose bent in surface is reflecting surface, is called concave mirror.
• Convex mirror - A spherical mirror whose bulging out surface is reflecting surface is called a convex mirror.

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■ Terms related to spherical mirrors: –

• Centre of curvature(C) – It is the centre of the sphere of which the mirror is a part.
• Radius of curvature (R) – The radius of the hollow sphere of which the mirror is a part.
• Pole (P) – The central point of the spherical mirror is called its pole (P).
• Focus (F) – When a parallel beam of light rays is incident on a spherical mirror. Then after reflection it meets
or appears to meet at a point on principal axis which is called focus of the spherical mirror.
R
• Focal length (f) – The distance between the pole and focus is called focal length, ( f ) =
2
1
• Power - The power of a mirror is given as P =
f
■ Mirror Formula and Magnification

Y
For a spherical mirror if u = distance of object from pole, v = distance of image from pole, f = focal length, R =
radius of curvature and O = size of object, I = size of image
1 1 1
• Mirror formula :- = +
SP f v u

• Lateral or Linear magnifications:- When an object is placed perpendicular to the principal axis then it is
called linear or lateral or transverse magnification.
I –v f f –v
m= = = =
O u f –u f
am
• Axial magnification:- When small sized object placed along the principal axis then it is called axial
magnification.
2 2 2
dv  v   f  f –v
m=– =  =  = 
du  u  f −u   f 
• Areal magnification:- If a 2D-object is placed with its plane perpendicular to Principal axis then the ratio of
Te

area of image to the area of object is called its areal magnification.

Area of image ( A i ) v 2
ms = =
Area of object ( A 0 ) u 2
• Newton’s formula for a concave mirror –
f = x1 x 2 ⇒ ( f 2 ) = x 1 x 2
Where, x1 and x2 are the distance of object and image from the focus.
■ Sign Conventions for spherical mirrors

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 • All distances are measured from the pole of the mirror.
• Distance measured in the direction of incident rays are taken as positive while in the direction opposite of
incident rays are taken negative.
• Distance measured above the principle axis is taken positive and below the principal axis are taken
negative.
Always use sign convention while solving the problems.
■ Rules for image Formation in Spherical Mirrors
• A ray passing through center of curvature retraces its path

• A ray parallel to principal axis after reflection passes through the principal focus F or appears to diverge
from it and vice-versa.

Y
• A ray striking at pole P is reflected symmetrically back in the opposite side.
SP
m
■ Image Formation by Spherical Mirrors
a

1. Image formation by Concave Mirror

In case of a concave mirror, the image is erect and virtual when the object is placed between F and P. In all
other positions of object, the image is real and inverted. All the cases are given below-
Te

Sr. No. Position of Object Ray Diagram Properties of Image

Real, inverted, very

1. At infinity
small at F (point image)

Real, inverted,
2. Between infinity and C diminished between F
and C

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 Real, inverted, equal in
3. At C
size at C

Real, inverted and very

4. Between F and C
large beyond C

Y
Real, inverted, very
5. At F
SP large at infinity
am

Virtual, erect, large in

6. Between F and P
size behind the mirror
Te

2. Image formation by convex mirror

Image formed by convex is always virtual, erect and diminished no matter where the objects. All the images
formed by this mirror will be between pole and focus as shown in the table given below.

Sr. No. Position of Object Ray Diagram Details of Image

Virtual, erect, very

1. At infinity
small in size at F

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 Virtual, erect,
2. In front of mirror diminished between P
and F

(4) Refraction of Light

• The deviation of light rays while passing through one transparent medium to another transparent medium is
called refraction of light.

Y
SP
m
• When a ray of light goes from a denser medium to a rarer medium, it bends away from the normal.
• When a ray of light goes from a rarer medium to a denser medium, it bends towards the normal.
• A medium in which the speed of light is more then it is known as optically rarer medium and a medium, in
which the speed of light is less, is known as optically denser medium.
a

• Greater the difference in the speeds of light in the two medium, greater will be the amount of refraction.
■ Laws of Refraction
Te

• Snell’s law
The ratio of sine of the angle of incidence to sine of angle of refraction (r) is a constant called refractive index
µ 2 sin i
1 µ2 = =
µ1 sin r
Where 1µ2 is called refractive index of second medium with respect to first medium.
• The incident ray, the refracted ray and the normal at the point of incidence, all three lies in the same plane.
■ Refractive Index
• The ratio of speed of light in vacuum (c) to the speed of light in any medium (v) is called refractive index
c
of the medium. Refractive index of a medium, µ =
v
• Refractive index of a medium decides speed of light in it.
• It is scalar, unit less and dimension-less quantity.
• Distance x travelled by light in a medium of refractive index µ is equal to distance (µx) travelled in
vacuum.
µx
• Time taken by light to traverse a thickness x =
c
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Refractive Index of some substance :-
Substance Refractive Index Substance Refractive Index
Diamond 2.419 Water 1.33
Fluorite (CaF2) 1.434 Glycerin 1.47
Crown Glass 1.52 Air 1.00
Glass flint 1.66 ICE/ polystyrene 1.309/1.49
Dependence of Refractive index
• Nature of the medium of incidence and refraction.
• Colour of light or wavelength of light.
• Inversely on temperature of the medium.
■ Stoke's law
• When light is reflected by a denser medium, phase difference of π radian or path difference of λ/2 or time
difference T/2 is produced.
■ Relative refractive index
µ2 v
• The refractive index of the second medium with respect to the first medium. i.e., 1µ2 = = 1
µ1 v2

Y
Where, v1 and v2 are the speed of light in medium 1 and 2 respectively.
■ Cauchy’s Formula
• According to this formula the refractive index of a media is inversely proportional to λ2. It is given by -
SP B C
µ = A + 2 + 4 +….
λ λ
Where, λ = wavelength of light and A, B, C..... are constants.
■ Refraction through a Glass Slab
am
• When a glass slab is placed in the path of a light ray it produces a shift in the position of object when
 1
viewed through it. If t is the thickness of glass slab then shift = 1 −  t.
 n
• When object is in denser medium and seen from rarer medium normally through the plane surface, then
 1
apparent depth of object = 1 −  × actual depth of object in denser medium.
Te

 n
■ Critical Angle
• The angle of incidence in a denser medium for which the angle of refraction in rarer medium becomes 90°
is called critical angle (C).

Critical angle for diamond = 24°

Critical angle for glass= 42°
Critical angle for water = 48º

1
• Refractive index of denser medium, µ =
sin C
• Critical angle increases with temperature.
• Since refractive index depends on the wavelength of light, the critical angle for a given pair of media is
different for different wavelengths of light.
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■ Total Internal Reflection (TIR)
When a light ray travelling from a denser medium towards a rarer medium is incident at the interface at an angle
of incidence greater than critical angle, then light rays are totally reflected back in to the denser medium. This
phenomenon is called TIR.

For total internal reflection to take place following conditions must be obeyed-
• The ray must travel from denser medium to rarer medium.
• The angle of incidence ( ∠i) must be greater than critical angle (∠C).
Examples of TIR
• Mirage:- is an optional illusion observed in deserts and roads on a hot day which is a application of TIR.
• Looming:- An optical illusion in cold countries.
• Brilliance of diamond:- Due to repeated internal reflections diamond sparkles.

Y
• Optical fibers:- Optical fibers are also based on the phenomenon of total internal reflection. Optical fiber
consists of several thousands of very long fine quality fibers of glass or quartz. The diameter of each fiber
SP
is of the order of 10–4 cm with refractive index of material being of the order of 1.5.
These fibers are fabricated in such a way that light reflected at one side of the inner surface strikes the other
at an angle larger than critical angle. Even if fiber is bent, light can easily travel along the length. Thus
these are used in transmission and receiving of electrical signals by converting them first into light signals.
• Rain bow:- Rainbow is formed due to the dispersion of light suffering refraction and TIR in the droplets
presents in the atmosphere. Observer should stand with its back towards sun to observe rainbow.
a m
Te

Primary rain bow:- Secondary rain bow:-

• Two refractions and one TIR. • Two refraction and two TIR
• Innermost arc is violet and outermost is red. • Innermost arc is red and outermost is violet
• Subtends an angle of 42° at the eye of the • It subtends an angle of 52.5° at the eye of the
observer. observer
• More bright. • Comparatively least bright.

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■ Refraction at spherical surface :-
• When two transparent media are separated by a spherical surface light incident on the surface from one side
get refracted into the medium on the other side. Spherical surfaces are of two types as shown.

For both surfaces refraction formula is –

µ 1 ( µ – 1)
– =
v u R
µ2
Where, µ1, µ2 are refractive indexes of given media and µ= , u= distance of object, v = distance of image
µ1
from pole, R= radius of curvature of spherical surface.

Y
SP (5) Lens
A lens is a uniform transparent medium bounded between two spherical or one spherical and one plane
surface.
• Convex Lens- A lens which is thinner at edges and thicker at middle is called a convex or converging lens.
• Concave Lens- A lens which is thicker at edges and thinner at middle is called a concave or diverging lens.
am
Te

■ Terms related to Lens :-

er

• Optical Centre :- The point on the principle axis at the centre of the lens is called optical centre.
• Centre of curvature :- A lens has two spherical surfaces, these two spherical surface form a part of
sphere. The centre of these spheres is known as the centre of curvature.
• Principle axis :- The principle axis is an imaginary line passing through the centers of curvature and the
pole.
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 • Aperture :- The area of the lens suitable for refraction is called aperture. The aperture of the lens is the
effective diameter of its light-transmitting area.
• Focus :- Focus is the point onto which collimated light parallel to the axis is focused.
• Focal length :- The focal length is the distance between the optical centre and the focal point or focus of
the lens.
■ Lens Formula and magnification -
1 1 1
• Lens formula :- = −
f v u
Where, f = focal length of the lens, u = distance of object and v = distance of image.
1  1 1 
• Lens Maker's formula :- = ( µ − 1)  − 
f  R1 R 2 
where, µ = refractive index of the material of the lens and R1 and R2 are radii of curvature of the lens
• Power of a Lens :- The reciprocal of the focal length of a lens, when it is measured in metre is called
power of a lens.
1
Power of lens, (P) =
f ( metre )

Y
Its unit is diopter (D).
The power of a convex (converging) lens is positive and for a concave (diverging) lens it is negative.
• Lateral or Linear Magnification
SP
The lateral magnification m is the ratio of the image height to the object height
I v hi
m= = =
O u ho
m
• Axial Magnification
If a small size object placed linearly along the principal axis.
2 2 2
dv  v   f   f − v 
=  =  =
a


du  u   f − u   f 
■ Sign Conventions of Lens - Sign convention used for lens are similar to that used for spherical mirrors.
Te

■ Laws of Formation of Images by Lens

The position and nature of the image by lens, in any case can be obtained either from a ray diagram or by
calculation.
To construct the image of a small object perpendicular to the axis of a lens, two of the following three rays are
drawn from the top of the object.
• A ray parallel to the principal axis after refraction passes through the principal focus or appears to diverge
from it.

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 • A ray through, the optical centre P passes undeviated because the middle of the lens acts like a thin parallel
sided slab.

• A ray passing through, the first focus F1 become parallel to the principal axis after refraction.

■ Image Formation by Lens

Y
1. Image Formation by Convex lens:- The image formed by convex lens depends on the position of object-
Sr. Position of Ray Diagram Position of Image Nature and
No. Object Size of Image
SP
Real, inverted
At the principal focus
1. At infinity and extremely
(F2) or in the focal plane
1 diminished
am

Real, inverted
2. Beyond 2F1 Between F2 and 2F2 and
diminished
Te

Real, inverted
and of same
3. At 2F1 At 2F2
size as the
object

Real, inverted
Between F1 and
4. Beyond 2F2 and highly
2F1
magnified

Real, inverted
5 At F1 At infinity and highly
1
magnified

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 Between F1 and On the same side as the Virtual, erect
6
optical centre object and magnified

2. Image Formation by Concave lens :- The image formed by a concave lens is always virtual, erect and
diminished (like a convex mirror).
Sr. Position of Ray Diagram Position of Image Nature and
No. Object Size of Image

Virtual erect and

1. At infinity At the focus
point size

Y
Anywhere
Between the optical Virtual, erect,
2. except on the
centre and F2 diminished
principal axis
SP
■ Combination of Lens:-
• For a system of lenses, the net power, net focal length and magnification are given as follows.
P = P1 + P2 + P3…………..
m
1 1 1 1
= + + + .........
F f1 f 2 f 3
m= m1×m2×m3×……..
a

• In case when two thin lens are in contact, combination will behave as a lens which has more power or
lesser focal length
2 2 2
dv  v   f   f − v 
Te

=  =  = 
du  u   f + u   f 
• If two lens of equal focal length but of opposite nature are in contact then combination will behave as a
plane glass plate and Fcombination = ∞
• When two lenses are placed at a distance d from each other then equivalent focal length (F).
1 1 1 d
= + – and P = P1 + P2 – dP1P2
F f1 f 2 f1f 2

■ Cutting of Lens:-
• If a symmetric lens is cut along optical axis in two equal part. Intensity of image formed by each part will be
same and focal length is doubled the original for each part.
• If the two parts are joined as shown in figure, the focal length of combination is again f.
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 • If a symmetric lens is cut along principle axis in two equal parts intensity of image formed by each part will
1
be less compared as that of complete lens (aperture of each part is times that of complete lens). Focal
2
length remains same for each part.
• If these two parts are joined with curved ends on one side, focal length of the combination is f/2. But on
joining the two parts in opposite sense, the net focal length becomes ∞.

Y
■ Aberration of lenses
• The departure of real image from the ideal image, in respect of the actual size, shape, and position are called
aberrations.
SP
• Aberrations are only due to inherent shortcomings of a lens and not caused by faulty construction of the lens.
• The condition for minimum spherical aberration is that the distance between the two lenses is equal to the
difference in their focal i.e. d = f1 – f2
• If dispersive power of an achromatic doublet component are ω1 and ω2 and focal length of a convex lens is f1
then focal length of the concave lens,
am
ω
f 2 = − 2 f1
ω1
• An achromatic combination of two thin lens the separation between lenses is the average of the focal length.
i.e.
f +f
favg = 1 2
2
Te

■ Types of Aberration :-

■ Types of Aberration, character and their correction required is given below:-

Aberration Character Correction
Chromatic Aberration White light, on & off axis, image Contact doublet, spaced doublet,
blur crystal fluorite
Spherical Aberration Monochromatic light, on & off Diaphragm, stoppers
axis, image blur
COMA Monochromatic light, off axis only, Spaced doublet, stoppers
comet shaped image
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 Field Curvature Monochromatic light, off axis only, Flat field objective, spaced doublet
Distortion Monochromatic light, off axis only, Spaced doublet
distorted image
Astigmatism Monochromatic light, off axis, Cylindrical lens
image blur

(6) Prism and Scattering of light

Prism
• Prism is a transparent medium bounded by refracting surface such that the incident surfaces (on which light ray
is incident) and emergent surfaces (from which light ray’s emerges) are plane and non parallel.

Y
Where,
i = Angle of incidence
SP
e= angle of emergence
A=Angle of prism or refracting angle of prism = r1 + r2
r1 and r2 – Angle of refraction.
m
δ= angle of deviation.
A= r1+r2
■ Angle of Deviation
• The angle subtended between the direction of incident light ray and emergent light ray from a prism is
a

called angle of deviation. δ=i+e–A

Maximum deviation Minimum deviation
• Condition of maximum deviation is ∠ i=90° ⇒ • It is observed if ∠i = ∠e and ∠r1 = ∠r2 = ∠r,
Te

r1=C, r2 = A – C and from Snell’s law on deviation produced is minimum -

emergent surface -
 sin ( A – C )  A A + δ min
(a) e = sin –1   (a) r = and i =
 sin C  2 2
A + δ min
π  sin ( A – C )  sin
(b) δ max = + sin –1  –A (b) sin i 2
2  sin C  µ= or µ =
sin r sin A / 2
■ Dispersion Through a Prism-
The splitting of white light into it’s constituent colors is called dispersion of light.
The refractive index µV > µR, therefore violet colour deviates most and red colour deviates least, i.e. δV > δR.

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 • Angular dispersion (θ) :- Angular separation between extreme colours is 'θ' which depends upon µ and A.
θ = δ v – δ R = ( µ v – µ R ) A.
• Dispersive power (ω) :-
θ µv – µR  µ + µR 
ω= = where µ y = v 
δy µy – 1  2 
It depends only upon the material of the prism i.e. µ and it does not depends upon angle of prism A.
■ Porro Prism:-
• A right angled isosceles prism, which is used in periscopes or binoculars. It is used to deviate light rays
through 90°and 180° and also to correct the image.

Y
SP
■ Scattering of light
• `When light passes through a medium in which particles are suspended whose size is of the order of
wavelength of light, then light on striking these particles, deviated in different directions. These phenomena
am
is called scattering of light.
1
• According to Rayleigh, intensity of scattered light ∝ 4
λ
• Elastic Scattering- When the wavelength of radiation remains unchanged the scattering is called elastic.
• Inelastic scattering (Raman’s effect):- Under specific condition, light can also suffer inelastic scattering
from molecules in which it’s wavelength changes.
Te

Some phenomenon based on scattering-

(i) Sky looks blue due to scattering.
(ii) At the time of sunrise or sunset sun looks reddish.
(iii) Danger signals are made of red colour.

(7) Human Eye

Human eye is similar to an optical instrument which forms real image of the objects on retina.
A human eye has the following main parts-
• Cornea- It is the transparent spherical membrane covering the front of the eye. Light enters the eye through
this membrane.
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 • Crystalline lens- The eye lens is a convex lens made of a transparent, soft and flexible material like a jelly
made of proteins.
• Iris- It is a dark muscular diaphragm between the cornea and the lens. It controls the size of the pupil.
• Pupil- It is a small hole between the iris through which light enters modifying the curvature of the lens.
• Retina- It is the light sensitive surface of eye of which the image is formed. It contains light sensitive cells
rods and cones.
• Optic nerve- It transmits visual information from the retina to the brain.
• Sclera- It is an opaque, fibrous, protective, outer layer of an eye containing collagen and elastic fibre. It is
also the white portion of the eye.
• Blind spot- It is the point at which the optic nerve leaves the eye. It contains no rods and cones, so an
image formed at this point is not sent to the brain.
• Aqueous humour- Behind the cornea, we have a space filled with a transparent liquid called the aqueous
humour.
• Vitreous humour- The space between eye lens and retina is filled with another liquid called vitreous
humour.
• Accommodation of eye- It is the ability of eye lens, to change its focal length to form sharp images of
objects at different positions from the eye on the retina of the eye.
• Range of vision- It is the distance between near point and the far point of an eye. For normal eye, the range
of vision is 25 cm to infinity.
• Near point- It is the nearest position of an object from human eye, so that its sharp images is formed on the
retina.

Y
■ Defects in vision of human eye
(1) Myopia (short sightedness)-
SP
• A short- sighted eye can see only nearer objects. Distance objects are not seen clearly.
• In this defect image is formed before the retina and far point comes closer.
• In this defect focal length or radii of curvature of lens reduces or power of lens increases or distance between
eye retina increases.
• This defect can be removed by using a concave lens of suitable focal length.
m
• If defected, far point is at a distance d from eye then focal length of used lens.
f= –d = – (defected far point)
a
Te

(2) Hypermetropia (long sightedness)

• A long-sighted eye can see distant objects clearly but nearer object are not clearly visible.
• Image formed behind the retina and near point moves away.

• In this defect focal length or radii of curvature of lens increases or power of lens decreases or distance
between eye lens and retina decreases.
• This defect can be removed by using convex lens.
• If a person can't see before distance d but wants to see to object placed at distance D from eye so.
dD d–D
f= and power of the lens P=
d–D dD
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(3) Presbyopia :- In this defect both near and far objects are not clearly visible it is an old age disease and it is
due to the loss of power of accommodation. It can be removed by using bifocal lens.
(4) Astigmatism :- In this defect, a person cannot focus on horizontal and vertical lines at the same distance at
the same time. This defect can be removed by using suitable cylindrical lenses.
(5) Colour Blindness:- In this defect, a person is unable to distinguish between few colours.
The reason of this defect is the absence of cone cells sensitive for few colours.
(6) Cataract :- In this defect, an opaque white membrane is developed on cornea due to which person loses
power of vision partially or completely. This defect can be removed by removing this membrane through
surgery.

(8) Optical Instruments

■ Microscope
• It is an optical instrument used to see very small objects. Its magnifying power is given by
visual angle with instrument (β)
M=
visual angle when object is Placed at least distance of distinct vision (α)
(1) Simple microscope

Y
SP
am

• It is used for observing magnified images of objects. It consists of a converging lens of small focal length.
• It is a single convex lens of lesser focal length.
D
• When final image is formed at least distance of distinct vision (D), then M = 1 + Where, f = focal length
f
Te

of the lens.
D
• When final image is formed at infinity, then M = .
f
(2) Compound microscope:-

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 • Consists of two converging lenses called objective and eye lens.
• feyelens > fobjective.
• Intermediate image is real and enlarged.
• Final image is magnified, virtual and inverted
v D
• When final image is formed at least distance of distinct vision (D), then M = 1 + 
u  fe 
where, v = distance of image formed by objective lens
and u = distance of object from the objective lens.
v D
• When final image is formed at infinity, then, M = . 
u  fe 

■ Astronomical Telescope

Y
SP
m
• It is also a combination of two lenses called objective lens and eyepiece, separated by a distance. It is used
for observing distinct images of heavenly bodies like stars, planets etc.
• fobjective > feyelens
a

• Intermediate image is real, inverted and small.

• Final image is virtual, inverted and small.
Te

f0  fe 
• When final image is formed at least distance of distinct vision (D), then M = – 1 +  where f0 and fe are
fe  D 
focal lengths of objective and eyepiece respectively and length of the telescope (L) = (f0 + ue) where, ue =
distance of object from the eyepiece.
f0
• When final image is formed at infinity, then M = and Length of the telescope, (L) = f0 + fe
fe
■ Reflecting Telescope

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 • Reflecting telescopes and based upon the same principle except that the formation of images takes place by
reflection instead of by refraction. It consists of concave mirror of large aperture and large focal length
(objective). A plane mirror is placed between the concave mirror and its focus. A small convex lens works
as eye-piece.
• It is focal length of the concave spherical mirror used as objective and fe, the focal length of the eye-

piece, the magnifying power of the reflecting telescope is given by m = f 0

fe
■ Limit of Resolution
• The minimum distance between two nearby objects which can be just resolved by the instrument is called
it’s limit of resolution (∆d).
■ Resolving Power
The ability of an optical instrument to produce separate and clear images of two nearby objects is called its
resolving power.
1 2µ sin θ
• Resolving power of a microscope = =
∆d λ
1 d
• Resolving power of a telescope = =
∆θ 1.22λ
Where, ∆d = limit of resolution, λ = wavelength of light used and d = diameter of aperture of objective.
µ = refractive index of the medium between the objects and objective lens and θ = half of the cone angle.

Y
■ Objective and Eyepiece
• The magnifying power of simple microscope can be increased by decreasing the focal length of the lens.

•
SP
However, the focal length of a lens cannot be decreased beyond a certain limit.
To increase the magnifying power, two separate lenses are used. The lens near the object is called the
objective, which forms a real image of an object under examination
• The lens used to enlarge this image further to form a final image and which is then viewed by the eye is
called an eyepiece or ocular.
am
■ Comparison of Ramsden eyepiece with Huygens eyepiece
S.NO. Ramsden Eyepiece Huygens Eyepiece
1. It is Positive eyepiece It is negative eyepiece.
2. Image formed in front of the field lens. Image formed between the two lenses. Therefore,
Therefore, cross-wires can be used. cross-wires cannot be used.
3. Minimum spherical aberration is not Minimum spherical aberration is satisfied.
Te

satisfied.
4. It does not satisfy the condition for It satisfies the condition for achromatism. (It is
achromatism but can be made achromatic be achromatic all colours.)
using an achromatic doublet as the eye lens.
(It is achromatic for only two chosen
colours.)
5. The other types of aberration are better Other aberrations like pincushion distortion are not
eliminated. Coma is absent and distortion is eliminated.
5% higher.
6. The eye clearance is 5% higher. The eye clearance is too small and less comfortable.
7. It is used for quantitative purposes in It is used for qualitative purposes in microscopes
microscopes and telescopes. and telescopes.
8. Its power is positive. Its power is positive.
9. The two principal planes are crossed. The two principal planes are crossed.
10. It can be used as a simple microscope because It cannot be used as simple microscope because the
the first principal plane lies to the left of the first focal plane lies to the right of the field lens and
field lens and the focal plane is real. the focal plane is virtual.
11. The nodal points coincide with the principal The nodal points coincide with the principal points.
points.

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 Exemplar Problems
(a) 45º (b) 75º
Ray optics (c) 90º (d) 60º
1. The speed of light in media 'A' and 'B' are 2.0 JEE MAIN 2019
× 1010 cm/s and 1.5 × 1010 cm/s respectively. A 7. When a ray of light enters a glass slab from air
ray of light enters from the medium B to A at
(a) its wavelength decreases
an incident angle 'θ'. If the ray suffers total
internal reflection, then (b) its wavelength increases
(c) its frequency increases
3 2
(a) θ = sin −1   (b) θ > sin −1   (d) neither its wavelength nor its frequency
4 3 changes
3 3 IIT 1980
(c) θ < sin −1   (d) θ > sin −1  
4 4 8. A light wave enters glass from air. What does
not change?
JEE MAIN 2022
(a) Frequency (b) Wavelength
2. Consider a light ray travelling in air is incident
(c) Velocity (d) All the above change
into a medium of refractive index 2n . The UP PGT Physics 2016 (Exam : 02.02.2019)
incident angle is twice that of refracting angle. 9. A student performed the experiment of
Then, the angle of incidence will be : 2n determination of focal length of a concave

Y
 n mirror by u-v method using an optical bench of
(a) sin −1 ( n) (b) cos −1   length 1.5 m. The focal length of the mirror
 2 used is 24 cm. The maximum error in the

(c) sin −1 ( 2n ) (d)

SP  n
2 cos −1 
 2

location of the image can be 0.2 cm. The 5 sets
of (u, v) values recorded by the student (in cm)
are : (42, 56), (48, 48), (60, 40), (66, 33), (78, 39).
JEE MAIN 2022 The data set(s) that cannot come from
3. If a wave gets refracted into a denser medium, experiment and is (are) incorrectly recorded, is
(are)
m
then which of the following is true?
(a) wavelength speed and frequency decreases. (a) (42, 56) (b) (48, 48)
(b) wavelength increases, speed decreases and (c) (66, 33) (d) (78, 39)
frequency remains constant. IIT 2009
a

(c) wavelength and speed decreases but 10. An object is placed at a distance of 40 cm from
frequency remains constant. a concave mirror of focal length 15 cm. If the
(d) wavelength, speed and frequency increases. object is displaced through a distance of 20 cm
Te

towards the mirror, the displacement of the

JEE MAIN 2022 image will be
4. Red light differs from blue light as they have : (a) 30 cm away from the mirror
(a) Different frequencies and different (b) 36 cm away from the mirror
wavelengths
(c) 30 cm towards the mirror
(b) Different frequencies and same wavelengths
(d) 36 cm towards the mirror.
(c) Same frequencies and same wavelengths
NEET 2018
(d) Same frequencies and different wavelengths
11. Diameter of a Plano convex lens is 6 cm and
JEE MAIN 2021 thickness at the centre is 3 mm. The speed of
5. A concave mirror for face viewing has focal light in material of lens is 2 × 108 m/s, the focal
length of 0.4 m. The distance at which you hold length of the lens is :
the mirror from your face in order to see your (a) 20 cm (b) 30 cm
image upright with a magnification of 5 is (c) 10 cm (d) 15 cm
(a) 0.16 m (b) 1.60 m
UKPSC Lecturer (Mains) 2020
(c) 0.32 m (d) 0.24 m
12. Quartz is a
JEE MAIN 2019 (a) Negative bi-axial crystal
6. The plane mirrors (M1 and M2) are inclined to (b) Positive bi-axial crystal
each other such that a ray of light incident on
mirror M1 and parallel to the mirror M2 is (c) Negative uni-axial crystal
reflected from mirror M2 parallel to the mirror (d) Positive uni-axial crystal
M1. The angle between the two mirror is UKPSC Lecturer (Mains) 2020
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13. A ray of light making an angle 10º with the (d) The entire spectrum of visible light will come
horizontal is incident on a plane mirror making out of the water at various angles to the
an angle θ with the horizontal. What should be normal
the value of θ so that the reflected ray goes IIT 2014
vertically upwards? 20. A point object is placed at the centre of a glass
(a) 20º (b) 30º sphere of radius 6 cm and refractive index 1.5.
(c) 40º (d) 50º The distance of the virtual image from the
RPSC School Lect. 26.07.2016 surface of the sphere is
14. A convex mirror forms an enlarged image of an (a) 2 cm (b) 4 cm
object (c) 6 cm (d) 12 cm
(a) For no values of object distance IIT 2004
(b) When object distance is less than twice the 21. A ray of light travelling in a transparent
focal length medium falls on a surface separating the
(c) When object distance is more than twice the medium from air at an angle of incidence 45°.
focal length The ray undergoes total internal reflection. If n
(d) For all values of object distance is the refractive index of the medium with
UP TGT Physics 2016 respect to air, select the possible value (s) of n
15. Which mirror is best suited to focus parallel from the following
rays at a point? (a) 1.3 (b) 1.4
(a) Spherical convex (b) Spherical concave (c) 1.5 (d) 1.6
(c) Hyperbolic (d) Parabolic IIT 1998

Y
UPTGT Science - 2021 22. A light ray falls on a glass surface of refractive
16. Two plane mirrors are placed at 600 angle to index 3 at an angle 60°. The angle between

the object is placed between them?

SP
each other. How many images will be seen if the refracted and reflected rays would be
(a) 120o
o
(b) 30o
(a) 2 (b)3 (c) 60 (d) 90o
(c) 5 (d) Infinite NEET 2022
UPTGT Science - 2021 23. Two transparent media A and B are separated
by a plane boundary. The speed of light in
am
17. A person of height 2 m stands in front of a
plane mirror. What must be the minimum those media are 1.5 × 108 m/s and 2.0 × 108 m/s,
vertical height of the mirror so he can see his respectively. The critical angle for a ray of light
full image? for these two media is
(a) 2 m (b) 1 m (a) tan–1 (0.750) (b) sin–1 (0.500)
–1
(c) 0.5 m (d) 0.25 m (c) sin (0.750) (d) tan–1 (0.500)
NEET 2022
Te

UPTGT Science - 2021

18. For which one of the following concave mirror 24. Find the value of the angle of emergence from
is not used? the prism. Refractive index of the glass is 3.
(a) Shaving glass
(b) Reflector in search lights
(c) Inspection internal pasts of ear
(d) Rear-view mirror in cars
UPTGT Science - 2021
19. A green light is incident from the water to the
air-water interface at the critical angle (q).
Select the correct statement. (a) 90° (b) 60°
(a) The entire spectrum of visible light will come (c) 30° (d) 45°
out of the water at an angle of 90° to the NEET 2021
normal 25. In total internal reflection when the angle of
(b) The spectrum of visible light whose incidence is equal to the critical angle for the
frequency is less than that of green light will pair of media in contact, what will be angle of
come out of the air medium refraction?
(c) The spectrum of visible light whose (a) 90º (b) 180º
frequency is more than that of green light will (c) 0º (d) equal to angle of incidence
come out to the air medium NEET 2019
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26. The critical angle is maximum when light 34. A convex lens has power P. It is cut into two
travels from halves along its principal axis. Further one
(a) water to air (b) glass to air piece (out of the two halves) is cut into two
(c) glass to water (d) air to water halves perpendicular to the principal axis (as
UP PGT - 2021 shown in figure). Choose the incorrect option
27. Index of refraction for ordinary glass relative for the reported pieces.
to air is 1.5. What will be the critical angle?
 1 
(a) sin −1   (b) sin–1 (1.5)
 1.5 
 1 
(c) cos −1   (d) cos–1 (1.5)
 1.5 
UPPSC GDC - 2021
28. A prism of material having refractive index
P P
µ=
4
has refracting angle 150. The angle of (a) Power of L1 = (b) Power of L 2 =
3 2 2
minimum deviation of this prism is P
(c) Power of L3 = (d) Power of L1 = P
(a) Zero (b) 50 2
0
(c) 7.5 (d) 150 JEE MAIN 2022
UPTGT Science - 2021 35. The refractive index of a converging lens is 1.4.
29. If the refractive index of glass is 1.5, the speed What will be the focal length of this lens if it is

Y
of light in glass is placed in a medium of same refractive index ?
(a) 2.3 ×108 m/s (b) 3.0 ×108 m/s (Assume the radii of curvature of the faces of
8
(c) 1.5 ×10 m/s
SP
(d) 2.0 ×108 m/s
UPTGT Science - 2021
lens are R1 and R2 respectively)
(a) 1 (b) Infinite
4 R1R 2
30. The refractive index of water a µ w = and (c) (d) Zero
3 R1 − R 2
3
refractive index of glass a µ g = . A lens placed JEE MAIN 2021
m
2 36. A convex lens of focal length 20 cm produces
in air has focal length 10 cm. What will be its
focal length if placed inside water? images of the same magnification 2 when an
object is kept at two distances x1 and x2 (x1 x2 )
(a) 10 cm (b) 15 cm
a

> from the lens. The ratio of x1 and x2 is

(c) 50 cm (d) 40 cm
(a) 5 : 3 (b) 2 : 1
UPTGT Science - 2021
(c) 4 : 3 (d) 3 :1
Te

31. In any two media the reversibility of light rays

obeys : JEE MAIN 2019
(a) 1 n 2 ×2 n1 = 1 (b) 1 n 2 = 2 n1 37. The size of the image of an object, which is at
infinity, as formed by a convex lens of focal
(c) (1 n 2 ) = ( 2 n1 )2 (d) None of these length 30 cm is 2 cm. If a concave lens of focal
UKPSC Lecturer (Mains) 2020 length 20 cm is placed between the convex lens
32. Refractive index of the material of a prism and the image at a distance of 26 cm from the
having an angle A = 60°, which produces a convex lens, calculate the new size of the image.
minimum deviation of 30°, is: (a) 1.25 cm (b) 2.5 cm
(a) 3 (b) 2 (c) 1.05 cm (d) 2 cm
1 IIT 2003
(c) 5 (d) 38. A biconvex lens has radii of curvature, 20 cm
2
each. If the refractive index of the material of
UKPSC Lecturer (Mains) 2020 the lens is 1.5, the power of the lens is
UPPGT Physics 2016 (Exam : 02.02.2019)
(a) Infinity (b) +2 D
33. The refractive index of diamond is 2.42. The
critical angle for total internal reflection for (c) +20 D (d) +5 D
light passing from diamond to air is, about NEET 2022
(a) 300 (b) 24.40 39. A lens of large focal length and large aperture
0
(c) 35 (d) 400 is best suited as an objective of an astronomical
UP LT Grade Science 2018 (Exam : 29.07.2018) telescope since
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 (a) A large aperture contributes to the quality and 44. Given the dispersive powers of the crown and
visibility of the images. flint glasses are 0.02 and 0.04 respectively, the
(b) A large area of the objective ensures better focal lengths of the two components of an
light gathering power. achromatic doublet of focal length 20 cm, will be:
(c) A large aperture provides a better resolution. (a) – 30 cm and + 15 cm
(b) – 40 cm and + 20 cm
(d) All of the above
(c) – 20 cm and + 10 cm
NEET 2021 (d) – 15 cm and + 15 cm
40. A convex lens 'A' of focal length 20 cm and a UPPCS (Pre) 2002
concave lens 'B' of focal length 5 cm are kept 45. Dispersive power of an achromatic doublet
along the same axis with a distance 'd' between components are 0.021 and 0.042 and focal
them. If a parallel beam of light falling on 'A' length of a convex lens is +75 cm. Focal length
leaves 'B' as a parallel beam, then the distance of the concave is:
'd' in cm will be (a) – 50 cm (b) – 75 cm
(a) 30 (b) 25 (c) – 150 cm (d) – 175 cm
(c) 15 (d) 50 UPPCS (Pre) 1999
NEET 2021 46. Chromatic aberration is due to
41. A point object is placed at a distance of 60 cm (a) Reflection (b) Refraction
from a convex lens of focal length 30 cm. If a (c) Diffraction (d) Dispersion
plane mirror were put perpendicular to the (UPPGT 2000)
principal axis of the lens and at a distance of 40 47. Chromatic aberration and spherical aberration
cm from it, the final image would be formed at

Y
both are minimum for two convex lenses of focal
a distance of length f1 and f2 placed at a distance d apart from
f
SP each other. The value of 1 will be

(a) 2:1
f2
(b) 3:1
(c) 2:3 (d) 4:1
(UPPGT 2010)
48. The dispersive powers of lenses used in an
am
(a) 20 cm from the plane mirror, it would be a
virtual image achromatic combination are in ratio 5 : 3. If
focal length of the concave lens is 15 cm, the
(b) 20 cm from the lens, it would be a real image
nature and focal length of other lens will be−
(c) 30 cm from the lens, it would be a real image (a) Convex, 9 cm (b) Concave, 9cm
(d) 30 cm from the plane mirror, it would be a
(c) Convex, 25cm (d) Concave, 25 cm
virtual image
(UPPGT 2011)
Te

NEET 2021
49. The Brewsters angle ib for an interface should
42. An achromatic combination of two thin lenses be
of focal lengths f1 and f2 is achieved if
(a) 30° < ib < 45° (b) 45° < ib < 90°
separation between them is equal to
(c) ib = 90° (d) 0° < ib < 30°
f 1
(a) 1 (b) ( f1 + f 2 ) NEET 2020
2 2
50. What is the number of nodal points in a coaxial
f 1
(c) 2 (d) ( f1 − f 2 ) lens system?
2 2 (a) Zero (b) One
UP PGT - 2021 (c) Two (d) Any number
UP PSC Pre 2001
UPPSC Poly. Lect. 2021 Paper - I
43. To minimize spherical aberration, two lenses of
51. A lens of refractive index µ2 is immersed in a
focal lengths f1 and f2 are placed at a distance
equal to medium of refractive index µ1. The radii of
curvature of the surfaces of the lens are R1 and
(a) f1 -f 2 (b) f1 +f 2 R2. The focal length (f) will be
f1 -f 2 f1 +f 2 1  1 1 
(c) (d) (a) = ( µ 2 − 1)  − 
2 2 f R
 1 R 2 
UPPSC Ashram Paddhati PGT - 2021
1  µ2  1 1 
UP PGT Physics 2016 (Exam : 02.02.2019) (b) =  − 1 − 
TGT 2010 f  µ1  R1 R 2 
184

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 1  µ2  1 1  58. Two lenses of powers +4D and –2D are kept in
(c) =  − 1 +  contact. The combinations focal length will be
f  µ1  R1 R 2 
(a) 100cm (b) 75cm
1  µ1  1 1  (c) 50cm (d) 25cm
(d) =  − 1 + 
f  µ2  R1 R 2  UP PGT Physics 2016 (Exam : 02.02.2019)
UP PGT Physics 2016 (Exam : 02.02.2019) 59. For a thin convex lens, if object is at distance of
52. A concave lens (diverging lens) made of a x1 from its first focus and image at a distance of
material of refractive index µ g is immersed in a x2 from the second focus, if f1 and f2 are
respectively the first and second focal lengths
medium of refractive index µl. Then lens of the lens, the condition which is satisfied is
behave as convergent lens when
(a) x1 f1 = x2 f2 (b) x1 f2 = x2 f1
(a) µ l = µ g (b) µ l > µ g (c) x2 - x1 = f2 - f1 (d) x1 x2 = f1 f2
(c) µ l < µ g (d) It is not possible UP LT Grade Science 2018 (Exam : 29.07.2018)
60. A converging lenses of focal length f is placed in
RPSC School Lect. 26.07.2016
contact with a diverging lens of focal length 3f.
53. Two thin lenses, of focal lengths +15 cm and – The combination is
12 cm, are placed in contact. The focal length
(a) A diverging lens of focal length 3f/2
of the combination lens will be
(b) A converging lens of focal length 2f
(a) +3 cm (b) +15 cm (c) A diverging lens of focal length 3f
(c) –12 cm (d) –60 cm (d) A converging lens of focal length 3f/2
UP PGT - 2021 UP TGT Physics 2016

Y
54. Two lenses have dispersive powers in ratio 2 : 61. For a system of two coaxially separated lenses
3. These glasses are used to make achromatic of focal lengths f1 & f2 having equal dispersive
lengths of two lenses are
(a) f1 = 5 cm, f2 = –10 cm
SP
lens of focal length 20 cm. The value of focal
power to be achromatic, their separation
should be
f1 + f 2
(b) f1 = –10 cm, f2 = 10 cm (a) f1 + f 2 (b)
2
(c) f1 = 6.67 cm, f2 = –10 cm
f1 - f 2
m
(d) f1 = 10 cm, f2 = –10 cm (c) f1 - f 2 (d)
UP PGT - 2021 2
55. A telescope has an objective lens of focal length (UPPGT 2013)
150 cm and an eye piece of focal length 5 cm. If UPPCS (Pre) 2004, 2008
a

a 50 m tall tower at a distance of 1km is 62. The refracting angle of a prism is A and
observed through this telescope (in normal refractive index of the material of the prism is
setting), the angle formed by the image of the cot (A/2). Then the angle of minimum deviation
Te

tower is θ, then θ is close to : will be -

(a) 1° (b) 15° (a) 180 – 2A (b) 90 – A
(c) 30° (d) 56° (c) 180 + 2A (d) 180 – 3A
UKPSC Lecturer (Mains) 2020 JEE MAIN 2022
56. Newton’s formula for the focal length of a thin 63. The angle of deviation through a prism is
lens is minimum when
(a) xx' = –ff ' (b) xx' = ff '
(c) xx' = –f2f ' (d) xx' = f/f '
UP PGT Physics 2016 (Exam : 02.02.2019)
57. When two lenses are in contact, the condition
for achromatism is
ω1 ω2
(a) = (b) ω1f1 = ω2f2 (A) Incident ray and emergent ray are symmetric
f1 f2 to the prism
ω1 ω2 (B) The refracted ray inside the prism becomes
(c) + =0 (d) ω1f1= – ω2f2
f1 f2 parallel to its base
UP PGT Physics 2016 (Exam : 02.02.2019) (C) Angle of incidence is equal to that of the
UPPCS (Pre) 2002 angle of emergence
UPPCS Pre 2007 (D) When angle of emergence is double the angle
UPPCS Pre 2006 of incidence
185

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 Choose the correct answer from the 69. A person can see clearly objects only when
options given below: they lie between 50 cm and 400 cm from his
(a) Statements (A), (B) and (C) are true eyes. In order to increase the maximum
distance of distinct vision to infinity, the type
(b) Only statement (D) is true and power of the correcting lens, the person
(c) Only statements (A) and (B) are true has to use, will be
(d) Statement (B) and (C) are true (a) convex, + 2.25 dioptre
JEE MAIN 2021 (b) concave, – 0.25 dioptre
64. A ray is incident at an angle of incidence i on (c) concave, – 0.2 dioptre
one surface of a small angle prism (with angle (d) convex, + 0.15 dioptre.
of prism A) and emerges normally from the NEET - II 2016
opposite surface. If the refractive index of the 70. Which defect of vision is corrected using
material of the prism is µ, then the angle of cylindrical lenses in spectacles?
incidence is nearly equal to : (a) Myopia
2A (b) Hypermetropia
(a) (b) µA
µ (c) Astigmatism
µA A (d) Loss of accommodation
(c) (d) UPTGT Science - 2021
2 2µ
71. To remove hypermetropia lens used is
NEET 2020 (a) Concave (b) Convex
65. A thin prism having refracting angle 10° is (c) Cylindrical (d) Plano-convex

Y
made of glass of refractive index 1.42. This (UPPGT 2003)
prism is combined with another thin prism of 72. Of the following human eye are most sensitive to
glass of refractive index 1.7. This combination (a) red light (b) violet light
SP
produces dispersion without deviation. The
refracting angle of second prism should be
(c) blue light (d) green light
TGT 2004 (Cancelled)
(a) 6º (b) 8º 73. The amount of light entering the eye is
(c) 10º (d) 4º controlled by the
NEET 2017 (a) pupil (b) iris
am
(c) cornea (d) eye lens
66. With the decrease in the prism angle, the
angular dispersion between red and violet rays- TGT 2004 (Cancelled)
74. A myopic eye can be corrected by using a:
(a) Increases (a) convex lens (b) cylindrical lens
(b) Decreases (c) plano–convex lens (d) concave lens
(c) Does not change TGT 2013
(d) Depends on the incidence angle UPPCS (Pre) 2004
Te

UPPSC Poly. Lect. 2021 Paper - I (UPPGT 2013)

75. A man cannot see objects distant more than 40
67. Your friend is having eye sight problem. She is cm. What is the power of the lens needed to
not able to see clearly a distant uniform allow him to see very distant objects?
window mesh and it appears to her as non- (a) – 3.5 D (b) + 3.5 D
uniform and distorted. The doctor diagnosed (c) – 2.5 D (d) + 2.5 D
the problem as:
UP PGT Physics 2016 (Exam : 02.02.2019)
(a) Astigmatism 76. A short-sighted man can clearly see the objects
(b) Myopia with Astigmatism up to a distance is 1.5 m. The power of the lens
(c) Presbyopia with Astigmatism of spectacles necessary for the remedy of this
defect is
(d) Myopia and hypermetropia
(a) -0.67D (b) -1.50D
JEE MAIN 2021 (c) +0.67D (d) +1.50D
68. An eye specialist prescribes spectacles having UP LT Grade Science 2018 (Exam : 29.07.2018)
combination of convex lens of focal length 40 77. The aperture of the objective is 24.4 cm. The
cm in contact with a concave lens of focal resolving power of this telescope. If a light of
length 25 cm. The power of this lens wavelength 2440 Å is used to see the object will
combination in diopters is be
(a) + 1.5 (b) –1.5 (a) 8.1×106 (b) 10.0×107
5
(c) + 6.67 (d) – 6.67 (c) 8.2×10 (d) 1.0×10–8
IIT 1997 JEE MAIN 2022
186

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78. Assume that light of wavelength 600 nm is 85.
In Huygens eyepiece, the focal lengths of an eye
coming from a star. The limit of resolution of lens and field lens are respectively.
telescope whose objective has a diameter of 2 m (a) f and 3f (b) f and 2f
is :
(a) 1.83 × 10–7 rad (b) 7.32 × 10–7 rad (c) 2f and 3f (d) 3f and 2f
–7
(c) 6.00 × 10 rad (d) 3.66 × 10–7 rad UPPCS Pre 2010
86. In eye piece, by using two lenses, instead of a
NEET 2020
79. Ratio of focal lengths of two lenses of Huygens single lens−
eyepiece is - (a) effective focal length always increases
(a) 1 : 1 (b) 2 : 1 (b) power remains unchanged
(c) 3 : 1 (d) None of the above (c) field of view decreases
UPPSC Poly. Lect. 2021 Paper - I (d) defects of chromatic and spherical aberrations
are removed in image and the field of view
80. An astronomical telescope has a large aperture
to : increases
(a) Reduce spherical aberration (UPPGT 2011)
87. The focal length of one of the lenses in a
(b) Have high resolution
(c) Increase span of observation Ramsden eyepiece is f1. The eyepiece will have
focal length :
(d) Have low dispersion
(a) 2f1/3 (b) 3f1/4
UKPSC Lecturer (Mains) 2020
81. If d0, de, fo, fe are respectively diameters, focal (c) f1 (d) 5f1/4
lengths of objective and eyepiece in a telescope, UPPCS PRE 1996
the optical ratio is 88. The distance between two plane convex lenses

Y
d f de f in Huygen's eyepiece is:
(a) o = e (b) = o (a) f (b) 2f
de fo do fe
d f
(c) o = e + 1
de fo
(d)
do
de
f
SP
= e −1
fo
(c)
f
2
(d) 4f
UPPCS Pre 1994
TGT 2003 89. Ramsden eyepiece consists of two plano convex
82. A magnifying glass comprises a simple lenses of focal lengths f each. The lenses are
(a) Convex lens (b) Convex mirror
separated by distance:
m
(c) Concave lens (d) Concave mirror
(a) 2f (b) f
TGT 2004 (Cancelled)
83. If the focal length of two convex lenses in an (c) f
2
(d)
3
f
eyepiece made of the same material be 4.0 and 3 4
a

2.0 cm and this combination be achromatic, the UPPCS (Pre) 2003

distance between them will be (in cms) : 90. The wave fronts of a light wave travelling in
(a) 2 (b) 3
vacuum are given by x + y + z = c. The angle
Te

(c) 4 (d) 8 made by the direction of propagation of light

UPPCS PRE 1996 with X-axis is-
84. Focal length of the objective and eyepiece of a
(a) 00 (b) 450
telescope are 100 cm and 10 cm. respectively.
Magnification of the telescope, when final image 1
is formed at infinity, is : (c) 900 (d) cos −1
3
(a) infinity (b) 100
(c) 0.1 (d) 10 UPPCS (Pre) 2004
UPPCS PRE 1996 (UPPGT 2013)

Answer Key
1. (d) 2. (d) 3. (c) 4. (a) 5. (c) 6. (d) 7. (a) 8. (a) 9. (c & d) 10. (b)
11. (b) 12. (d) 13. (c) 14. (a) 15. (d) 16. (c) 17. (b) 18. (d) 19. (d) 20. (c)
21. (c&d) 22. (d) 23. (c) 24. (b) 25. (a) 26. (c) 27. (a) 28. (b) 29. (d) 30. (d)
31. (a) 32. (b) 33. (b) 34. (a) 35. (b) 36. (d) 37. (b) 38. (d) 39. (d) 40. (c)
41. (a) 42. (b) 43. (a) 44. (c) 45. (c) 46. (d) 47. (b) 48. (a) 49. (b) 50. (c)
51. (b) 52. (b) 53. (d) 54. (c) 55. (d) 56. (b) 57. (c) 58. (c) 59. (d) 60. (d)
61. (b) 62. (a) 63. (a) 64. (b) 65. (a) 66. (d) 67. (b) 68. (b) 69. (b) 70. (c)
71. (b) 72. (d) 73. (a) 74. (d) 75. (c) 76. (a) 77. (c) 78. (d) 79. (c) 80. (b)
81. (b) 82. (a) 83. (b) 84. (d) 85. (a) 86. (d) 87. (b) 88. (b) 89. (c) 90. (d)
187

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04.
Wave Optics
(1) Introduction
■ Wave Optics :-
• The concept of wave nature of light was first introduced in 1678, by the Dutch Physicist Christian Huygens.
Wave optics describes the connection between wave and rays of light.
• Light consists of very small invisible elastic particles called corpuscles, which travels in vacuum with a speed
of 3 × 108 m/s.
• The size of corpuscles of different colours of light are different, the theory could explain reflection and
refraction.
■ Newton's Corpuscular theory:-
• Newton thought that light is made up of tiny, light and elastic particles called corpuscles which are emitted by
luminous body.
• The corpuscles travel with speed equal to the speed of light in all directions in straight line.

Y
• The corpuscular theory explains that light carry energy and momentum, light travels in a straight line, light
propogate in vacuum, laws of reflection and refraction.
• The corpuscular theory fails to explain interference, diffraction and polarization.
SP
• The corpuscles of different colour are of different sizes (red corpuscles larger than blue corpuscles).

■ Huygen's wave theory:-

• According to this, a luminous body is a source of disturbance in hypothetical medium ether. This medium
pervades all space.
am
• The wave carries energy and momentum. Huygen assumed that the waves were longitudinal. Further when
polarization was discovered, then to explain it, light waves were assumed to be transverse in nature by
Fresnel.
• This theory explains successfully, the phenomenon of interference and diffraction apart from other properties
of light.
• The Huygen's theory fails to explain photo-electric effect, Compton's effect etc.
Te

• The wave theory introduces the concept of wave front.

■ Wave Front :-
A wave front is defined as the continuous locus of all the particles of a medium, which are vibrating in the
same phase.

• The direction of propagation of light is perpendicular to the wave front.

• Every point on the given wave front acts as a source of new disturbance called secondary wavelets which
travel in all directions with velocity of light in the medium.
• A surface touching these secondary wavelets tangentially in the forward direction at any instant gives the new
wave front at that instant. This is called secondary wave front

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188
Different types of wave fronts:-
Type of wave fronts (WF) Intensity Amplitude
Spherical–
when source of light is a point source

1 1
I∝ A∝
r2 r

Cylindrical -
when source of light is linear

1 1
I∝ A∝
r r

Y
SP
Plane –
When the source of light is very far off
WF
m
I ∝ rº A ∝ rº
a
Te

■ Reflection and Refraction of wave front –

Reflection Refraction

• EC = AB
BB' v1 sin i µ 2
•∠i=∠r • = = =
AA ' v 2 sin r µ1
where, v1 and v2 are velocity of wavefront in
medium 1 and 2

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189
 (2) Superposition of Waves
When two or more than two wave superimpose over each other at a common particle of the medium then the
resultant displacement (y) of the particle is equal to the vector sum of the displacements (y1 and y2) produced
by individual waves, i. e. y = y1+y2.

■ Important Terms:–
• Phase – The argument of sine or cosine in the expression for displacement of a wave is defined as the phase.

Y
For displacement y = a sin ωt where, ωt = Phase or instantaneous phase.
• Phase difference (φ) :–
The difference between the phase of two waves at a point is called phase difference, i.e. if y1 = a1 sin ωt and
SP
y2 = a2 sin (ωt + φ) so phase difference = φ
• Path difference (∆)
The difference in path lengths of two waves meeting at a point is called path difference between the waves at
that point .It is given as -
λ
∆= ×φ
am
2π
• Time difference (T. D)
Time difference between the waves meeting at a point is –
T
T.D = ×φ
2π
■ Resultant Amplitude and Intensity –
Te

Let us consider two waves that have the same frequency but have a certain fixed (Constant) phase difference
between them.
Their super position is shown below –

Let the two waves are be -

y1 = a1 sin ωt and y2 = a2 sin (ωt + φ)
where, a1, a2 = Individual amplitudes
φ = Phase difference between the waves at an instant when they are meeting at a point.
• Resultant amplitude:–
The resultant wave can be written as
y = A sin (ωt + φ)
Where A = resultant amplitude = a12 + a 2 2 + 2a1a 2 cos φ

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190
 • Resultant intensity:–
As we know,
Intensity ∝ (Amplitude)2
I 1 = K a 1 2, I 2 = K a 2 2
I = K A2 (K is a proportionality constant)
Resultant intensity I = I1 + I2 + 2 I1I 2 cos φ
For two identical source I1 = I2 = I0
I = I0 + I0 + 2 I0 I0 cos φ
φ
Ι = 2Ι0 + 2Ι0 cos φ = 2Ι0 (1+ cos φ) = 4 I0 cos2
2

(3) Coherence
The phase relationship between two light waves can vary from time to time and from point to point in space.
The property of definite phase relationship is called coherence.
1. Temporal Coherence:– In a light source a light wave (photon) is produced when an excited atom goes to the
ground state and emits light.
• The duration of this transition is about 10–9 to 10–10 sec thus the emitted wave remains sinusoidal for this time
is known as coherence time (τc)

Y
• Definite phase relationship is maintained for a length L = c τc , called coherence length (c= 3×108 m/s).
For neon λ = 6328 Å , τc ≈ 10–10 sec and L = 0.03m.
SP
For cadmium λ = 6438 Å, τc = 10–9 sec and L = 0.3m
For Laser τc = 10–5 sec and L = 3 km
• The spectral line width ∆λ is related to coherence length L and coherence time τc.
λ2 λ2
∆λ = or ∆λ =
cλ c L
m
(2) Spatial coherence:– Two points in space are said to be spatially coherence if the waves reaching there
maintains a constant phase difference.
a
Te

Points P and Q are at the same distance from S, they will always be having the same phase. Length between
point P and P' is much less than the coherence length i.e. PP' << c τc
Methods of obtaining coherent sources:–
Two coherent sources are produced from a single source of light by two methods-
Division of wave front Division of amplitude
• The wave front emitted by a narrow source is • In this arrangement light wave is partly
divided in two parts by reflection, refraction or reflected (50%) and partly transmitted (50%) to
diffraction. produce two light rays.
• The coherent sources so obtained are imaginary • The amplitude of wave emitted by an extended
they are produced in Fresnel's bi-prism and source of light is divided in two parts by partial
young's double slit experiment etc. reflection and partial refraction.
• The Coherent sources obtained are real and are
obtained in Newton's rings, Michelson's
interferometer, colours in thin films.

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191
 (4) Interference of light
When two waves of exactly same frequency (coming from two coherent sources) travels in a medium, in the
same direction simultaneously then due to their superposition, at some point's intensity of light is maximum
while at some other point's intensity is minimum. This phenomenon is called interference of light.
It is of following two types:–
1. Constructive interference:– When the waves meet a point with same phase, constructive interference is
obtained at that point (i.e. maximum light).
• Phase difference between the waves at the point of observation, φ = 0° or 2nπ
λ
• Path difference between the waves at the point of observation, ∆ = nλ (i.e. even multiple of )
2
• Resultant amplitude at the point of observation will be maximum
Amax = a1 + a2, if a1 = a2 = a0 ⇒ Amax = 2a0
• Resultant intensity at the point of observation will be maximum
( )
2
Imax = I1 + I2 + 2 I1I2 = I1 + I 2
if I1 = I2 = I0 ⇒ Imax = 4 I0
2. Destructive interference:– When the waves meet at a point with opposite phase, destructive interference is
obtained at the point (i.e. minimum light).
• Phase difference φ = 180°
or (2n – 1)π ; n = 1, 2, ..........

Y
or (2n + 1)π ; n = 0, 1, 2..........
λ λ
• Path difference ∆ = (2n – 1) (i.e. odd multiple of )
2
SP 2
• Resultant amplitude at the point of observation will be minimum,
Amin = a1 – a2, If a1 = a2 ⇒ Amin = 0
• Resultant intensity at the point of observation will be minimum,
( )
2
Imin = I1 + I2 – 2 I1 I 2 = I1 − I 2
am
If I1 = I2 = I0 ⇒ Imin = 0
3. Super position of waves of random phase difference – When two waves ( or more waves) having random
phase difference between them super impose, then no interference pattern is produced. Then the resultant
intensity is just the sum of the two intensities –
I = I1 + I2
■ Young's Double Slit Experiment (YDSE) –
Te

Monochromatic light (single wavelength) falling on two narrow slits S1 and S2 which are very close together
acts as two coherent sources, when waves coming from two coherent sources (S1, S2) superimpose on each
other, on screen then alternate bright and dark bands are obtained on the screen. These bands are called Fringes.

d = Distance between slits

D = Distance between slits and screen
λ = wavelength of monochromatic light emitted from source.

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192
• Central fringe is always bright, because at central position φ = 0° or ∆ = 0
• The fringe pattern obtained due to a slit is brighter than that due to a point.
• If the slit widths are unequal, the minima will not be complete dark. For very large width uniform illumination
occurs.
• If one slit is illuminated with red light and the other slit is illuminated with blue light, no interference pattern is
observed on the screen.
• If the two coherent sources consist of object and it's reflected image, the central fringes is dark instead of bright
one.
Useful results
• Path difference:–
Path difference between the interfering waves meeting at a point P on the screen is given by ∆ = ∆i + ∆f ,where
∆i = initial path difference between the wave before the slit and ∆f = Path difference between the waves after
emerging from the slit.
xd
In case ∆i = 0 (commonly used Condition) ⇒ ∆ = ∆f = = d sin θ
D
where x is the position of point P from central maxima.
Bright fringe Dark fringe
∆ = nλ  2n − 1 

Y
Path difference (∆)
∆= λ
 2 
Location of nth
fringe from (xn)
Central maxima
xn =
SP
nλD
d
= nβ
 2n − 1  λD  2n − 1 
xn = 
 2  d
 =
 2 
β

No. of fringe (n) n = 0, ±, 1, ± 2,........ n =± 1 , ± 2,........

Fringe width (β) λD
m
β=
d
Angular fringe λ β
θ= =
width (θ)
a

d D
• Fringe width (β) :-
Te

The separation between any two consecutive bright or dark fringes is called fringe width. In YDSE all fringes
λD λ β
are of width β = and angular fringe width θ = =
d d D
• In YDSE, if n1 fringes are visible in a field of view with light of wave length λ1, while n2 with light of wave
length λ2 in the same field, then–
n1 λ1 = n2 λ2

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193
 • Fringe visibility (V):-With the help of visibility, Knowledge about coherence, fringe contrast an interference
pattern is obtained.

I max − I min I1I 2

V= =2
I max + I min ( I1 + I2 )
If Imin = 0, V = 1 (maximum) i.e, fringe visibility will be best.
Also if Imax = 0, V = –1 and if Imax = Imin, V = 0
• Missing wave length in front of one slit in (Y D S E) –

Y
SP
Suppose P is a point of observation in front of slit S1 as shown then missing wavelength at P is-
d2
λ=
( 2n − 1) D
By putting n = 1, 2, 3, ....... missing wavelengths are,
am
d2 d2 d2
λ= , ,
D 3D 5D
Special case:
• When a transparent sheet having refractive index µ and thickness t, introduced in the path of one ray of
Dt
double slit experiment then, shifting of fringe is given by x = ( µ − 1)
Te

d
λ w
• When complete setup submerged in medium µ then λ ' = &w'=
µ µ
■ Fresnel's Biprism –
• In Fresnel's biprism experiment, two prism which are connected through their bases are used.
• It is an optical device of producing interference of light Fresnel's biprism is made by Joining base to base two
thin prism of very small angle.
°
1
• Acute angle of Prism is about α=   or 30º and obtuse angle of Prism is about 179°. When a
2
monochromatic light source is kept in front of biprism, two coherent virtual sources S1 and S2 are produced
then interference fringes are found on the screen placed behind the biprism. Interference fringes are formed in
the limited region which can be observed with the help of eye piece.
• Fringe width is measured by a micrometer attached to the eye piece.
λD
• Fringes are equal width and its value is β =
d

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194
 Experimental Arrangement-

• Let the separation between S1 and S2 be d and its distance of slits and the screen from the biprism be a and b
respectively. i.e. D = (a + b)

Y
If angle of prism is α and refractive index is µ then,
d = 2a (µ – 1)α

λ=
SP
β  2a ( µ − 1) α 
(a + b)
β=
λD
=
(a + b) λ
d 2a ( µ − 1) α
m
• If a convex lens is mounted between the biprism and eye piece there will be two positions of lens when the
sharp images of coherent sources will be observed in the eyepiece.
a

The Separation of the images in the two positions are measured.

Let these be d1 and d2 then
βd β d1d 2
Te

d= d1d 2 ⇒ λ = =
D (a + b)
■ Newton's Rings:–

• If we place a plano–convex lens on a plane glass surface, a wedge shaped thin film of air is formed between
the curved surface of the lens and surface of plane glass.
• If we allow monochromatic light to fall normally on the surface of lens then circular interference fringes of
radius r can be seen in the reflected light.These circular fringes are called Newton's rings.
• These Newton's rings are formed by reflected rays and also by transmitted rays.
• The central fringes is a dark spot then there are alternate bright and dark fringes ( Ring shape).

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195
 Reflected rays Transmitted rays
Bright rings λR nRλ
n = 1, 2, 3....... rn = 2n − 1 rn =
2µ µ
Dark rings rnλ λR
n = 0,1,2,3...... rn = rn = 2n − 1
µ 2µ

Newton rings

at center minima (dark) at center maxima (Bright)

'n' increases → spacing decrease 'n' increases → spacing increases
Intensity Higher, so Prefer for study lower

Y
• Newton's ring arrangement is used for determining the wavelength of monochromatic light. For this the
diameter of nth dark ring (Dn) and (n + p)th dark Ring (Dn + p) are measured then–
SP
D 2n = 4nλR − − − −(i)
Let us Consider nth and (n+p)th dark rings, then
D 2n + p = 4 ( n + P ) λR − − − (ii)
Subtracting Equation (i) & (ii) we get
am
D 2n + p − D n2 = 4PλR
D 2n + p − D n2
λ=
4PR
• Spacing between Newton's rings = ( n − n − 1 λR )
Te

(5) Diffraction of light

• The Phenomenon of diffraction was first discovered by Grimaldi its experimental study was done by Newton
and young. The theoretical explanation was first given by Fresnel.
• The phenomenon of bending of light around the corners of an obstacle/aperture of the size of the wave length
of light is called diffraction.
• The phenomenon resulting from the Superposition of secondary wavelets originating from different parts of
the same wave front is defined as diffraction of light.
• Diffraction is the characteristic of all types of waves.
• Greater the wavelength of wave, higher will be its degree of diffraction.
• As λsound > λlight diffraction is more easily observed in sound as compared to light.
■ Diffraction at Single Slit (Fraunhofer Diffraction)
(i) Distance of nth Secondary minima (Dark) from central maxima
nλ D nλ f
X n = D.θ = = ,
b b
Where D = Distance between slit and screen; f ≈ D = Focal length of Converging lens.
 nλ 
∵sin θ ≈ θ = 
 d 

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196
 (ii) Distance of nth Secondary maxima bright from central maxima
( 2n − 1) λD ( 2n − 1) λf
X n = D.θ = =
2b 2b

■ Types of Diffraction:–
• Fresnel diffraction:– If either source or screen or both are at finite distance from the diffracting device
(obstacle or aperture), the diffraction is called Fresnel diffraction.
•. Fraunhofer diffraction:– In this case both source and screen are effectively at finite distance from the
diffracting device.

(6) Polarisation & Polaroids

Y
• Polarisation of light:- Light propagates as transverse EM waves. The magnitude of electric field is much
larger as compared to magnitude of magnetic field. Generally light described as electric field oscillations.
SP
• Unpolarised light:– An ordinary light having vibration along all possible direction perpendicular to the
direction of propagation of light is called an unpolarised light
• Plane polarised light:– When ordinary light is passed through a tourmaline, calcite or quartz crystal the
transmitted light will have electric vectors in a particular direction parallel to the axis of crystal. This light is
then known as plane polarised light with intensity variation having zero minima.
m
A plane containing the vibrations of polarised light is called plane of vibration. A plane perpendicular to the
plane of vibration is called plane of polarisation.
■ Optical Activity – The ability of a substance to rotate the plane of polarisation of a beam of light that is
passed through it. In plane-polarized light, the vibrations of the electric field are confined to a single plane.
a

Optical activity can be found out from the magnitude of the rotation of the plane of polarized light.
Magnitude of rotation of optical activity depends on-
1. Nature of the substance.
Te

2. Length of the liquid column through which the light passes.

3. The temperature of the solution.
4. The wavelength of light.
5. The concentration of the solution.
Polarisation can take place only in transverse waves.
• Nicol Prism –
Nicol Prism is a convenient optical device for producing and analysing the plane polarised light. It was
invented by William Nicol in 1826.
The Nicol prism consists of two calcite crystal cut at 68° with its principal axis joined by a glue called
Canada Balsam.
• Brewster's Law –

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197
 • When unpolarised light is incident at an angle of polarisation (ip) on the interface separating air from a
medium of refractive index µ, then reflected light becomes fully polarized.
• The relation between the angle of polarisation (ip) and refractive index (µ) of the medium is given as,
µ = tan ip
ip + r = 90º
If θ be the angle between the reflected and refracted light beams then
ip + θ + r = 180º
θ = 180º – (ip + r) = 180º – 90º = 90º
■ Rayleigh Scattering:- According to Rayleigh Scattering law, the intensity of scattering light is inversely
proportional to the fourth power of wavelength.
1
• Scattering intensity Is ∝ 4
λ
4
I1  λ 2 
• Light intensity of different wavelengths ratio. = 
I 2  λ1 
• Rayleigh scattering is proportional to (ν4) where ν → frequency.
• Rayleigh scattering explained the phenomenon of sun appears red at sunrise or sunset.
■ Polaroids:–
• It is a device used to produce the plane polarised light. It is based on the principle of selective absorption and

Y
is more effective than the tourmaline crystal.
• It is a thin film of ultramicroscopic crystals of quinine iodosulphate with their optical axis parallel to each
other.
SP
• Polaroids allow the light oscillations parallel to the transmission axis, to pass through them.
• The crystal or polaroid on which unpolarised light is incident is called polariser.
• Crystal or polaroid on which polarised light incident is called analyser.
am
Te

• In the above figure transmission axis of the polariser and analyser are parallel to each other, so whole of the
polarised light passes through analyser.
• If transmission axis of the analyser is perpendicular to the polariser then no light passes through the analyser.
Uses of polaroids :–
• Polaroids are used in sun glasses. They protect the eyes from glare.
• The pictures taken by a stereoscopic camera are with the help of polaroid spectacles. It helps in creating three
dimensional effect.
• The wind shield of an automobile is made of polaroid. Such a wind shield protects the eyes of the driver of
the automobile from the dazzling light of the approaching vehicles.
■ Zone plate :- A zone plate is a device used to focus light or other things exhibiting wave character.
• Zone plate has many focii. It acts like a multi focii converging lens and forms a real image.
• Zone plate behaves like a convex lens and produces an image of a source of light on the screen placed at a
suitable distance.
• Focal length of zone plate depends on wavelength of light used.
• In case of zone plate the image is formed by the diffraction phenomenon.
• A zone plate can be used over a wide range of wavelengths from micro waves to X - rays.
• Radii of zones are rn = nbλ

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198
 rn 2 rn 2
• Focal length of the zone plate is given by fn = b = or
nλ ( 2p − 1) nλ
Where λ = wavelength of light
b = position of the screen say b cm from the zone plate.
p = Number of focal length
■ Quarter Wave plate (QWP)
It is a plate of doubly refracting crystal cut parallel to optical axis of the crystal to introduce a path difference
of λ/4 or a phase difference of π/2 between extra ordinary and ordinary components of the polarized light.
λ
For quarter wave plate, the path difference =
4
λ
(µ0 – µe) t =
4
λ
t=
4(µ 0 − µe )
µ0 = Refractive index of ordinary ray
µe = Refractive index of extra ordinary ray.
■ Half wave plate:-
It is a doubly refracting crystal with face parallel to the optical axis.

Y
λ
It introduces a path difference of or a phase difference of π between ordinary and extra ordinary
2
components of light.
SP
For Half wave plate, thickness of the plate (t)
λ
t=
2(µ 0 − µe )
Where λ = wavelength of incident light.
m
■ Dispersive power of plane
Dispersive power of a grating is defined as the ratio of the difference in the angle of diffraction of any two
neighbouring spectral lines to the difference in wave length between two spectral line.
a

The diffraction of the nth order principal maximum for a wavelength λ is given by
(a + b) sinθ = nλ
dQ
Te

Dispersive power is given by

dλ
dQ n
=
dλ ( a + b ) cos θ
where,
n = order of spectrum
Q = Angle of diffraction for the nth order principal maximum of wavelength λ
(a + b) = Grating constant (Unit is in cm.)
Note- Deviation produced in a plane transmission grating does not depends on refractive index of grating
n
dθ = dλ
( a + b ) cos θ
■ Birefringence
A single incident ray of unpolarized light entering an anisotropic medium splits into two rays (ordinary and
extra ordinary), each travelling in a different direction (mutually orthogonal planes). It is also called double
refraction.
• The process of double refraction occurs only in some crystals are calcite, quartz .
■ Malus law:–
• This law states that the intensity of the polarised light transmitted through the analyser varies as the square of
the cosine of the angle between the plane of transmission of the analyser and the plane of the polariser.

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199
 • I = I0 cos2θ and A2 = A2o cos2θ ⇒ Α = A0 cos θ
If θ = 0º , I = I0, A = A0
If θ = 90º, I = 0, A = 0
I
• If Ii = Intensity of unpolarised light, S0 I0 = i , i.e. if an unpolarised light is converted into plane polarised
2
I
light (say by Passing it through a polaroid or a nicol-prism), its intensity becomes half i.e. I = i cos 2 θ
2
■ Key Points :–
• In interference redistribution of energy takes place in the form of maxima and minima.
I +I
• Average intensity: Iav = max min ⇒ Iav = I1 + I2 = a12 + a 22
2
• Ratio of maximum and minimum intensities –
2 2
Imax  I1 + I 2   I1 / I 2 + 1   a1 + a 2   a1 / a 2 + 1 
2 2

=  =  = =
I min  I1 − I 2   I1 / I 2 − 1   a1 − a 2   a1 / a 2 − 1 

 I max 
 +1 
I1 a I
= 1 =  min 
I 2 a 2  I max 
 −1

Y
 I min 
• If two waves having equal intensity (I1 = I2 = I0) meet at two locations P and Q with path difference ∆1 and ∆2
respectively then the ratio of resultant intensity at point P and Q will be

IP
φ 2  π∆ 
cos 2 1 cos  1 
2 =  λ 
SP
=
IQ cos 2 φ2 2  π∆ 2 
cos  
2  λ 
β λ
• The angular thickness of fringe width is defined as δ = = ,
am
D d
which is independent of the screen distance D.
• Central maxima means the maxima formed with zero optical path difference. It may be formed anywhere on
the screen.
• All the wavelengths produce their central maxima at the same position.
• The wave with smaller wavelength forms its maxima before the wave with longer wavelength.
Te

• The first maxima of violet colour is closest and that for the red colour is farthest.
• Fringes with red light are thicker than those with blue light (∵ λred > λblue)
• In an interference pattern, whatever energy disappears at the minimum appears at the maximum.
• In YDSE, the nth maxima always comes before the nth minima.
I
• In YDSE, the ratio max is maximum when both the sources have same intensity.
I min
• For two interfering waves initial phase difference between them is φ0 and phase difference due to path
difference between them is φ then total phase difference will be –
2π
φ = φ0 + φ' = φ0 + ∆
λ
• Sometimes maximum number of maximas or minimas are asked in the questions which can be obtained on
the screen for this we use the fact that value of sin θ (or cos θ) cannot be greater than 1.
For example–
nλ
sin θ = (for maximum intensity)
d
nλ d
∵ sin θ 1 ∴ 1 or n
d λ
Suppose in some question d/λ comes out say 4:6 then total number of maximas on the screen will be 9.
Corresponding to, n = 0, ±1, ±2, ±3 and ±4

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200
 Exemplar Problems
7. In Young’s double slit experiment, if the
Wave optics separation between coherent sources is halved
1. Using Young's double slit experiment, a and the distance of the screen from the
monochromatic light of wavelength 5000 Å coherent sources is doubled, then the fringe
produces fringes of fringe width 0.5 mm. If width becomes
another monochromatic light of wavelength (a) double (b) half
6000Å is used and the separation between the (c) four times (d) one-fourth
slits is doubled, then the new fringe width will NEET 2020
be :
8. In a double slit experiment, when light of
(a) 0.5 mm (b) 1.0 mm wavelength 400 nm was used, the angular
(c) 0.6 mm (d) 0.3 mm width of the first minima formed on a screen
JEE MAIN 2022 placed 1 m away, was found to be 0.2°. What
2. In young’s double slit experiment performed will be the angular width of the first minima, if
using a monochromatic light of wavelength λ, the entire experimental apparatus is immersed
when a glass plate (µ = 1.5) of thickness xλ is in water? (µwater = 4/3)
introduced in the path of the one of the (a) 0.1º (b) 0.266º
interfering beams, the intensity at the position (c) 0.15º (d) 0.0º
where the central maximum occurred NEET 2019
previously remains unchanged. The value of x

Y
will be: 9. In Young’s double slit experiment the separation
d between the slits is 2 mm, the wavelength l of
(a) 3 (b) 2 the light used is 5896 Å and distance D between

3.
(c) 1.5 (d) 0.5
SP
JEE MAIN 2022
Two light beams of intensities in the ratio of 9 :
the screen and slits is 100 cm. It is found that the
angular width of the fringes is 0.20°. To increase
the fringe angular width to 0.21° (with same l
4 are allowed to interfere. The ratio of the and D) the separation between the slits needs to
intensity of maxima and minima will be : be changed to
(a) 2 : 3 (b) 16 : 81 (a) 1.8 mm (b) 1.9 mm
m
(c) 25 : 169 (d) 25 : 1 (c) 2.1 mm (d) 1.7 mm
JEE MAIN 2022 NEET 2018
4. In young's double slit arrangement, slits are 10. In a Young’ double slit experiment if there is
separated by a gap of 0.5 m from them. The no initial phase difference between the light
a

distance between the first and the third bright from the two slits, a point on the screen
fringe formed when the slits are illuminated by corresponding to the fifth minimum has path
a monochromatic light of 5890 Å is:- difference.
Te

(a) 1178 × 10–9 m (b) 1178 × 10–6 m λ λ

–12
(c) 1178 × 10 m (d) 5890 × 10–7 m (a) 5 (b) 10
2 2
JEE MAIN 2021
λ λ
5. In a Young’s double slit experiment, a student (c) 9 (d) 11
observes 8 fringes in a certain segment of 2 2
screen when a monochromatic light of 600 nm Odisha NEET 2019
wavelength is used. If the wavelength of light is 11. Young’s double slit experiment is first
changed to 400 nm, then the number of fringes performed in air and then in a medium other
he would observe in the same region of the than air. It is found that 8th bright fringe in the
screen is medium lies where 5th dark fringe lies in air.
(a) 12 (b) 6 The refractive index of the medium is nearly
(c) 8 (d) 9 (a) 1.59 (b) 1.69
NEET 2022 (c) 1.78 (d) 1.25
6. In Young’s double slit experiment, if the NEET 2017
separation between coherent sources is halved 12. When the movable mirror of Michelson
and the distance of the screen from the interferometer moves a distance of 100 µm . a
coherent sources is doubled, then the fringe shift of 500 fringes is observed. What will be
width becomes : the wavelength of used light?
(a) half (b) four times (a) 7000Å (b) 5500Å
(c) one-fourth (d) double (c) 4000Å (d) 4500Å
NEET 2020 UPPSC Ashram Paddhati PGT - 2021
201

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13. Ratio of intensities of two waves is 1:9. What (a) 2.95 µm (b) 5.89 µm
will be the ratio of maximum intensity to (c) 8.85 µm (d) 11.8 µm
minimum intensity if these waves interface?
(a) 1 : 3 (b) 4 : 1 RPSC School Lect. 08.01.2020
(c) 2 : 6 (d) 1 : 4 UPPCS Pre 2002
UPPSC Poly. Lect. 2021 Paper-I 22. In an interference pattern, at a point we
14. Two interfering waves have intensities in the observe the 12th order maxima for λ 1 = 6000 A .
º

ratio 9 : 1. The ratio of maximum and

minimum intensities, in interference pattern, What order will be visible here if the source is
will be replaced by light of wavelength λ 2 = 4800 A .
º

(a) 5 : 4 (b) 2 : 1
(a) 15th (b) 10th
(c) 25 : 16 (d) 4 : 1
UP PGT - 2021 (c) 18th (d) 16th
UPPCS Pre 2001, 03, 05 RPSC School Lect. 26.07.2016
15. Michelson-Morley experiment was based upon 23. The ratio of intensities of two light waves is 25 :
(a) Refraction of light 16. If they interfere, the ratio of intensities of
(b) Interference of light maxima and minima of resultant pattern is
(c) Diffraction of light (a) 5 : 4 (b) 9 : 1
(d) Polarization of light (c) 49 : 9 (d) 81 : 1
UPPSC Ashram Paddhati PGT - 2021 UP PGT Physics 2016 (Exam : 02.02.2019)
16. Fiber optics works on the principle of 24. Two coherent monochromatic light beam of

Y
(a) Snell's law intensities I and 4I are superposed. The ratio of
the maximum and minimum possible
(b) Total internal reflection
intensities in the resulting beam is
(c) (a) and (b) both
(d) Population inversion
SPUP PGT - 2021
(a) 5:1
(c) 9:1
(b) 5:3
(d) 3:1
17. Two coherent sources of intensity ratio 100 : 1 UPPCS Pre 2010, 2008, 2006
interfere. The ratio intensity between maxima 25. A ray of light is incident on the surface of a
and minima is glass plate of refractive index 1.5 at polarizing
am
(a) 100 : 1 (b) 10 : 1 angle. What is the angle of polarization?
(c) 11 : 9 (d) 121 : 81 (a) 56.3o (b) 33.7o
o
UP PGT - 2021 (c) 90 (d) None of the above
UPPGT 2005 UPPSC Poly. Lect. 2021 Paper- I
18. In Michelson interferometer with
UPPGT 2021, 2000
monochromatic light, when mirrors are exactly
perpendicular, the fringes are - 26. The ratio of intensities of D1 and D2 lines of
Te

(a) Straight line (b) Circular sodium at high temperature is

(c) Parabolic (d) Elliptical (a) 1:1 (b) 2:3
UPPSC Poly. Lect. 2021 Paper- I (c) 1:3 (d) 1:2
19. Oil floating on the surface of water appears UPPSC GDC - 2021
coloured in white light. The expected thickness 27. Which property of light shows it is a transverse
of oil film is - wave?
(a) 100 Å (b) 10,000 Å (a) Refraction (b) Interference
(c) 1mm (d) 1cm (c) Diffraction (d) Polarization
UPPSC Poly. Lect. 2021 Paper- I
UPTGT Science - 2021
20. The films of oil and soapy water have their
brilliant colours, because of : 28. Which of the following statement is correct
about optically active substances?
(a) Dispersion of light
(b) Interference of light (a) Optically active substances produce polarized
light.
(c) Diffraction of light
(b) Optically active substances rotate the plane of
(d) Polarization of light
polarization of polarized light.
UKPSC Lecturer (Mains) 2020
(c) Optically active substances produce double
21. When a thin glass plate (n = 1.5) is introduced
in one of the arm of Michelson Interferometer refraction.
using light of wavelength 5890 Å, there is a (d) None of the above
shift of 10fringes. The thickness of plate is UPPSC Poly. Lect. 2021 Paper- I
202

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29. The Clausius–Mossotti relation holds best for - 4π ∞
(a) Solids (c) σ = ∑ (2l + 1)cos2 δl
K 2 l =0
(b) Polar molecules
4π ∞
(c) Gases and dilute solutions (d) σ = ∑ (2l + 1)sin 2 δl
K 2 l =0
(d) Concentrate solutions
UPPSC Poly. Lect. 2021 Paper - II UPPSC GDC - 2021
37. Polaroid A and Polaroid B are in crossed
30. The first diffraction minimum due to single slit position. On Polaroid A unpolarized light of
0
diffraction is at 30 for a light of wavelength λ . intensity 100 W/m2 is incident. By rotating
If width of slit is 1.0 µm , the wavelength λ is. Polaroid B by 60° the intensity of light coming
out of B will be ;
(a) 1250 Å (b) 4000 Å
(a) 75 W/m2 (b) 37.5 W/m2
(c) 4500 Å (d) 5000 Å 50
(c) 1000 W/m2 (d) W / m2
UPPSC Ashram Paddhati PGT - 2021 3
31. When a thin transparent plate is introduced in UKPSC Lecturer (Mains) 2020
the path of interfering beams, the fringe width 38. When the angle of incidence on a material is
will 60º, the reflected light is completely polarized.
(a) increase (b) decrease The velocity of the refracted ray inside the
(c) become zero (d) remains the same material is (in ms–1)
UPPSC Ashram Paddhati PGT - 2021  3 
(a) 3×108 (b)  ×10
8

32. Sunlight is reflected from a lake is 100%  2

Y
polarized at any instant. The angle between the 1
sun and horizon at that instant is (Given tan–1 (c) 3 ×108 (d) ×108
(1.33) = 53.06°, µ of water = 1.33)
(a) 53.06° (b) 143.06°
SP 39.
2
RPSC School Lect. 08.01.2020
In Young's double slit experiment, if the screen
(c) 36°54' (d) 126°54' is moved away from the plane of slits, then
UP PGT - 2021 (a) Angular fringe width will decrease
33. In Young's double slit experiment the slit (b) Angular fringe width will increase
m
separation is 0.12 mm, the wavelength of light (c) Angular fringe width will remain constant
used is 5893 Å and interference pattern is (d) Angular fringe width first increases then
observed on a screen 1 m away. The separation decreases
between successive bright fringes will be
RPSC School Lect. 08.01.2020
a

(a) 6.50 mm (b) 5.50mm 40. Light is incident on a plane refracting surface
(c) 4.91 mm (d) 4.50mm at Brewster's angle, the refracted light ray will
UP PGT - 2021 be :
Te

34. For incidence at Brewster's angle, the angle (a) Unpolarized

between reflected and refracted rays, is (b) Plane polarized
(a) 120° (b) 90° (c) Circularly polarized
(c) 70° (d) 60° (d) Elliptically polarized
UP PGT - 2021 UKPSC Lecturer (Mains) 2020
35. A parallel beam of light of wavelength 5460 Å 41. In an experiment of single slit diffraction
is incident at an angle of 30o on a plane pattern, Ist minimum of red light coincides with
transmission grating which has 6000 lines/cm. Ist maximum of some other wavelength. If
o
the highest order spectrum that can be seen is - λ R = 6000 A , then wavelength of Ist maximum
(a) 2 (b) 3 will be :
(c) 4 (d) 5 o o

UPPSC Poly. Lect. 2021 Paper -I (a) 3300 A (b) 4000 A

o o
36. The total scattering cross section can be written (c) 5500 A (d) 6600 A
in terms of the phase shifts, as UKPSC Lecturer (Mains) 2020
4π ∞
(a) σ = 2 ∑ (2l + 1) tan 2 δl 42. In double slit experiment the shape of the
K l =0 fringes is :
(a) Circular (b) Straight lines
4π ∞
(b) σ = ∑ (2l + 1)cot 2 δl
K 2 l =0
(c) Hyperbolic (d) None of these
UKPSC Lecturer (Mains) 2020
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43. If we repeat Young's double slit experiment in 50. Which of the following are coherent sources?
water by maintaining all other conditions same. (a) A 60 Watt and a 100 Watt bulbs
then the fringe-width : (b) Two bulbs of 60W each
(a) will be increased (c) Two halves of a 60 Watt bulbs
(b) will be decreased (d) Two virtual sources obtained by biprism
(c) will be unchanged UPPSC Ashram Paddhati PGT - 2021
(d) Both (a) and (b) above are possible 51. If air film is formed in Newton's Ring
UKPSC Lecturer (Mains) 2020 experiment, the ratio of diameter of first four
44. Monochromatic X-ray beam falls on a crystal bright rings are
surface. Diffraction pattern will be formed if (a) 1 : 2 : 3 : 4 (b) 1: 2 : 3 : 4
beam falls :
(a) Normal to the surface (c) 1 : 3 : 5 : 7 (d) 1: 3 : 5 : 7
(b) Parallel to the surface RPSC School Lect. 08.01.2020
(c) At a particular angle to the surface 52. In a Newton's ring experiment the air in the
(d) None of these interspaces is replaced by a liquid of refractive
index 1.33, ratio of diameter of rings will be
UKPSC Lecturer (Mains) 2020
(a) 1.33 (b) 1.33
45. X-rays of λ = 0.3 Å are incident on a crystal
with lattice spacing 0.5 Å. The angle at which 1 1
(c) (d)
second Bragg's diffraction maxima observed is 1.33 1.33
3  3 RPSC School Lect. 26.07.2016
(a) sin –1   (b) cos –1  

Y
5 5 53. The angular dispersion for a lens is 0.0178 and
deviation for yellow light is 0.5170. Then the
 3  3 dispersive power is
(c) sin –1   (d) cos –1  
 10 
SP  10 
RPSC School Lect. 28.01.2020
(a) 0.034
(c) 0.031
(b) 0.033
(d) 0.035
46. A ray of light is incident at polarising angle on a (UPPGT 2010)
54. Newton's rings are usually studied in the
transparent plate of refractive index 3 . What
reflected light and not in the transmitted light
is the angle of refraction? because of
(a) 300 (b) 600
am
(a) convenience in the experimental set up
0
(c) 90 (d) 1200 (b) higher intensity in the reflected light
UP PGT Physics 2016 (Exam : 02.02.2019) (c) higher coherence in the reflected light
47. If the polarizing angle for a medium is 600, what (d) better visibility of fringes in the reflected light
will the critical angle be? UPPCS Pre 2005, 2003
1 55. Fraunhofer spectrum is -
(a) 600 (b) cos −1 (a) Line absorption spectrum
Te

3
(b) Band absorption spectrum
1 1
(c) sin −1 (d) tan −1 A (c) Line emission spectrum
3 3 (d) Band emission spectrum
UP PGT Physics 2016 (Exam : 02.02.2019) UPPSC Poly. Lect. 2021 Paper -I
48. What does diffraction indicate? PGT Physics 2003
(a) Particle nature 56. Which elements was discovered through the
(b) Wave nature Fraunhofer lines in the solar radiation?
(c) None of the above
(a) Hydrogen (b) Helium
(d) Bother particle and wave nature
UP PGT Physics 2016 (Exam : 02.02.2019) (c) Lithium (d) Uranium
49. Two polaroids are placed in such a way that UPTGT Science - 2021
their axis makes an angle of 30º with each 57. In case of diffraction due to an opaque circular
other. If unpolarised light is incident on the disc, the centre of the shadow is always
system of this polaroids, the fraction of incident (a) bright (b) dark
light transmitted is (c) coloured (d) none of the above
1 UPPCS Pre 2008, 2006
(a) Zero (b) 58. In the diffraction of a plane wave due to a
2 circular obstacle (disc) the axial point is always.
3 2 (a) dark (b) bright
(c) (d)
8 3 (c) may be bright of dark (d) None of the above
RPSC School Lect. 26.07.2016 UPPCS Pre 2010
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59. Fraunhofer spectrum is a 67. Wavelength of light used in an optical
(a) Line absorption spectrum instrument are λ 1 = 4000Å and λ 2 = 5000Å
(b) Band absorption spectrum
(c) Line emission spectrum The ratio of their respective resolving power is-
(d) Band emission spectrum (a) 1:9 (b) 5:4
(UPPGT 2003) (c) 16:5 (d) 9:1
60. Select the correct statement from the following. UPPSC Ashram Paddhati PGT - 2021
(a) In Fresnel diffraction light source and screen
are at infinite distance from diffracting object. UPPSC Poly. Lect. 2021 Paper - I
(b) In Fraunhofer diffraction light source and 68. The instrument used to measure optical
screen are at infinite distances from the rotation is known as
diffracting object (a) Spectrometer (b) Microscope
(c) In Fresnel diffraction only light sources is at (c) Polarimeter (d) Interferometer
infinite distance from diffracting object
UP PGT - 2021
(d) In Fresnel diffraction only screen is at infinite
distance from diffracting object 69. Which of the following gives the resolving
(UPPGT 2000) power of a telescope whose objective diameter
61. The essential condition for Fraunhofer class is 'd'?
diffraction is that− 1.22λ λ
(a) (b)
(a) The incident wave front must be plane d d
(b) The incident wave front must be spherical
(c) Both the incident and diffracted wave fronts be d d
(c) (d)
plane 1.22λ λ

Y
(d) All the above UPPSC Poly. Lect. 2021 Paper-I
(UPPGT 2011) UPPCS (Pre) 2003
62. The maximum scattering angle for equal
masses in laboratory system is
(a) Zero (b) 90º
SP 70. What should be the minimum number of lines
in grating to resolve sodium doublet (5890 Å
and 5896 Å) in third spectral order?
(c) 180º (d) 360º (a) 1312 (b) 984
RPSC School Lect. 26.07.2016 (c) 656 (d) 328
63. The method of partial wave is suitable for UPPSC Poly. Lect. 2021 Paper-I
m
(a) low energy scattering
71. If the symbols have their usual meaning, then
(b) medium-high energy scattering the resolving power of a plane transmission
(c) high energy scattering grating is -
a

(d) for all energy scattering 1

RPSC School Lect. 26.07.2016 (a) nN (b)
nN
64. Scattering cross-section σ(θ) for Coulomb
n N
Te

potential using Born approximation is (c) (d)

(a) proportional to sin4θ/2. N n
(b) inversely proportional to sin4θ/2 UPPSC Poly. Lect. 2021 Paper-I
(c) proportional to sin2θ/2 72. The diameter of the objective of a telescope is d
(d) inversely proportional sin2θ/2 and light of wavelength λ is being used. What
will be the limit of resolution?
RPSC School Lect. 26.07.2016
1.22λ λ
65. The mean separation of two points on moon (a) (b)
that can be resolved by a 500 cm telescope d d
aperture is (distance of the moon is 4×105 km, d 1.22d
eye is most sensitive to wavelength 5500Å) (c) (d)
1.22λ λ
(a) 40 m (b) 43 m UP PGT Physics 2016 (Exam : 02.02.2019)
(c) 53.6 m (d) 50.6 m 73. The dispersive power of a plane grating is given
UP PGT - 2021 by
66. The resolving power of a prism depends on (symbols have their usual meanings)
(a) The width of the base of the prism
n n cos θ
(b) The rate of change of refractive index with (a) (b)
respect to wavelength (a + b) cos θ (a + b)
(c) Both (a) and (b) (a + b)sin θ (a + b) cos θ
(c) (d)
(d) None of the above nN nN
UPPSC Ashram Paddhati PGT - 2021 UPPSC Ashram Paddhati PGT - 2021
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74. Total number of rulings in a diffraction grating 83. A half-wave plate produces a phase difference
needed to just resolve sodium doublet (589 nm between O (ordinary) and E (extraordinary)
and 589.6 nm) in the first order is : waves equal to
(a) 589 (b) 590 π 3π
(c) 950 (d) 982 (a) (b)
2 2
UKPSC Lecturer (Mains) 2020
(c) π (d) π/4
75. r is radius of first circle in zone plate and λ is
wavelength of light used. First focal length of UP PGT - 2021
zone plate will be UPPCS (Pre) 1998
λ 84. For µ0 = 1.544, µi = 1.558 and λ = 6500Å, the
(a) r2λ (b) 2 thickness of a quarter wave plate is.
r
Here notations carry their usual meaning.
r2 2r 2
(c) (d) (a) 10.0 µm (b) 11.6 µm
λ λ
(c) 0.25 µm (d) 0.28 µm
RPSC School Lect. 08.01.2020
UP PGT - 2021
76. A zone plate behaves like a
85. What will be the thickness of a quarter wave
(a) Concave lens (b) Convex lens
plate made of quartz for wavelength
(c) Plane mirror (d) Glass plate
λ = 5000Å and refractive index µ 0 = 1.553 and
UKPSC Lecturer (Mains) 2020
77. Which of the following is incorrect? µe = 1.543 ?
(a) Zone plate has many focii (a) 5.00 ×10−3 cm (b) 3.75 ×10−3 cm

Y
(b) Zone plate is similar to convex lens
(c) Focal length of zone plate depends on (c) 2.50 ×10−3 cm (d) 1.25 ×10−3 cm
wavelength of light used UPPSC Poly. Lect. 2021 Paper-I

μ0
78.
(d) None of the above
SP
UP PGT Physics 2016 (Exam : 02.02.2019)
A zone plate is to be constructed with focal
86. For calcite, = 1.658 and µ E = 1.486 and λ =

5893 A for sodium yellow light. The thickness

length of 50cm for λ = 5.0 ×10-5cm . Its first of the thinnest quarter-wave plate of calcite for
radius will be: this light, is
(a) 0.40 mm (b) 0.50 mm
(a) 0.70 × 10 −4 cm (b) 0.86 × 10 −4 cm
am
(c) 0.60 mm (d) 0.75 mm
UP LT Grade Science 2018 (Exam : 29.07.2018) (c) 0.95 × 10 −4 cm (d) 0.15 × 10 −3 cm
79. A Nicol prism is based on the principle of− UP LT Grade Science 2018 (Exam : 29.07.2018)
(a) Refraction (b) Scattering 87. In Helium-Neon laser, helium atoms
(c) Dichroism (d) Double refraction (a) Emit laser radiation
(UPPGT 2011) (b) Impart energy to the Neon atoms
Te

80. In a doubly refracting crystal, optic axis is a (c) Act as catalytic atom
direction along which− (d) Act as quenching agents
(a) a plane polarised beam does not suffer
deviation UPPSC Ashram Paddhati PGT - 2021
(b) any beam of light does not suffer any deviation UPPCS (Pre) 2004, 2008
(c) double refraction does not take place UPPCS Pre 2001
(d) ordinary and extraordinary rays undergo 88. The population inversion between energy states
maximum deviation. in a Ruby laser is achieved through
(UPPGT 2011) (a) raising of temperature
81. Double refracting crystals are negative if :
UPPCS Pre 2010 (b) lowering of temperature
(a) µe > µ0 (b) µ0 > µe (c) optical pumping
(c) µ0 = µe (d) None of these (d) vacuum pumping
82. A beam of circularly polarized light is passed UP PGT - 2021
through a quarter wave plate. The emergent 89. A laser beam has pulse power 1012 Watt. It is
light is focused on an object of area 10-4 cm 2 . What
(a) Plane polarized will be the energy flux?
(b) Circularly polarized
(a) 1020 erg / m 2 (b) 1016 Watt / cm2
(c) Elliptically polarized
(d) Partially polarized (c) 108 Watt / cm2 (d) 104 Watt / cm2
UPPSC Poly. Lect. 2021 Paper-I UPPSC Poly. Lect. 2021 Paper-I
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90. Working of Laser is based on - 96. The pumping method in Ruby Laser is
(a) Spontaneous emission of radiation (a) optical pumping
(b) Stimulated absorption of radiation (b) electron impact
(c) Stimulated emission of radiation (c) chemical pumping
(d) None of the above (d) gas dynamic pumping
UPPSC Poly. Lect. 2021 Paper-I RPSC School Lect. 08.01.2020
91. Helium - Neon laser is -
97. The population inversion in He-Ne laser is
(a) Two level laser (b) Three level laser produced by
(c) Four level laser (d) Five level laser
(a) Photon excitation
UPPSC Poly. Lect. 2021 Paper-I
(b) electron excitation
92. Calculate coherence length for a laser beam for
(c) inelastic atomic collisions
which band width is ∆r=3000 H3 .
(d) chemical reaction
(a) 100 km (b) 50km
RPSC School Lect. 26.07.2016
(c) 20km (d) 10km
UPPSC GDC - 2021 98. For holography which statement is false :
93. The coherence time of laser beam of (a) Laser's light source is used
wavelength 7400 Ǻ is 4 × 10-5 second . The (b) 3-D image is developed
coherence length will be : (c) It demonstrate both depth and parallax
(a) 10 km (b) 5 km (d) It records only intensity variation and not

Y
(c) 11.2 km (d) 12 km phase variation
UKPSC Lecturer (Mains) 2020 RPSC School Lect. 26.07.2016
94.
performing LASER action ?
SP
Which of the following is not necessary for
99. What is the fundamental basis of a laser?
(a) Absorption
(a) Population inversion
(b) Spontaneous emission
(b) Meta-energy level (c) Stimulated emission
(c) Spontaneous emission (d) Scattering
m
(d) Stimulated emission UP PGT Physics 2016 (Exam : 02.02.2019)
UKPSC Lecturer (Mains) 2020 100. With reference to laser, which of the following
95. Which statement is false about LASER ? statements (s) is/are correct?
a

(a) In the absence of resonator cavity there would (a) It is used in surgery.
be no amplification of light (b) It is used in radar
(b) In laser the active medium is the amplifying (c) It is used in the study of moon's surface
Te

medium (d) It is used in the study of distance objects.

(c) Laser is a light source and analogous to an Select the correct answer using the code given
electronic oscillator below :
(d) In laser the rate of spontaneous emission is (a) 1only (b) 1 and 2 only
higher than stimulated (induced) emission (c) 1, 2 and 3 (d) 1, 2, 3 and 4
RPSC School Lect. 08.01.2020 UP LT Grade Science 2018 (Exam : 29.07.2018)

Answer Key
1. (d) 2. (b) 3. (d) 4. (b) 5. (a) 6. (b) 7. (c) 8. (c) 9. (b) 10. (c)
11. (c) 12. (c) 13. (b) 14. (d) 15. (b) 16. (b) 17. (d) 18. (b) 19. (b) 20. (b)
21.(b) 22. (a) 23. (d) 24. (c) 25. (a) 26. (d) 27. (d) 28. (b) 29. (b) 30. (d)
31. (d) 32. (c) 33. (c) 34. (b) 35. (a) 36. (d) 37. (b) 38. (c) 39. (c) 40. (b)
41. (b) 42. (c) 43. (b) 44. (c) 45. (a) 46. (a) 47. (c) 48. (b) 49. (c) 50. (d)
51. (d) 52. (b) 53. (a) 54. (d) 55. (a) 56. (b) 57. (a) 58. (b) 59. (a) 60. (b)
61. (c) 62. (b) 63. (a) 64. (b) 65. (c) 66. (c) 67. (b) 68. (c) 69. (c) 70. (d)
71. (a) 72. (a) 73. (a) 74. (d) 75. (c) 76. (b) 77. (d) 78. (b) 79. (d) 80. (c)
81. (b) 82. (a) 83. (c) 84. (b) 85. (d) 86. (b) 87. (b) 88. (c) 89. (b) 90. (c)
91. (c) 92. (a) 93. (d) 94. (c) 95. (d) 96. (a) 97. (b) 98. (d) 99. (c) 100.(d)

207

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05.
Wave & Oscillations
(1) Simple Harmonic Motion
Periodic Motion:
• Any motion, which repeats itself after regular interval of time (i.e. time period) is called periodic motion or
harmonic motion.
Examples- Motion of planets around the sun, Motion of the pendulum of wall clock.
• Every SHM is periodic but every periodic motion is not SHM.
Oscillatory Motion:-
• The motion of body is said to be oscillatory or vibratory motion If it moves back and forth (to and fro) about a
fixed point after regular interval of time. The fixed point about which the body oscillates is called mean
position or equilibrium position.
Examples - Vibration of Wire of Sitar, Oscillation of the mass suspend from Spring.
• Every Oscillatory motion is periodic but every periodic motion is not oscillatory.
Simple Harmonic Motion (SHM):

Y
• Simple harmonic motion (SHM) is that type of oscillatory motion in which the particle moves to and fro
repeatedly about a fixed point under a restoring force, whose magnitude is directly proportional to its
displacement
SP
• Simple harmonic motion is said to be simple harmonic if it can be expressed in terms of:
x(t) = A sin (ωt + φ) or x(t) = A cos (ωt + φ)
Graphical Representation of SHM:-
Displacement - When x (t) = A sin ( ωt + φ),
am
Time Graph φ=0
At mean position x = 0
At extreme position x = ± A
Te

Velocity - Time dx
When V(t) = = Aω cosωt
Graph dt
At mean position, Vmax = Aω
At extreme position, Vmin = 0

Acceleration - dV d 2 x
Time Graph When a (t) = = 2
dt dt
= – A ω sin ωt = – ω2x
2

At mean position , Amin = 0

At extreme position, Amax= Aω2

Important terms related to S.H.M.

• Displacement – A physical quantity which represents change in position with respect to mean position or
equilibrium position is called displacement.

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208
• Mean Position:- The point at which the restoring force on the particle is zero and potential energy is minimum
is known as its Mean position.
• Restoring force:- The force acting on the particle which tends to bring the particle towards its mean position, is
known as restoring force. Restoring force always acts in a direction opposite to that of displacement.
Displacement is measured from the mean position.
• Amplitude:- The Maximum (Positive and Negative) Value of displacement of particle from mean position is
defined as amplitude.
• Time period:-Time taken by the body to complete one oscillation is known as time period. It is denoted by T.
• Frequency (ν)– It is defined as the number of oscillations executed by body per Second. S.I. unit frequency is
hertz (Hz).
1
Frequency =
Time Period
• Angular frequency (ω): Angular frequency is defined as angular displacement of a particle per unit time in a
periodic motion. It is given by,
ω 1
ω = 2πν ⇒ =ν=
2π T
Its S.I. unit is radian per second.
• Phase – A physical quantity which express the position and direction of motion of an oscillating particle is
called phase. It is denoted by (φ).

Y
Harmonic Oscillator:- A harmonic oscillator is a system that, then displaced from to equilibrium particle
experiences a restoring force F proportional to displacement k :
F = –kx
SP
a m
Force Law in SHM:-
• The force acting on a particle of mass m is SHM is given by -
F = ma = – mω2x
Te

We know that, F = – kx
k
⇒ k = mω2 ⇒ ω =
m
Where, k = force constant of spring used in simple harmonic oscillator.
Energy in SHM:-
• Kinetic Energy :- The K.E of the particle is given by
K = mv 2 = mω2 A 2 cos 2 (ωt + φ) = mω2 ( A 2 − x 2 )
1 1 1
2 2 2
The K.E is maximum at the centre (x = 0) and zero at the extreme point of oscillation (x = ± A)
• Potential Energy :- The potential energy of the particle is given by -
1 1 1
U = kx 2 = kA 2 sin 2 (ωt + φ) = mω2 x 2
2 2 2
• Total energy of the S.H.M.
E = K + U = m ( A 2 − x 2 ) ω2 + mω2 x 2 = mω2 A 2
1 1 1
2 2 2
where, A = amplitude,
m = mass of particle executing SHM
and ω = angular frequency.

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209
 • Change in kinetic and potential energies during oscillations is represented in the graph -

■ Key points related to energy of the particle executing S.H.M.–

• Total energy of a particle in SHM is same at all instant and at all displacement and is independent of time.
• Total energy depends upon mass, amplitude and frequency of Vibration of particle executing SHM
• The frequency of kinetic energy or potential energy of a particle executing SHM is double than of the frequency
in SHM.
• The frequency of total energy of particles executing SHM is zero as total energy in SHM remain constant at all
positions.
• At extreme position, the total energy of the particle in SHM is in the form of its potential energy
Tabular form of different physical quantities vary with time or displacement are listed
below-

Y
S. N. Name of the equation Expression of the equation Remarks
1. Displacement -time x = A sin ( ωt+ φ) x varies between A and -A
2. Velocity -time V = Aω cos( ωt +φ) V varies Between + Aω and -

V =
dx 

SP Aω
 dt 
3. Acceleration - time a = –Aω2 sin ( ωt +φ) a varies between + Aω2 and –
dv Aω2
a=
dt
am
4. Kinetic energy - Time 1 K varies between 0 and
K= mA 2 ω2 cos 2 (ωt + φ)
 1 2 2 1
mA 2 ω2
 K = mv 
 2  2
5. Potential energy-time −1 1
1 U= mω2 A 2 sin 2 ( ωt + φ ) U varies between mω2 A 2
U = mω2 x 2 2 2
Te

2 and 0
6. Total energy time 1 E is Constant
E= mω2 A 2
2
7. Velocity -Displacement V = ω A2 − x 2 v = 0 at x = ± A and at x = 0
v = ± ωA
8. Acceleration-displacement a = −ω2 x a = 0 at x = 0 and a = ± ω2 A
at x = ± Ax
9. Kinetic energy - displacement k =0 at x = ± A and
K = mω2 ( A 2 − x 2 )
1
2 1
K = mω2 A 2 at x = 0
2
10. Potential Energy-Displacement 1 U = 0 at x = 0 and
U = mω2 x 2
2 1
U = mω2 A 2 at x = ± A
2
11. Total energy displacement 1 E is constant.
E= mω2 A 2
2
Some Systems executing SHM
Spring Pendulum :-A point mass suspended from a mass less (or light) spring constitutes a spring
pendulum. If the mass is once pulled downwards so as to stretch the spring and then released, the system
oscillated up and down about its mean position simple harmonically. Time period is given by

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210
 m 1 k
T = 2π , frequency (ν ) =
k 2π m
Where, m = mass of block
k = Spring constant

• When the Spring is not light but has a definite mass ms, time period is given by -
M + ms / 3 1 k
T = 2π or ν =
k 2π m + m s
3
• When two springs of force constants k1 and k2 are connected in parallel to mass m as shown in fig. then-
Effective force constant of the spring combination-
keffective = k1 + k2
m
Time period is given by T = 2π
k1 + k 2

• When two springs of force constant k1 and k2 are connected in Series to mass m as shown in fig. then

Y
Effective force constant of the spring combination
1 1 1 kk
- = + k effective = 1 2
k effective k1 k 2

Time period is given by T = 2π

k1 + k 2
m
SP
k effective
m
Simple Pendulum:-
A Simple pendulum consists of heavy point mass suspended from a rigid support by means of an elastic
inextensible string.
a

ℓ
• Time period of Simple Pendulum , T = 2π
g
• For a simple pendulum of length equal to radius of
Te

R
earth ( ℓ = R ) T = 2π = 60 min
2g
• For infinite length ( ( ℓ >> R ) , the time period of Simple
pendulum is given by.
R
T = 2π = 84.6 min
g
• Time period of Simple pendulum is independent of mass of bob.
• Time period depend upon the length of the pendulum and
acceleration due to gravity at the given place.
■ Factors affecting to the time period of simple Pendulum:-
• Effect of Temperature
ℓ (1 + αdθ )
If dθ is change in temperature then effective length ℓ ' = ℓ (1 + αdθ ) and T ' = 2π
g
•Effect of density
If ρ0 < ρ ( the density of the bob) then time period of Simple pendulum get increased.
 ρ 
g effective = g 1 − 0 
 ρ

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211
 Where, ρ0 = density of fluid
ρ = density of bob
ρ
T' = T×
ρ − ρ0
Where, T' = new time period.

■ Second Pendulum:-
ℓ
• It is that simple Pendulum whose time period of vibrations is two seconds, T = 2π = 2 sec.
g
• The effective length of second's pendulum is ℓ = 99.3cm ≈1m ( on earth 's surface ) .
• The length of second's pendulum changes with the changes in the value of acceleration due to gravity from place
to place.
■ Physical Pendulum:-
A Physical Pendulum is an extended body pivoted about point O, which is at a distance 'd' from its centre of mass.
• The time period of Simple Pendulum is same as that of a
physical Pendulum also known as an equivalent Simple
Pendulum.
I ℓ
T = 2π = 2π
mgd g

Y
Where, I = moment of inertia
g = gravity
• The length of an equivalent Simple Pendulum is given by,
ℓ=
I
md
SP
■ Conical Pendulum:-
• A tiny mass (bob) Connected to long, flexible, mass less, inextensible string suspended from rigid support is
known as conical pendulum.
• Instead of swinging back and forth the bob of a conical pendulum moves at a constant speed is a circle with the
am
string tracing out a cone.

• In equilibrium, F sinθ = mrω2, F cos θ = mg

mr ℓ cos θ
Its time period, T = 2π =
Fsin θ g
Te

Where, r = radius of circle

F = Tension in String
m = Mass of bob.
• Tension in the string ,
2
 r 
F = mg 1+  
 ℓ cos θ 
■ Torsional Pendulum :-
It consists of a disc (or some other object) suspended from a wire attached to a rigid support, which is then
twisted and released, resulting in oscillatory motion.

Time period of torsional pendulum is given by

I
T = = 2π
C
Where, I = Moment of Inertia of the body about
the axis of rotation.
πηr 4
C = Torsional costant of wire =
2ℓ
η = Modulus of rigidity of wire
r = Radius of wire
ℓ = length of wire

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212
• SHM of a particle tuned inside across the diameter the earth.
Time period inside the tunnel is given by
Re
T = 2π
g
Where,
g = Gravity of earth at Surface.
But at inside the earth (through the tunnel) g vary
through
 d 
g d = g 1 − 
 Re 
Where, gd = Gravity at depth,
g = Gravity at Surface

• SHM of gas- piston system

Here elastic force is developed due to bulk elasticity of the gas.
∆V
∆P = γP0
V0
Where P = net pressure
P0 = atmospheric pressure

Y
V0 = Volume of container
∆V = Ax = volume displacement
γ = adiabatic index
γP
Fnet force on piston , F = − A 2 0 x
V0
SP
γP0
F = –kx ⇒ k = A 2
V0
m
V0 m
Time period is given by ,T = 2π
A 2 γP0
• SHM of Floating Body
a

Restoring force → Thrust Force

Mg = ρAhg → Vertical Equilibrium
Restoring force is given by
Te

F = – (ρAg)x ⇒ K = ρAg
Time period is given by
m ρAh h
T = 2π = 2π = 2π
ρAg ρAg g
Where, h = Height of body dipped into the liquid
of density (ρ)
• SHM in U - Tube
If a liquid is filled up to height h in both limbs of a U- tube and now liquid is depressed up to a small distance y
in one limb and then released, then liquid column in U- tube start executing SHM
h
The time period of oscillation is given by, T = 2π
g
The period in U- tube is independent of the following terms-
(i) Area of cross section of U-tube
(ii) Density of liquid in U- tube
But, The time period depends upon the length of liquid column
and acceleration due to gravity.

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213
Key points-
• Suppose a body of mass m vibrates Separately with two different Springs (of Spring Constants k1 and k2) with
time period T1 and T2 respectively
m m
T1 = 2π and T2 = 2π
k1 k2
• If the same body vibrates with series Combination of these two springs then for the system time period
T= T12 + T22
• If the same of body vibrates with Parallel Combination of these two Springs then time period of the system
T1T2
T=
T12 + T22
• The Pendulum clock runs slow due to increase in its time period whereas it becomes fast due to decrease in time
period.
• Percentage change in time period with ℓ and g if g is constant and length varies by n% then % change in time
∆T n ∆T n
period × 100 = % if ℓ is constant and g varies by n% Then % Change in time period × 100 = %
T 2 T 2
(Valid only for Percentage change less than 10%)
• If a Particle Performs S.H.M whose velocity is V1 at x1 distance from mean position and velocity v2 distance x2

Y
V12 − V22 x 22 − x12
ω= ; T = 2π
x 2 − x1
2 2
V12 − V22

a=
SP
V12 x 22 − V22 x12
V12 − V22
; Vmax =
V12 x 22 − V22 x12
x 22 − x12
• If y1 = a sinωt and y2 = b cosωt are two S.H.M then by the Superposition of these two S.H.M we get
y = y1 + y 2
⇒ Y = a sinωt + b cosωt ⇒ y = A sin(ωt +φ) this is also the equation of S.H.M ; where
am
A = a 2 + b 2 and φ = tan −1 ( b / a ) .
• In the absence of resistive force the work done by a Simple pendulum in one complete Oscillation is zero.

(2) Free, Forced, Damped Oscillation & Resonance

Undamped Simple Harmonic Oscillations
Te

When a simple harmonic system oscillates with a constant amplitude which does not change with time, its
oscillations are called undamped simple harmonic oscillation. The total energy of the system executing
undamped SHM is given by
1
E 0 = kx 02
2
Where, k = Force constant or Spring constant.
x0 = Extended length in string.
Damped Simple Harmonic Oscillations
• The oscillation of a body whose amplitude goes on decreasing with time is defined as a damped oscillations.
Example- (i) Guitar string stops oscillating a few second after being plucked because of the friction in the air.
(ii) Shock absorbers in automobile.
• In damping, the amplitude of such oscillations decreases exponentially with time.
• Due to decrease in Amplitude, the energy of the oscillator also goes on decreasing exponentially.
• The force, producing a resistance to the oscillations is called damping force. It always act at opposite to the
direction of velocity.
• The forces acting on the body undergoing damped harmonic motion are-
(a) Restoring force FRes = – kx
dx
(b) Damping force Fdamp= −b
dt
Where b is known as damping constant

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214
• The total force on the body is the sum of the restoring force (FRes) and damping force (Fdamp)–
dx
Fnet = FRes + Fdamp = – kx – b
dt
Using Newton’s second law–
d2 x dx
m 2 + b + kx = 0
dt dt
2
dx dx
⇒ + 2γ + ω02 x = 0 .............(i)
dt 2 dt
b
Where, 2γ = , is known as damping coefficient
m
k
ω0 = = natural frequency of undamped oscillator
m
Roots of the equation are α = −γ ± γ 2 − ω02
The solution of the equation (i) is given as –
γ 2 −ω02 t
x (t) = Ae–γt e ±
k b2
where, ω' = ω02 − γ 2 or ω ' = −
m 4m

Y
• There are three different possibilities in damped oscillation.
Over damped Critically damped Under damped case
If γ > ω0
ω' will be imaginary. Hence,
SP If ω0 =γ
Then the square root vanishes. In
If ω0>γ
Then the quantity under the square
x(t) will be a negative this case, the solution is again a root is + ve and we have a real no.
exponential function. It is negative exponential function. for ω'. The solution for 'x' is then-
shown by curve a in the given The response of Critically damped x(t) = Ae-γt sin (ω't +φ)
m
figure. system if faster than over damped This is the solution of the damped
i.e. it touches the zero value faster harmonic oscillator. The oscillatory
shown by curve b in the given motion shown by curve c in the
figure. given figure.
a
Te

• Time period: The time period of the damped harmonic oscillator is-
2π 2π
T' = =
ω' ω02 − γ 2
This shows that due to damping the time period slightly increased.
• Logarithmic Decrement: This measure the rate at which the amplitude decay
bT '
λ = γT ' =
2m
1
• Mean Life time (τm) : It is the time taken for the amplitude to decay to of the initial value.
e
1
When t = τm = , Amplitude =
γ
A
e
(∵ Ae−γt )

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215
■ Energy of the Damped Oscillator
(i) Kinetic energy (K)
The displacement of a damped harmonic oscillator is
x (t) = Ae-γt sin (ω' t + φ)
dx
v= = Ae − γt  −γ sin ( ω ' t + φ ) + ω 'cos ( ω ' t + φ )  ≈ Ae −γt ω 'cos ( ω ' t + φ )
dt
The approximation is done as γ << ω0
1 1
Thus, kinetic energy is K = mv 2 = mA 2 e −2 γt ω '2 cos 2 ( ω ' t + φ )
2 2
(ii) Potential Energy (U)
1 1
U = kx 2 = kA 2 e −2 γt sin 2 ( ω ' t + φ )
2 2
(iii) Total energy (E)
1 1
E = K + U = mA 2 e −2 γt ω '2 cos 2 ( ω 't + φ ) + kA 2 e −2 γt sin 2 ( ω 't + φ )
2 2
1
⇒ E = kA 2 e −2 γt Since γ << ω0
2
This shows that the energy of the oscillator decreases with time, the exponential decay of energy is shown

Y
below. SP
am

• Power Dissipation :
Te

It is the rate at which the energy is lost

dE 1 
P=− = 2γ  kA 2 e −2 γt  = 2γE
dt 2 
1
• Relaxation Time: It is the time taken for the total energy to decay to of its initial
e
E0
value E0 . If τR is the relaxation time, then at t = τR, we shall have E = .
τR
E0 1
Thus = E 0 e −2 γt . This gives relaxation time τR =
τR 2γ
t
E −
τR
Thus we can also write power dissipated as P = and energy can be expressed as E (t) = E0e
τR
• Quality Factor (Q) :
It is defined as the 2π times the ratio of the energy stored in the system to the energy lost per period.
energystored in system
Q = 2π
energy loss per period
This shows that, lower the damping, higher the value of Q.

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216
 ω0 t
−
Q
Now energy can be written in term of Q as E (t) = E0e
1
It means that Q is related to the number of oscillation over which the energy fall to of its original value
e
E0, which is also called the relaxation time. This happens in time, t = τR, where τR is given by
ω0 τ R Q TQ
= 1 ⇒ τR = =
Q ω 2π
In one period (T) number of oscillation is = 1
τ Q
In time τR the number of oscillation = n, then n = R = σX
T 2π
1 Q
Thus the energy falls to of its original value after n = cycle of free oscillation.
2 2π
• Relation between relaxation time, mean time and Quality factor:
1
Let N is the number of oscillation in time τ m =
γ
1
While n is the number of oscillation in time τ R =
2γ
Thus, relation between mean and relaxation time is τm = 2τR
In one period (T) number of oscillation is = 1
In time τm the number of oscillation = N

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τ 2τ Q Q
N= m = R =2 or N = 2 = 2n
T T 2π 2π
Forced Oscillations
SP
When a body is made to oscillate under external periodic force, then in the beginning the body tries to oscillate
with its natural frequency, but very soon these oscillation dies out and the body oscillate with the frequency of
the applied force. Such oscillation is called forced oscillation.
Example:
m
1) Person swinging in a swing without anyone pushing → Free or damped oscillation
2) Someone pushes the swing periodically → Forced or driven oscillations
When system oscillates freely, natural angular frequency is ω0.
When system oscillates under the influence of external force then forced angular frequency is p
a

• Resonance
When the frequency of the external force is same as the natural frequency of the body, the amplitude of the
oscillation is maximum. This phenomenon is called resonance or when the frequency of external force is equal
Te

to the natural frequency of the Oscillator is known as Resonance.

• Transient Effect
In the presence of external periodic force, initially body tries to oscillate with its natural frequency, while
external force tries to impose its own frequency. Thus there is a hussle between external force and the body
during which the amplitude rises and falls alternatively. This is the transient effect which soon dies out and
body start oscillating with external frequency.
• Equation of Forced Oscillation
Consider a mass m oscillating under external periodic force F. let x be the displacement at any instant. The
forces acting on the mass are

(i) Restoring force is proportional to the displacement ⇒F = –kx

dx
(ii) A Damping force is proportional to the velocity ⇒ Fdamp = −b
dt
(iii) An external periodic force ⇒ F = F0 sin (pt)
dx
Thus the total force on the body is F = – kx − b + F0 sin ( pt )
dt

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217
 d2x dx
Using Newton's second law, we can write + 2γ + ω02 x = f 0 sin ( pt )
dt 2 dt
b k F
Where 2γ = , ω02 = and f 0 = 0
m m m
This is the differential equation of the forced harmonic oscillator.
• General solution of the differential equation:
Solution of differential equation:
x = A sin (pt – φ)
Amplitude:
f0
A=
( ω0 − p2 ) + 4γ 2p2
2

2 γp
Phase difference: tan φ = =
ω − p2
2
0

f0
Solution of the forced oscillator: x = sin ( pt − φ )
(ω − p 2 ) + 4γ 2 p 2
2 2
0

• Amplitude Resonance
The amplitude A of the forced oscillator depends on the constant f0 and p of the driving force and the constant

Y
ω0 and γ of the oscillator. At certain driving frequency amplitude A becomes maximum that is called amplitude
resonance. Three different cases arise
Case : 1
At (p << ω0)
SP Case : 2
At (p >> ω0), Amplitude will
Case : 3
be maximum when the
The amplitude A turns to
be we get A =
f0
2
≅
F0
2
denominator ( ω02 − p 2 ) + 4γ 2 p 2 in A is
p mp
f 0 F0 minimum. So that its first derivative
A= 2 ≅ This shows that amplitude now coefficient will be zero
ω0 k
am
depends upon mass and driving d
This shows that the frequency. ω02 − p 2 + 4γ 2 p 2  = 0
dp 
amplitude depends only
upon force constant and This gives the corresponding driving
independent of mass, frequency i.e. amplitude resonance
damping constant and frequency at which A is maximum is
p = ( ω02 − 2γ 2 )
Te

driving frequency.

At this frequency the amplitudes is

f0 f0
Amax = =
2γ γ + p
2 2
2γ ω02 − γ 2
This shows that maximum amplitude
depends upon the damping constant γ,
smaller the damping larger is the amplitude.
When, γ = 0, Amax → ∞.

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218
• Dependence of the phase of displacement on the frequency of driving force
In steady state condition, the force equation and displacement equation is F = F0 sin (pt) and x = A sin (pt – φ),
2γp
the phase factor is tan φ = 2 This indicates that the displacement of the forced oscillation lags behind the
ω0 − p 2
driving force F0 sin (pt) by an angle φ. The phase difference φ depends upon the damping γ and also on the
difference between natural driving frequency. Three different cases arise-
Case 1 Case 2 Case 3
If p << ω0 If p = ω0 If p >> ω0
Then tan φ is positive and φ lies π Then φ is negative and φ lies
Then φ is infinite and φ = . This
π 2 π
between 0 and . In this condition between and π. In this condition,
2 is the resonance condition, 2
(when γ ≈ 0), φ is nearly zero i.e. displacement always large behind φ is nearly π i.e. displacement
displacement is in phase with π almost opposite in phase with the
the force by . It means that at
driving force 2 driving force. The variation of φ
resonance the displacement is with driving frequency p is given
minimum when the driving force is below.
maximum and vice versa.

Y
φ
SP
m
• Velocity Resonance
Velocity of the body also depends on the constant f0 and p of the driving force and the constant ω0 and γ of the
oscillator. At certain driving frequency velocity amplitude becomes maximum that is called velocity resonance.
a

The instantaneous velocity of the body is

dx f0 p
u= = cos ( pt − φ )
dt
( )
2
ω2 − p 2 + 4 γ 2 p 2
Te

The velocity will be maximum when cos (pt – φ) = 1. The maximum value is known as "velocity amplitude" u0.
Thus
f0p

(ω − p2 ) + 4γ 2p2
2 2
0

Three different cases arise–

Case 1 Case 2 Case 3
At (p << ω0). At (p >> ω0) At certain frequency the velocity amplitude becomes
The velocity f 0 F0 maximum, that frequency is called the velocity
amplitude u0 turns to We get u0 = p = mp resonance frequency. The velocity amplitude can be
f p Fp written as
be u 0 = 0 2 = 0 It shows that velocity amplitude
f0 p f0
ω0 k depends on mass as well as u0 = =
( ω0 − p ) + 4γ p
2 2 2
This indicates that the driving frequency. 2 2 2
 ω0 − p 
2

 + 4γ
2
velocity amplitude 
 p 
depends on the spring
constant k. The velocity amplitude u0 will be maximum when
2
 ω02 − p 2 
 + 4 γ is minimum i.e.
2
the denominator 
 p 

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219
 when
 ω02 − p 2 
  = 0 ⇒ p = ω0
 p 
This shows that the velocity resonance irrespective
of damping value, always maximum when driving
frequency is equal to the natural undamped
frequency of the body.
The velocity amplitude at the resonance is
f F
u0 = 0 = 0
2γ b
This shows that velocity amplitude at resonance only
depends on the damping constant.
Dependence of the velocity of a forced oscillator on the driving frequency is shown as below

Y
SP
• Dependence of the phase of velocity on the frequency of driving force:
In steady state condition, the force equation and velocity equation is
F = F0 sin (pt)
  π  π
u = u0 cos (pt – φ) = u0 sin  pt −  φ −   u0 sin (pt – δ) ⇒ δ = φ –
  2  2
am
ω20 − p 2 2γp
⇒ tan δ = cot φ = ∵ tan φ = 2
2γp ω0 −p
2

Case 1 Case 2 Case 3

If p << ω0 If p = ω0 If p >> ω0
Than tan φ is positive and φ lies π Than tan φ is negative and is φ lies
Than tan φ is infinite and φ = ,
Te

π 2 π
between 0 and . In this condition between and π, so that the δ is
2 and δ = 0, this means that at 2
(when γ ≈ 0), φ is nearly zero. resonance, the velocity is always in positive. This means that velocity
π phase with the driving force. lags behind the driving force.
Thus δ = – , this means velocity The dependence of phase of
2
leads the driving force. velocity of the body on the
frequency of the driving force is
shown below.

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220
• Power supplied to the oscillator by the driving force : Average power absorbed by oscillator
An oscillator absorbed energy from the driving force which is dissipated in doing work against the damping
force present.
The instantaneous power P (i.e. rate at which work is done) absorbed by the oscillator is equal to energy per
unit time.
energy F.dx dx
Pin = = = F.
time dt dt
Thus Pin is equal to the product of the instantaneous driving force and the instantaneous velocity.
dx mf 02 p
Thus Pin = F0 sin (pt) = sin (pt). cos (pt –δ)
dt
( )
2
ω2 − p 2 + 4γP 2 0

mf 02 p
= sin pt cos pt cos δ + sin2 pt sinδ
(ω 2
0 −p )
2 2
+ 4γ p2 2

mf 02 p 1 
Now the average power absorbed is Pin =  sin δ 
(ω 2
0 −p )
2 2
+ 4γ p
2 22 

2π 1 T
The average values of the periodic function for the one time period T = is ∫ sin pt cos pt dt = 0 and
p T 0
1 T 2 1
T ∫0
sin ptdt =

Y
2
2γp 2γp
Since, tan φ = 2 thus using the vector model sin δ =
ω0 − p 2
SP (ω 2
0 − p 2 ) + 4γ 2 p 2
2
a m

Therefore, the average power absorbed by the oscillator (average power supplied by the driving force) is
mf 02 γp 2
Te

Pin =
( ω02 − p2 ) + 4γ 2 p2
2

The power supplied by the driving force is not stored in the system, but is dissipated as work done in moving
the system against the force of friction.
• Power Dissipated through frictional force
The instantaneous power dissipated through friction is given by–
Pdis = instantaneous frictional force × instantaneous velocity
2
dx dx  dx  f 02 p 2
=b × = 2mγ   = 2mγ cos 2 ( pt − δ )
dt dt  dt  ( ω − p ) + 4γ P
2 2 2 2 2
0

1
Now the average of cos2 (pt–δ) for one full period is . Therefore the average power dissipated is
2
mf 02 γp 2
Pdis =
(ω − p2 ) + 4γ 2 p2
2 2
0

Thus Pin = Pdis

This shows that in the steady state the average power supplied by the driving force is equal to the average power
dissipated by the frictional force.
The instantaneous input power is not equal to the instantaneous power dissipated. Therefore at any instant of
time the power stored in the oscillator is not constant.

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221
• Maximum power absorption
mf 02 γ
The average power can also be written as Pin = 2
 ω02 − p 2 
 + 4γ
2

 p 
2
 ω2 − p 2 
 + 4γ is a minimum, this occurs when ω0 − p = 0 or
2 2 2
Pin will be maximum when the denominator  0
 p 
p = ω0
this is the condition of velocity resonance. Hence the power transferred from the driving force is maximum at
the frequency of velocity resonance. The maximum power is
mf 2
Pin (maximum) = 0
4γ
Sharpness of Resonance and Bandwidth
• Sharpness of Resonance
The rapidity with which the power falls from its resonant value with change in a driving frequency is known
as sharpness of resonance.
The average power is maximum at certain frequency. As the driving frequency deviates either way from its
resonant value, the power falls from its maximum value. If the fall in power with change in driving frequency
from the resonant value is large, the resonance is said to be sharp, on the other hand, the fall is small, the
resonant is said to be flat. It is defined in terms of quality factor.

Y
Quality Factor
ω0 Resonance frequency ω0
The quality factor is defined as Q = = = = ω0 τR
2γ

Quality factor also defined as, Q=2π

SP
ω2 -ω1 bandwidth
average energy stored in one period
= 2π
E
average energy lost in one period Pdis T
Where Pdis × T is the average energy lost in one period. On solving for energy we get the following expression
of the quality factor.
p 2 + ω02 1  p 2 + ω02 
am
Q= =   ( pτR )
4γp 2  p2 
This is the exact expression for the quality factor of forced oscillator.
Near resonance, P = ω0, so we get Q = ω0τR

• Bandwidth of Resonance
The difference in values of the driving frequency, at which the average power absorbed drops to half of its
Te

maximum value, is called the band width of the resonance.

Bandwidth = ω2 – ω1

mf 02 γp 2
The average power absorbed is Pin =
(ω − p 2 ) + 4γ 2 p 2
2 2
0

mf 02
The maximum average power is Pin ( maximum ) =
4γ

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222
 The variation of the average power with driving frequency is shown in above figure also shows the half power
frequencies.
The value of p at which the power goes half the maximum value obtained as
1 mf 02 γ 2 p 2 1 mf 02
Pin = Pin (maximum) ⇒ =
( ω02 − p2 ) + 4γ 2p2 2 4γ
2
2

or ( ω02 − p 2 ) + 4 γ 2 p 2 = 8γ 2 p 2 ⇒ ( ω02 − p 2 ) = 4 γ 2 p 2
2 2

or ω02 − p 2 = ±2 γp ⇒ p 2 = ω02 ± 2 γp
These are two quadratic equation in p,
p2 + 2γp – ω02 = 0 and p2 – 2γp – ω02 = 0
each has two roots one positive and other negative. Since negative frequencies are not allowed, thus the allowed
positive roots are p1 ( = ω1 ) = −γ + γ 2 + 2γω20 and p 2 ( = ω1 ) = γ + γ 2 + 2γω02 The frequency difference
between two half power points i.e. bandwidth is
1
Bandwidth = ω2 – ω1 = 2γ = which indicates that smaller the bandwidth, sharper is the resonance.
τ

(3) Travelling waves

Y
Wave
A wave is a disturbance in a medium that carries energy without a net movement of particles.
SP
a m
Te

Difference between Pulse and wave -

Pulse wave
• It is a short duration disturbance It is a continuous disturbance
• It does not repeat It repeats periodically
• It is formed in small portion It is formed continuously due to disturbance
• Disturbance is momentary Disturbance exists for long period.
Nature of Waves-
(i) Transverse waves:
• A wave in which the particle of the medium vibrate at right angles to the direction of propagation of wave, is
called transverse waves.
• A particle either at the crest or at the trough has a tendency to move towards the mean position
• A particle at the crest or the trough has zero velocity and the distance of the particle from the mean position is
termed as amplitude of the wave.
• Distance between two consecutive crests/trough is equal to the wavelength of the wave.

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223
 • Distance between a consecutive pair of crest and trough is half the wavelength of wave.

(ii) Longitudinal wave-

• A wave motion in which the individual particles of a medium executes periodic motion about their mean
position along the direction of propagation of wave e.g. sound wave
• A longitudinal waves moves by the phenomena of compression and rarefaction in the medium.
• All particle in compression phase are in phase (at a given instant of time)
• All particle in rarefaction phase are out of phase (at a given instant of time)

Y
• Distance between two consecutive compressions or rarefaction is equal to the wavelength of the wave.
Longitudinal waves can propagate through any state of matter.
SP
am
Te

Some Important terms related to wave Motion:

• Phase: It defines the position (in terms of distance from mean position) and velocity of a particle oscillating
under the influence of wave.

(a) Oscillations of the particles 1 and 4 are in phase.

(b) Oscillations of the particles 1 and 2 are not in phase
(c) Oscillations of the particles 3 and 5 are in phase.
(d) Oscillation of the particle 4 and 5 are out of phase.

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224
 • Amplitude:- It is the maximum displacement of the particles from its mean position on either side.
• Wavelength:- The distance between two nearest points which are in the same phase of vibration is called the
wavelength. It is denoted by 'λ'
• Time period:- Time taken to complete one oscillation is called time period (T)
• Frequency: The number of vibrations completed in one second is called frequency of wave.
1
Frequency f =
Time period ( T )
Its S.I unit is Hertz.
2π
Angular frequency, ω = rad-s–1
T
Relation among velocity, frequency and wavelength of wave, is given by
v = fλ

• Angular wave Number:-

The number of wavelength per unit distance is called angular wave number.
It is denoted by k.
2π
∴k =
λ
SI unit is rad/m
• Particle velocity in wave motion: - The instantaneous velocity of an oscillation particle of the medium through

Y
which a wave is travelling is known as a 'Particle Velocity.'
SP
m
• Wave Velocity :- The velocity with which the disturbance, travel thorugh the medium is called wave (or phase)
a

velocity.
■ Relation between particle velocity and wave velocity:-
Wave equation, y = A sin ( ωt - kx)
Te

∂y
Particle velocity, v = = Aω cos (ωt – kx)
∂t
λ ω ω
Wave velocity , v P = = λ =
T 2π k
∂y A 1 ∂y
= –Ak cos ( ωt – kx ) = – ωk cos(ωt – kx) =
∂x ω v P ∂t
∂y 1 ∂y ∂y
⇒ =– ⇒ v = –v P
∂x v P ∂t ∂x
∂y
represents the slope of the string (wave) at the
∂x
point x.
Particle velocity at a given position and time is equal to
negative of the product of wave velocity, with slope of
wave at that point at that instant.
• Wave functions: - Mathematical functions which describe the motion of a wave pulse are called wave
functions.
Plane Progressive wave-
A wave which travels in a given direction with constant amplitude is known as a progressive wave.

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225
• General Expression for a plane progressive Wave :
The general equation of simple harmonic progressive wave is given by.
 t x
y = A sin 2π  ± 
T λ
If an initial phase φ exists at origination point of wave, equation is changed to
  t x 
y = A sin  2π  ±  + φ 
 T λ 
• Positive and Negative Initial Phase constant:

• Some Important Relation in Wave:

Y
For the wave travelling in positive x-direction, the relation between phase difference and time difference is
given by-
2π 2π
∆φ = φ2 − φ1 =
T
× ( t 2 − t1 ) =
SP
T
× ∆t

2π
Phase difference = × Time difference
T
2π
Relation between variation of phase with Distance – ∆φ = ∆x
T
am
2π
Phase difference = × Path difference
T
In general, the expression of linear wave equation as it applies to wave on strings is given by –
∂2 y 1 ∂2 y
=
∂x 2 v 2 ∂t 2
Te

Where, v = wave speed,

(a) For waves on strings, y represent the vertical position of elements of the string.
(b) For sound waves, y corresponds to longitudinal position of elements of air from equilibrium,
(c) For electromagnetic waves, y corresponds to electric & magnetic field components.
• Superposition Principles -
The resultant displacement of a particles at any point of the medium at any instant of time is the vector sum of
the displacements caused to the particles by the individual waves.
If y1 , y 2 , y3 ,...... are the displacement of particles of a particular time due to individual waves, then the
resultant displacement is given by y = y1 + y 2 + y3 + ........
• Speed of wave on strings –
T m
v= ; Where T = Tension on string, µ = Linear mass density = ,
µ L
• Rate of energy transfer by sinusoidal wave on strings–
Total energy = Potential energy + Kinetic energy.
1 1
Eλ = Uλ + Kλ = µ 2 A 2 λ + µω2 A 2 λ
4 2
• Power of a wave–
1
P = µω2 A 2 v
4

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226
• Intensity of the wave–
Power
I=
area of cross -section
1 2 2
I= ρω A v
2
• Frequency of vibration in Pth harmonic on string
P T
n=
2ℓ m
Reflection of Waves at fixed end and free End
Reflection of Waves– Fixed End Reflection of Waves– Free End
• When the wave reaches the fixed end and it exerts an • If the end of the string is free to move vertically, the
upwards pull on the end. According to Newton's free and end overshoots twice the amplitude as
third law, the fixed point exerts an equal and shown in fig. below.
opposite force downward on the string. Thus, there is • When a travelling wave reaches a boundary, all part
phase change of π for the reflected wave, the wave is of it is reflected.
inverted as shown in the Fig. below • When reflected from a free end, the pulse is not
• Whenever a travelling wave reaches a boundary, inverted.
some or all of the wave is reflected
• When it is reflected from a fixed end, the wave is
inverted.

Y
SP
Incident wave Reflected wave from free boundary, φ = Reflected wave from fixed boundary, φ =
0 π
m
• y = A sin (kx– ωt) y = A sin (kx – ωt + 0) = A sin (kx – ωt) y = A sin (kx – ωt + π) = – A sin (kx – ωt)
• y = A cos (kx– ωt) y = A cos (kx – ωt + 0) = A cos (kx – ωt) y = A cos (kx – ωt + π) = – A cos (kx – ωt)

(4) Standing Waves

a

Different between Standing waves and Travelling waves-

Standing waves Travelling waves
Te

• Wave amplitude is constant at all points along the Wave amplitude depends upon the position along
wave. the wave.
• Energy is always transferred. Energy is not transferred.
• The wavelength is twice the distance between The wavelength is the distance between
consecutive nodes. consecutive crests.
• Phase varies continuously along the wave. Phase is constant between consecutive crests.
Stationary or standing waves–
When two similar waves propagate in a bounded medium in opposite direction, then due to their superposition a
new type of wave is obtained, which appears stationary in the medium. This wave is called stationary or
standing wave.
Equation of a stationary wave,
2πt 2πx
y = 2a sin cos
T λ
Characteristics of standing wave–
• In a stationary wave, the disturbance does not move in any direction. The conditions of crests and troughs
merely appear and disappear in fixed positions to be followed by opposite condition after every T/2 sec.
• All the particles of the medium except those at nodes, execute simple harmonic motion with the particle of the
wave about their mean position.
• During the formation of a stationary wave, the medium is broken into loops between equally spaced points
called nodes remain at rest and in between them are points of maximum displacement called antinodes.

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227
• The amplitude of the particles are different at different points. The amplitude varies gradually from zero at the
nodes to the maximum at the antinodes.

• The maximum velocity is different at different points. Its value is zero at the nodes and gradually increases
towards the antinodes. All the particles attain their maximum velocities simultaneously when they pass through
their mean positions.
• All the particles in a particular segment between two nodes vibrate in the same phase but the particles in the
neighboring segments vibrate in opposite phase, as shown in above figure.
• The energy becomes alternatively wholly potential and wholly kinetic twice in each cycle. It is wholly potential
when particles are at their positions of maximum displacement and wholly kinetic when the particle pass
through the mean positions.
• A stationary wave has the same wavelength and time period as the component waves.
• The distance between two consecutive nodes and antinodes is λ/2. The distance between nodes and next
antinodes is λ/4.
• Position of nodes: Nodes are the points on the string where the amplitude of oscillation of constituents is zero.

Y
i.e.,
sin kx = 0
kx = nπ, n = 0, 1, 2, 3, .......
2π
λ
SP
x = nπ ⇒ x =
nλ
2
nλ
At x = L (L is length of string), L =
2
• Position of Antinodes: Antinodes are the points where the amplitude of oscillation of the constituents is
maximum. For maximum amplitude
am
sin kx = ± 1
π
kx = (2n +1) where, n = 0,1,2...
2
2π π λ
x = (2n + 1) ⇒ x = (2n +1)
λ 2 2
Standing waves in a string fixed at both Ends–
Te

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228
 T
• Velocity, v =
µ
Where T = Tension in string
µ = Linear mass density
• The lowest possible natural frequency of a system is called its fundamental mode or first harmonics. It is given
v 1 T
by f1 = =
2L 2L µ
v
• Frequency of first overtone or second harmonic f2 = 2 = 2f1
2L
v
• Frequency of second overtone or third harmonic f3 = 3 = 3f1
2L
⇒ f1: f2: f3:.......... = 1:2:3:.........
n T v
• Frequency of nth overtone is f n = =n
2L µ 2L
String Fixed at one end and free from other End –

Y
SP
a m
Te

v
• The resonance frequencies are given by f n = n = nf1 where, n = 1, 3, 5
4L
Where, f1 = v/4L (fundamental frequency)
• The natural frequency occur in the rations: 1: 3: 5: 7
Sonometer:
• It is a device used to measure velocity of transverse mechanical wave in a stretched metal wire. The principle of
sonometer is based on resonance of string vibration.
• If tension in wire is T and f0 is the frequency of turning fork, the wavelength of wave in wire is –

v 1 T
λ= = (λ = 2 ℓ )
f0 f0 µ

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229
Laws of String
• Law of length : If T and m are constant then
1
f ∝ , f ℓ = Constant ⇒ f1ℓ1 = f 2 ℓ 2
ℓ
• Law of mass : if T and ℓ are constant then
1
f∝ ⇒ f m = Const.
m
f1 m2
=
f2 m1
• Law of density : If T , ℓ and r are Const.
1 f d2
then f ∝ ⇒ f d = const. ⇒ 1 =
d f2 d1
Where, r = radius of string
d = density of string
• Law of tension : if ℓ and m are const. then
f
f∝ T⇒ = const.
T
f1 T1
=
f2 T2

Y
Melde's Experiment–
This is an experiment of demonstration of transverse stationary wave in stretched string.
SP
In Melde's experiment, the one end of the string is connected to the prong of an electrically oscillated tuning
fork. The other end of the string is connected to the scale pan. The string passes over a smooth frictionless
pulley. The distance between tuning fork and pulley can be adjusted. There are two different ways in which
oscillations can be established in the string.
Case 1: Transverse Mode of Vibration
• In this case tuning fork vibrates right angle to the length of the string.
• In this case the frequency of vibration of string is equal to the frequency of tuning fork.
am
• No. of loops are double than that of longitudinal.
• The frequency of the oscillating string can be given as –
p T
ff = fs =
2ℓ µ
where, ff = frequency of oscillation of tuning fork.
fs = frequency of string.
Te

p = no. of loops

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230
 Case 2: Longitudinal Mode of Vibrations:
• In this case the vibrations of tuning fork are along the length of the string.
• Frequency of fork is twice the frequency of string
p T
fs =
2ℓ µ
p T
ff = 2fs = ×
ℓ µ

• If the frequency of the tuning fork remains constant then–

p T = constant
Where, p = no of loops
µ = constant

Y
SP
m
Standing Waves in Air Columns
Standing waves are the result of interference between longitudinal sound waves travelling in opposite
a

directions.
• In a pipe closed at one end, the closed end is a displacement node because the rigid barrier at this end does not
allow longitudinal motion of the air. Because the pressure wave is 90º out of phase with the displacement wave,
Te

the closed end of an air column corresponds to a pressure antinode (that is, a point of maximum pressure
variation)
• The open end of an air column is approximately a displacement antinode and a pressure node. The pressure at
this end must remain constant at atmospheric pressure.
Standing waves in rods
It is also possible to set up transverse standing waves in rods included triangles, marimbas, xylophones,
glockenspiels, chimes, and vibraphones. Other devices that make sounds from vibrating bars include music
boxes and wind chimes.

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231
 Resonance
If a periodic force is applied to such a system, the amplitude of the resulting motion is greatest when the
frequency of the applied force is equal the system frequency. This phenomenon, Known as resonance.
Lissajou's figure :-
If two SHMs are acting in mutually perpendicular directions, then due to their superpositions the resultant
motion in general is a curve /loop. The shape of the curve depends on the frequency ratio of two SHMs and
initial phase difference between them such figures are called Lissajou's figures. Let two SHMs be of same
frequency (eg. x = a, sin ωt and y = a2 sin (ωt +φ), then the general equation of resultant motion is found to be
x 2 y 2 2xy
+ − cos φ = sin 2 φ
a12 a 22 a1a 2
Lissajous Phase difference
(I) Straight line When φ = 0º, 180º

(II) Ellipse When 0º < φ < 90º, 90º < φ< 180º
(III) Circle When φ = 90º, 270º
(IV) Oblique ellipse When φ = 45º, 135 º

(5) Sound Waves and Doppler Effect

Y
Introduction:-
• Sound is a form of energy which produces a sensation of hearing in our ears.
•
•
Sound waves are longitudinal in nature.
SP
It travel through any material medium with a speed that depends on the property of the medium.
• It cannot propagate through vacuum.
• Sound waves (longitudinal waves) can reflect, refract, interfere and diffract but cannot be polarized as only
transverse waves can polarized.
am
Te

Characteristics of Sound Wave: Sound wave has three characteristics-

• Intensity or Loudness: Intensity of sound is energy transmitted by sound waves per second per unit area by
sound waves. Its SI unit is watt/mtere2. It is given by -
P
I= Where, P = sound power, A = area
A
Intensity is measured in decibel (dB).
I
Sound Intensity level (IL) = 10log10 Where, I0 = reference intensity.
I0
• Pitch or Frequency: Pitch of sound directly depends on frequency.
A shrill and sharp sound has higher pitch and a grave and dull sound has lower pitch.
• Quality or Timbre: Quality is the characteristic of sound that differentiates between two sounds of same
intensity and same frequency. Quality depends on harmonics and their relative order and intensity.
Velocity of Sound Waves
• In the case of water wave of longer wavelength the speed depends only in the acceleration due to gravity. In
shallow water, the speed of water decrease. A wave approaching the shore gradually slows down to zero speed.
The velocity of waves in a canal is given by V = gh . Where, g is acceleration due to gravity and h is height of
the waves.
• The velocity of sound is maximum in solids, intermediate in liquids and minimum in gases.
• Newton's Assumed that when sound wave travel in a gas, the changes in volume and pressure are isothermal.

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232
 • Newton's formula for the velocity of a longitudinal wave in a homogeneous medium is V = E / d . Where, E is
the modulus of elasticity for a particular type of strain set up and d is the density of the medium.
Y
In solids, V = Where, Y = Young's modulus
d
B
In liquids, V = Where, B = Bulk modulus
d
P
In gases, V = Where, P = Pressure of the gas
d
For air at NTP:- P = 1.013×105 N/m2 & ρ = 1.29 kg/m3
By Newton's formula the speed of sound at one atmosphere is
1.013 × 105
v= ≃ 280m / s
1.29
This value is less than experimental value of 332 m/s. Hence Newton's formula requires some correction, which
was made by Laplace in 1816.
• Laplace's Correction
French scientist Laplace pointed out that when sound propagates in air the heat of the medium remains constant
instead of its temperature. So he replaced isothermal elasticity by adiabatic elasticity Bad. The corrected formula

Y
is
Bad
v= , Bad = γP
SP ρ
For air γ = 1.41, so the speed of sound in air at STP will be
P
ν= γ = 1.41 × 280 = 332 m / s
ρ
m
This value is in very close agreement with the experimental value.
γRT
• Velocity of sound in a gas in given by V =
M
a

■ Factors Affecting Speed of Sound in Gas

• Effect of Pressure
P
= constant
Te

ρ
With the change in pressure, the density also changes in same proportion, so that P/ρ remains constant. Hence
pressure has no effect on the speed of sound in a gas.
• Effect of Density
γP 1
v= ⇒v∝
d d
For two gases of densities d1 and d2 at same pressure with ratios of specific heats γ1 and γ2
v1 γ1 d 2
= ×
v2 γ 2 d1
• Effect of Temperature
We have,
γRT
v=
M
v1 T1 273 + t1 º C
Clearly, v ∝ T ⇒ = =
v2 T2 273 + t 2 º C
Hence the speed of sound in a gas is proportional to the square root of its absolute temperature.

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233
• Effect of Humidity
With the increase in humidity, the density of air decreases.
1
v∝
d
Hence, the speed of sound will increase with increase in humidity.
• Effect of Frequency:-
With the change in frequency of the sound wave, wavelength also changes, so that
fλ = v (constant)
Thus, the speed of sound is independent of its frequency.
• Effect of Wind-
As the sound is carried by air, so its speed is affected by the wind velocity. Suppose the wind is blowing with a
velocity vw at an angle θ with the direction of propagation of the sound.

Y
SP b
When wind blows in the direction of sound (θ = 0), the resultant velocity is v + vw.
When wind blows in the opposite direction of sound (θ = 180º), the resultant velocity is = v – vw
Organ Pipes
Organ pipes are those cylindrical pipes which are used for producing musical (longitudinal) sounds. Organ
am
pipes are of two types
(i) Open Organ Pipe cylindrical pipes open at both ends.
(ii) Closed Organ Pipe Cylindrical pipes open at one end and closed at other end.
• Terms Related to Vibrating Air Columns/Strings
Fundamental Note: It is the sound of lowest frequency produced in fundamental note of vibration of a system.
Te

Overtones: Tones having frequencies greater than the fundamental note are called overtones.
Harmonics: When the frequencies of overtone are integral multiples of the fundamental, then they are known
as harmonics. Thus the note of lowest frequency f is called fundamental note or harmonic
First harmonics: The node of frequency 2f is called second harmonic or first overtone.
• Vibrations in open Organ Pipe
f f f

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234
 v
Fundamental frequency or frequency of first harmonic f1 =
2ℓ
v
Frequency of first overtone or second harmonic f 2 = 2 = 2f1
2ℓ
v
Frequency of second overtone or third harmonic f 3 = 3 = 3f1
2ℓ
∴ f1: f2 : f3 :...... = 1 : 2 : 3 :.....
Therefore, even and odd harmonics are produced by an open organ pipe.
Vibrations in Closed Organ Pipe
f f f

Y
v
Fundamental frequency or frequency of first harmonic f1 =
4ℓ
SP
Frequency of first overtone or third harmonic f 2 =
3v
4ℓ
= 3f1

v
Frequency of second harmonic or fifth harmonic f3 = 5. = 5f1
4ℓ
∴ f1 : f2 : f3 :..... = 1 : 3 : 5:......
m
Therefore only odd harmonics are produced by a closed organ pipe.
• End Correction
Antinode is not obtained at exact open end but slightly above it. The distance between open end and antinode is
a

called end correction.

It is denoted by e.
Effective length of an open organ pipe ℓ ' = (ℓ + 2e)
Te

Effective length of a closed organ pipe ℓ ' = (ℓ + e)

If r is the radius of organ pipe, then e = 0.6r
v
With end correction fundamental frequency of closed pipe f =
4 ( ℓ + 0.6r )
v
Fundamental frequency of open pipe f =
2 ( ℓ + 1.2r )
• Factors Affecting frequency of wave in a pipe
1
(i) Length of air column, n ∝
ℓ
1
(ii) Radius of air column, n ∝
r
(iii) Temperature of air column, n ∝ T
(iv) Pressure of air inside air column, n ∝ T
1
(v) Density of air, n ∝ =
ρ
(vi) Velocity of sound in air column, n ∝ v

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235
• Resonance Tube
Resonance tube is a closed organ pipe in which length of air column can be changed by changing height of
liquid column in it.

λ
For first resonance, = ℓ1 + e
4
3λ
Second resonance, = ℓ2 + e
4
λ
( ℓ2 – ℓ 1) = ⇒ λ = 2 ( ℓ2 – ℓ1)
2

Y
Velocity of sound v = fλ = 2f (ℓ2 – ℓ1)
ℓ 2 − 3ℓ1
End correction, e =
2
SP
Beats
• When two sound waves of nearly different frequencies are produced simultaneously, then intensity of the
resultant sound produced by their superposition increases and decreases alternately with time. This rise and
am
fall intensity of sound is called beats.
• The difference of frequencies heard in one second is called beats frequency.
• If simple harmonic progressive waves of frequencies f1 and f2 travelling in same direction superimpose, the
 f –f   f –f 
resultant waves is represented by y = ( a1 + a 2 ) cos2π  1 2  t  sin2π  1 2  t
  2    2 
Te

f –f 
• The frequency of resultant wave is  1 2 
 2 

• The difference of frequencies should not be more than 10. Sound persists on human ear drums for 0.1 second.
hence, beats will not be heard if the frequency difference exceeds 10.

• Number of beats heard per second = n1 – n2 = difference of frequencies of two waves.

• Maximum amplitude = (a1 + a2)
• Maximum intensity = (Maximum amplitude)2 = (a1 + a2)2

1 2
• For loudness, time intervals are , ...
n1 − n 2 n1 − n 2
• If two sound waves f wavelength λ1 and λ2 product a beats per second , then velocity of sound can be
v v λ1λ 2
determined by n = n = + or V =
λ1 λ 2 ( 2 – λ1 )
λ
• Beats can be produced by taking two identical tuning fork and loading or filling either of then and vibrating
them together.

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236
 ECHO :-
• When a sound is produced and a listener hears it after reflection from an obstacle, the reflected sound is called
an ECHO.
• If d is the distance between source and the reflecting surface and t is the time taken to hear echo after sound
2d
is produced, t = where, V is velocity of sound.
V
• The distance between source and reflecting surface d = Vt/ 2.
• The minimum distance between sources and the reflecting surface to hear a clear is V/20. It is equal to 16.5 m
if V = 300 m/s.
• If a person standing between two parallel hills fires a gun and hears echo after t1 sec and the second echo after
V ( t1 + t 2 )
t2 sec, the distance between two hills is d = .
2
• In the above case, the third echo will be heard after (t1 + t2) sec.
• In the above case, if echos are head at regular intervals of time is t sec, the distance between tow hills is d = V.t
or d = (3/2)V.t.
• If a motor car approaching a cliff with a velocity 'u' sounds the horn and the echo is heard after 't' sec, then the
 v+u
distance between the cliff and the original position of car is d =  t .
 2 

Y
v–u
• In the above case, the distance between the cliff and the point where the echo is heard is d =  t .
 2 
SP
• A road runs paralleled to a long vertical line of hills. If a motorist moving with a speed 'u' sounds the horn and
hears the echo after 't' sec, then the distance between the road the cliff is d =
1 2
v – u2 .
2
• A road runs midways between two parallel rows of hills. If a motorist moving with a speed 'u' sounds the horn
and hears the echo after 't' sec, then the distance between two rows of hills d = v 2 – u 2 .
m
Threshold of Audibility :-
• The minimum intensity of sound at which it is audible is called threshold of audibility.
• The weakest audible sound has intensity of 10–12 w/m2.
a

• An ordinary talk has intensity of sound 10–6 w/m2.

• The lowest changes of intensity level that could be detected by human ear is 1dB.
Te

Quink's Tube –
This is an apparatus to demonstrate the phenomena of interference and also used to measure velocity of sound
in air
This is made up of two U-tube A and B as shown in fig.

Velocity of sound , V = f0λ = 2f0x

Where, f0 = frequency of the source
V = velocity of sound
λ = path difference
x = B is pulled by a distance (x)

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237
 Doppler Effect–
• The phenomena of apparent change in frequency of source due to a relative motion between the source and
observer is called Doppler's Effect. Let,
Vs = Source velocity
v = velocity of sound
v0 = observer velocity
f ' = apparent frequency
f = frequency
Some Important Cases of Doppler Effect
S.No. Situation Apparent frequency
•
When source is moving and observer is at rest
(a)  v 
f '=f 
 v − vs 

 v 
f '=f 
(b)  v + vs 

Y
• When source is at rest and observer is moving
SP
(a)  v + v0 
f '=f 
 v 

 v − v0 
f '=f 
 v 
am
(b)
•
When source and observer both over moving

 v + v0 
f'=f 
(a)  v − vs 
Te

 v – v0 
f'=f 
(b)  v + vs 

• When source and observer both are moving and they are following
each other

 v – v0 
(a) f'=f 
 v − vs 

 v + v0 
f'=f 
(b)  v + vs 

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238
• Doppler Effect in Reflected Sound:

 v + vc 
f = f ' 
 v − vc 
Where, v = velocity of sound
vc = velocity of car
f ' = frequency of source
• Doppler's effect when source and observer are not in same line of motion-
The apparent frequency of sound heared by car 2 can be given as–

Y
SP
 v + v 2 cos θ2 
m
f = f ' 
 v − v1 cos θ1 
Doppler effect in light-
Doppler effect in light is the apparent change in the frequency of the light observed by on observer due to the
a

relative motion between the observer and source of light.

Te

• Transverse Doppler Effect in Light.

The observer is moving perpendicular to a line between him and the light source. The proper time between ticks
is
t0 =1/v0 , so between one tick and the next time
t = t0/ 1 − v2 / c2

elapses in the reference frame of the observers. The frequency is given by

1 1 − v 2 / c2
ν ( transverse ) = =
t t0

• Observer and Source Moving Apart

The observer is receding from the light source. Now the observer travels the distance vt away from the source
between ticks, which mean that the light wave from a given tick takes vt / c longer to reach him than the
previous one. Hence the total time between the arrivals of successive waves is

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239
 vt 1+ v / c 1+ v / c 1+ v / c 1+ v / c
T=t+ = t0 = t0 = t0
c 1− v / c
2 2
1+ v / c 1− v / c 1− v / c

The observed frequency v is always less than the source frequency v0.
• Observer and Source Moving Together
The observer is approaching the light source. The observer here travels the distance ν t toward the source
between ticks, so each light wave takes ν t / c less time to arrive than the previous one. In this case T = t −ν t /
c and the result is

Y 1+ v / c
v ( approaching ) = v0
SP 1− v / c
The observed frequency is higher than the source frequency. Again, the same formula holds for motion of the
source toward the observer.
• Doppler's frequency shift :
Doppler's frequency shift describes the changes in the frequency of any light and sound waves which is
am
produced by moving source with respect to an observer on vice versa.
It is given by,
f 
∆f = V  
c
Where, ∆f = Doppler frequency shift
Te

f = frequency of source which is not moving

c = Speed of light or sound
V = Velocity of source
• Applications of Doppler's effect :
The measurement from Doppler effect has been used–
(i) By police to check over speeding of vehicles.
(ii) At airports to guide the aircraft.
(iii) To study heart beats and blood flow in different parts of the body.
(iv) By astrophysicist to measure the velocities of planets and starts.
Key points:
• Doppler shift in frequency does not depends on distance between the source and the observer.
• When the distance between the source and listener is decreasing the apparent frequency increases.
• All harmonics are overtones but all overtones are not harmonics.
• Ultrasonic waves can be produced by utilizing piezoelectric effect.
• Doppler effect gives information regarding the change in frequency only. it does not say about intensity of
sound.
• Doppler effect in sound is asymmetric but in light it is symmetric.

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240
 Exemplar Problems
Wave & Oscillations
6. A silver atom in a solid oscillates in simple
Simple Harmonic Motions harmonic motion in some direction with a
1. The displacement of simple harmonic oscillator frequency of 1012 per second. What is the force
after 3 seconds starting from its mean position constant of the bonds connecting one atom with
is equal to half of its amplitude. The time the other? (Take, molecular weight of silver =
period of harmonic motion is : 108 and Avogadro number = 6 02 × 1023 . g
(a) 6 s (b) 8 s mol−1)
(c) 12s (d) 36 s (a) 5.5 N/m (b) 6.4 N/m
JEE MAIN 2022 (c) 7.1 N/m (d) 2.2 N/m
2. The motion of a simple pendulum executing JEE MAIN 2018
S.H.M. is represented by following equation. 7. Two pendulums of length 121 cm and 100 cm
Y = A sin (πt + φ), where time is measured in start vibrating in phase. At some instant, the
second. two are at their mean position in the same
phase. The minimum number of vibrations of
The length of pendulum is :
the shorter pendulum after which the two are
(a) 97.23 cm (b) 25.3 cm

Y
again in phase at the mean position is:
(c) 99.4 cm (d) 406.1 cm (a) 8 (b) 11
JEE MAIN 2022
3.

by T = 2π
ℓ
SP
The time period of a simple pendulum is given

. The measured value of the 8.

(c) 9 (d) 10
NEET 2022
A body is executing simple harmonic motion
g with frequency 'n', the frequency of its
length of pendulum is 10 cm known to a 1 mm potential energy is
accuracy. The time for 200 oscillations of the (a) 4n (b) n
m
pendulum is found to be 100 second using a (c) 2n (d) 3n
clock of 1s resolution. The percentage accuracy NEET 2021
in the determination of 'g' using this pendulum 9. The phase difference between displacement
is 'x'. The value of 'x' to the nearest integer is:-
a

and acceleration of a particle in a simple

(a) 2% (b) 3% harmonic motion is :
(c) 5% (d) 4% 3π π
(a) rad (b) rad
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JEE MAIN 2021 2 2

4. Time period of a simple pendulum is T inside a (c) zero (d) π rad
lift when the lift is stationary. If the lift moves NEET 2020
upwards with an acceleration g/2, the time
10. The displacement equation of oscillations of a
period of pendulum will be :
particle executing simple harmonic motion is x
T = 5 sin (0.2πt + 0.5π) The time period of
(a) 3T (b)
3 particle is
(a) 10.0 s (b) 1.0 s
3 2
(c) T (d) T (c) 0.8 s (d) 0.5 s
2 3
UP PGT - 2021
JEE MAIN 2021 11. If the effective length of a pendulum is infinite,
5. A rod of mass ‘M’ and length ‘2L’ is suspended its time period will be
at its middle by a wire. It exhibits torsional (a) 1 hour (b) 0/0
oscillations. If two masses each of ‘m’ are
attached at distance ‘L/2’ from its centre on (c) ∞ / ∞ (d) 84.6 min.
both sides, it reduces the oscillation frequency UPPSC Ashram Paddhati PGT - 2021
by 20%. The value of ratio m/M is close to 12. What will be the value of following ratio for
(a) 0.57 (b) 0.37 simple harmonic oscillator?
(c) 0.77 (d) 0.17 Average Kinetic energy for one time period
JEE MAIN 2019 Average potential energy for one time period
241

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 1 1 R g
(a) (b) (a) T = 2π (b) T = 2π
3 6 g R
2
(c) (d) 1 2R R
3 (c) T = 2π (d) T = 2π
UPPSC Ashram Paddhati PGT - 2021 g 2g
13. The potential energy U(x) of a particle UP LT Grade Science 2018 (Exam : 29.07.2018)
executing S.H.M. is 20. A body of mass m that is undergoing simple
(a) U(x) constant (b) U(x) = Ae–bx harmonic motion passes through its equilibrium
position, its velocity is
K
(c) U(x) = (x – a)2 (d) U(x) = K1x + K2x2 (a) Zero
2 (b) Maximum
UP PGT - 2021
(c) Half of its maximum value
14. If the symbols have their usual meaning, then
which of the following gives the frequency of (d) None of the above
tensional oscillations? UP TGT Physics 2016
21. Which of the following is not essential for the
c 1 c simple harmonic motion?
(a) 2π (b)
I 2π I (a) Inertia (b) Restoring force
(c) Material medium (d) Gravity
I 1 I
(c) 2π (d) UP TGT Physics 2016
C 2π C 22. What remains constant during simple
UPPSC Poly. Lect. 2021 Paper - I harmonic motion?

Y
15. Which one of the following is a simple (a) Restoring force (b) Kinetic energy
harmonic motion? (c) Potential energy (d) Time period
(a) Ball bouncing between two rigid vertical UP PGT Physics 2016 (Exam : 02.02.2019)
walls
SP
(b) Particle moving in a circle with uniform
23. A particle of mass m executes a simple
harmonic motion of amplitude a and frequency
n. The maximum kinetic energy is
speed
(c) Wave moving through a string fixed at both (a) mn2 π 2 a2 (b) 4mn2 π 2 a2
ends (c) 4mn2 π 2 a (d) 2m n2 π 2a2
(d) Earth spinning about its own axis UP LT Grade Science 2018 (Exam : 29.07.2018)
am
UPPSC GDC - 2021
16. A particle is executing simple harmonic motion Free, Forced, Damped Oscillations &
governed by equation F = −kr . Which quantity Resonance
is always negative? 24. Amplitude of a mass-spring system, which is
d2 r d2 r executing simple harmonic motion decreases
(a) F. 2 (b) r.
dt dt with time. If mass = 500g, Decay constant = 20
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2 g/s then how much time is required for the

(c) r. d 2r (d) None of the above amplitude of the system to drop to half of its
dt
initial value ? (ln 2 = 0.693)
UPTGT Science - 2021
(a) 34.65 s (b) 17.32 s
17. What is the percentage change in time period
of a simple pendulum, if the length of simple (c) 0.034 s (d) 15.01 s
pendulum increase by 3%? JEE MAIN 2021
(a) 3% (b) 6% 25. An external force F0 sinpt is applied on a
(c) 3.5% (d) 1.5% particle, executing simple harmonic motion
UKPSC Lecturer (Mains) 2020 with natural frequency ω0 . In steady state, the
18. The length of two strings measured by a scale frequency of oscillator will be
are l1 = 20 cm ± 0.5 cm and l2 = 50 cm ± 0.5 cm. (a) p (b) ω 0
The length difference and the error therein (c) ω0 − p (d) p − ω 0
would be
(a) 30 cm ± 0 cm (b) 30 cm ± 0.5 cm UPPSC Ashram Paddhati PGT - 2021
26. At small velocities, the damping force is
(c) 30 cm ± 1 cm (d) 30 cm ± 0.25 cm
(a) Directly proportional to the square of velocity
RPSC School Lect. 08.01.2020
19. If the earth were a homogeneous sphere of (b) Directly proportional to the square root of
radius R and a straight hole were bored in it velocity
through its centre, then a particle, dropped into (c) Directly proportional to velocity
the hole, will execute an SHM with its time (d) Inversely proportional to velocity
period : UPPSC Ashram Paddhati PGT - 2021
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27. Harmonic oscillator energies are given by
 1
E n =  n +  hω where n = 0,1, 2, 3......... . It is
 2
in thermal equilibrium with some heat
reservoir at absolute temperature T. what will
be the partition function?
− ℏω  −2 − ℏω  −1 (a)Mass of spring is negligible
− ℏω   − ℏω  
1− e kT  1− e kT 

(a) e 2kT
(b) e 2kT (b)A0 represents 1/3 (Mass of the spring)
(c)A0 represents 2/3 (Mass of the spring)
− ℏω  −1
− ℏω   (d)A0 represents 1/2 (Mass of the spring)
1+ e kT 

(c) e 2kT
(d) None of the above UPPCS PRE 1996
UPPSC Poly. Lect. 2021 Paper - I 34. The differential equation of motion of a
damped mechanical oscillator is–
28. Potential energy versus displacement curve of a
d 2x dx
Harmonic Oscillator is m +r
+ kx = 0
2 dt
(a) Straight line (b) Circle dt
If the motion is oscillatory, the angular
(c) Parabola (d) Ellipse frequency is given by–
UPPSC GDC - 2021 (symbols have their usual meanings)
29. A cantilever of uniform cross-section and of
k k r2
length l shows a deprssion δ at the loaded end. (a) ω = (b) ω= +
m m 4m2
The depression at a distance l/2 from the fixed

Y
end is k r2 k r2
1 5 (c) ω = − (d) − ω=
δ δ m 4m2 m 2m2
(a)

(c)
16
5
δ
(b)

(d)
16
3
δ
SP
35.
UPPCS (Pre) 1998, 2000
The differential equation of a damped
mechanical oscillator is :
48 16 (where letters have their usual meanings
UP LT Grade Science 2018 (Exam : 29.07.2018) d2 x
30. A tuning fork of frequency 500 Hz is vibrated (a) m 2 + kx = 0
m
with a sonometer wire and 8 beats per second dt
2
are heard. The beat frequency reduces if (b) m d x + r dx + kx = 0
2 dt
tension in the wire is slightly increased. The dt
2
a

original frequency of the wire is d x

dx
(c) m 2
+r
+ kx = F0 sin wt
(a) 516 Hz (b) 508 Hz dt dt
(c) 500 Hz (d) 492 Hz d2 x dx
(d) m 2 + r + kx = F0 cos wt
Te

UP LT Grade Science 2018 (Exam : 29.07.2018) dt dt

31. The power absorbed in a driven harmonic UPPCS (Pre) 1997
oscillator is maximum at the 36. In damped harmonic motion the amplitude of
(a) highest possible driven frequency vibration decreases with time as
(b) amplitude resonance 1
(a) (b) e–kt
(c) velocity resonance kt
(d) frequency where the amplitude drops to 1/e of 1
− 2
its maximum value (c) e kt e − kt
(d)
UP LT Grade Science 2018 (Exam : 29.07.2018) UPPCS Pre 2006
32. The solution of the differential equation 37. Which one of the following instruments work
on the principle of damped oscillation?
d2 y (a) Ammeter
+ ω2 y = 0 is :
dt 2 (b) Voltmeter
(c) Helmholtz galvanometer
(a) y = a tan ωt (b) y = a cot ω (d) Ballistic galvanometer
(c) y = a sec ω (d) y = a sin ( ωt + θ) UPPCS Pre 2008,2007
UPPCS Pre 1994 38. The energy of a damped harmonic oscillator
2 (a) increases exponentially with time
33. A graph plotted between T and M. T being the
(b) increases linearly with time
periodic time and M the mass suspended, for a (c) decreases exponentially with time
mass spring system with small damping is shown (d) decreases linearly with time
in figure. It can be started that : UPPCS Pre 2008
243

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39. A damped vibrating system, starting from rest 45. Equation of travelling wave on a stretched
has an initial amplitude of 506 mm which string of linear density 5 g/m is y = 0.03 sin(450t
reduces to 160 mm is 50 complete oscillations - 9x), where distance and time are measured in
each of period 2.3 seconds. The damping SI units. The tension in the string is
coefficient is
(a) 5 N (b) 12.5 N
(a) 0.01 (b) 0.1
(c) 0.005 (d) 0.001 (c) 7.5 N (d) 10 N
UPPCS Pre 2005 JEE MAIN 2019
40. In ballistic galvanometer damping is kept small 46. If the initial tension on a stretched string is
so that doubled, then the ratio of the initial and final
(a) it may oscillate speeds of a transverse wave along the string is
(b) it may remains stable
(a) 1 : 2 (b) 1 : 1
(c) amplitude of first is small
(d) amplitude of first wing is large (c) 2 :1 (d) 1: 2
UPPCS Pre 2009 NEET 2022
41. The differential equation that describes
damped mechanical oscillations, is 47. Two travelling waves
2
d x dx Y1 = 0.65 sin (0.4x – 800t) m and
(a) M 2 + R m =0 Y2 = –0.65 sin (0.4x + 800t) m are
dt dt
superimposed in a medium, for the resultant
d2 x dx
(b) M + Rm + Sx = 0 wave at the point x = 2.5πm, maximum
dt 2 dt displacement is

Y
d2x (a) zero (b) 1.30m
(c) + Sx = 0
dt 2 (c) 0.65m (d) 0.91m
d2x S
(d) R m 2 + x =
dt M
1 dx
M dt
SP 48.
UPPSC Ashram Paddhati PGT - 2021
Which of the following cannot represent an
UPPCS Pre 2009 appropriate wave function, A & α are
Travelling Waves constants?
(a) A sin αx (b) A cos αx
42. A longitudinal wave is represented by
(c) ae − iαx (d) Ae αx
am
 x
x = 10 sin 2π  nt −  cm. The maximum UPPSC Poly. Lect. 2021 Paper - II
 λ
particle velocity will be four times the wave 49. A transverse wave is represented by
velocity if the determined value of wavelength y = 2sin (62.8t - 0.314x + 3. 3)
is equal to : Where x and y are in centimeters. its frequency is
(a) 2π (b) 5π (a) 100 Hz (b) 50 Hz
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5π (c) 31.4 Hz (d) 10 Hz

(c) π (d) UP LT Grade Science 2018 (Exam : 29.07.2018)
2
50. The frequency of transverse vibrations of a
JEE MAIN 2022
string is 100 cycles/sec. If the tension of the
43. The equations of two waves are given by :
string is increased to its four times, the
y1 = 5sin 2π ( x − vt ) cm frequency will be :
y 2 = 3sin 2π ( x − vt + 1.5 ) cm (a) 25 cycles/sec (b) 100 cycles/sec
(c) 200 cycles/sec (d) 50 cycles/sec
These waves are simultaneously passing
through a string. The amplitude of the UPPCS Pre 1995
resulting wave is 51. Which one of the following is not true for
(a) 2 cm (b) 4 cm progressive wave given by
(c) 5.8 cm (d) 8 cm  t x 
y = 4sin 2π  − 
JEE MAIN 2022  0.02 100 
44. A 25 m long antenna is mounted on an antenna Where t and x are represented in second and cm
tower. The height of the antenna tower is 75 m. respectively.
The wavelength (in meter) of the signal (a) Its amplitude is 4cm.
transmitted by this antenna would be : (b) Its wavelength is 100cm.
(a) 300 (b) 400 (c) Its frequency is 50 cycles/sec.
(c) 200 (d) 100 (d) Its velocity of propagation is 5×104 cm/sec.
JEE MAIN 2021 UPPCS Pre 1995
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52. A plane wave is represented, in usual symbols, (a) 16.6 cm (b) 33.3 cm
 x  (c) 10.0 cm (d) 20.0 cm
by the equation, y = a sin π  200t -  . Its JEE MAIN 2019
 150  59. A string is stretched between fixed points
frequency is : separated by 75.0 cm. It is observed to have
resonant frequencies of 420 Hz and 315 Hz.
(a) 2 Hz (b) 100 Hz There are no other resonant frequencies
(c) 150 Hz (d) 200 Hz between these two. The lowest resonant
UPPCS Pre 1994 frequency for this string is
53. The equation, which represents wave travelling (a) 10.5 Hz (b) 105 Hz
along negative Y-axis is (c) 155 Hz (d) 205 Hz
(a) x = A cos (–ky + ωt) NEET 2015
(b) x = A sin (ky + ωt) 60. Neglecting the effect of surface tension and
(c) y = A sin ky cos ωt finite depth, the wave velocity of water wave of
(d) y = A cos ky sin ωt gλ
wavelength λ is given by v= .The relation
UPPCS Pre 2009 2π
54. A wave travelling along a string is describe by between group velocity Vg and wave velocity v
y (x, t) = 0.008 sin (62.80x – 3.0 t) in is given by
which numerical constants are in SI units 1
(a) v g = v (b) v g = v
(0.008 m, 62.80 radm–1 and 3.0 rads–1), What 2
would be the wavelength of the wave ? (c) v g = v (d) v g = v / 2

Y
(a) 0.001 m (b) 0.1 m
UPPSC Ashram Paddhati PGT - 2021
(c) 0.0785 m (d) 0.1256 m
61. Two rectangular SHMs are represented by x =
RPSC School Lect. 08.01.2020
55.
SP
The correct relationship between the phase
velocity Vp and the group velocity Vg is
asin (2 ωt + φ) and y=b sin ωt. The resultant of
superposition of two represents
(a) a parabola (b) the figure of 8
dVp dVg (c) an ellipse (d) a straight line
(a) Vg = Vp – λ (b) Vp = Vg – λ UP LT Grade Science 2018 (Exam : 29.07.2018)
dλ dλ
62. 1 dB corresponds in change in power level by
m
dVp 1 dVp
(c) Vg = Vp + λ (d) Vp = Vg – (Given 100.1 ≃ 1.26 ) -
dλ λ dλ (a) 50% (b) 35%
RPSC School Lect. 08.01.2020 (c) 26% (d) 12%
56. A wave travelling along a string is describe by
a

UPPSC Poly. Lect. 2021 Paper - II

y (x, t) = 0.008 sin (62.80x – 3.0 t) in UPPSC Ashram Paddhati PGT - 2021
which numerical constants are in SI units 63. In a waveguide which condition will always
(0.008 m, 62.80 radm–1 and 3.0 rads–1), What hold good?
Te

would be the wavelength of the wave ? (a) Phase velocity = c (b) Phase velocity > c
(a) 0.001 m (b) 0.1 m (c) Phase velocity < c (d) Group velocity = c
(c) 0.0785 m (d) 0.1256 m UPPSC Poly. Lect. 2021 Paper - II
RPSC School Lect. 08.01.2020 64. If a particle has wave function ψ = ax between
2π x = 0 and x = 1 . Find the expectation value
57. From a wave equation Y = 0.5sin (64t − x)
3.2 < x > or the particle position -
the frequency of the wave is a
2π (a) a2 (b)
Y = 0.5sin (64t − x) 4
3.2 2 2
a a
(a) 5 Hz (b) 15 Hz (c) (d)
(c) 20 Hz (d) 25 Hz 2 4
TGT 2009 UPPSC Poly. Lect. 2021 Paper - II
65. The internal radius of a 1 m long resonance
Standing Waves tube is 3 cm. With a tuning fork of frequency
58. A string of length 1 m and mass 5 g is fixed at 2000 Hz, the first resonating position is 4.6 cm
both ends. The tension in the string is 8.0 N. and the second resonating position is 14.0 cm.
The string is set into vibration using an Speed of sound at the room temperature is
external vibrator of frequency 100 Hz. The (a) 336 m/s (b) 376 m/s
separation between successive nodes on the (c) 332 m/s (d) 340 m/s
string is close to UP PGT - 2021
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66. Find the expectation value of position of a 73. In a standing wave of frequency 1000 cycles per
particle whose normalized wave function is – second the distance between a node and the
adjacent antinode is 10 cm. The velocity of the
ψ ( x ) = Ne ( x /2a ) + ikx
- 2 2
wave is :
(a) < x >= a 2
(b) < x >= k 2 (a) 200m/s (b) 400m/s
(c) 50m/s (d) 100m/s
(c) < x >= hk (d) < x >= 0
UPPCS Pre 1995
UPPSC Poly. Lect. 2021 Paper - II 74. A metal string is fixed between rigid supports
67. Two waves y1 = A1 sink (x – υt) and y2 = A2 sink It is initially at negligible tension. Its Young's
–1
(x – υt + x0), where k = 2π cm and x0 = 1.50 modulus is Y, density is ρ and coefficient of
cm are superposed. If A1 = 9.00 mm and A2 = thermal expansion is α. If it is now cooled
through a temperature t, transverse wave will
7.00 mm, what is the amplitude of the resulting
move along it with speed
wave?
(a) αt / ρ (b) Yαt / ρ
(a) 16.0 mm (b) 8.0 mm
(c) 2.0 mm (d) 1.0 mm Yα
(c) αt Y / ρ (d) t
UP PGT - 2021 ρ
68. Phase velocity of ripples on a liquid surface is UPPCS Pre 2005
2πT 75. A stationary wave is represented by
, where 'T' is surface tension and ρ is 2π
λρ y = 10cos xsin 80πt
the density of liquid. What will be the group 5
Where y and x are in meters and t in seconds.

Y
velocity?
The wavelength of the wave is
2πT 1 2 πT (a) 80 metres (b) 10 metres
(a) (b)
λρ
3 2 πT
SP
2 λρ (c) 5 metres (d) 2 metres
UPPCS Pre 2009
76. The vibration of a string fixed at both ends are
(c) (d) None of the above
2 λρ described by the equation
πx
UPPSC Poly. Lect. 2021 Paper - I y = 5sin sin100πt
2
am
69. The speed of wave in a medium is 960 m/s. If If the length of the string is 16 cm, the number
3600 waves are passing through a point in one of loops formed in vibration shall be
minute, the wavelength will be : (a) 4 (b) 8
(a) 32 m (b) 64 m (c) 12 (d) 16
(c) 14 m (d) 16 m UPPCS Pre 2009
UKPSC Lecturer (Mains) 2020 77. In a gas, two waves of wavelengths 1.00 m and
1.01 m respectively produce 4 beats in 1 second.
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70. The expression for the velocity of longitudinal Then the velocity of sound in that gas will be
waves in gases is expressed as : (a) 400 m/sec (b) 404 m/sec
(a) ν = Eρ (b) ν = E/ρ (c) 410 m/sec (d) 330m/sec
(UPPGT 2010)
(c) ν = E / ρ (d) ν = Eρ 78. A tuning fork of frequency 260 Hz is vibrated
with a sonometer wire and 5 beats are heard. If
UKPSC Lecturer (Mains) 2020 the tension in the wire is slightly increase, the
71. For formation of standing waves, the medium beat frequency also decreases. The original
should frequency of the sonometer is
(a) have infinite extension (a) 265 Hz (b) 260 Hz
(b) be bounded (c) 255 Hz (d) 250 Hz
(c) be a gas only UP PGT - 2021
(d) be having zero inertia and zero elasticity Sound Waves and Doppler's Effect
RPSC School Lect. 26.07.2016 79. An observer moves towards a stationary source
72. Velocity of sound in hydrogen and oxygen gas of sound with a velocity equal to one-fifth of the
at a given temperature will be in the ratio velocity of sound. The percentage change in the
frequency will be :
(a) 4 : 1 (b) 1 : 4
(a) 20% (b) 10%
(c) 2 2 :1 (d) c 2 / 2K 2 (c) 5% (d) 0%
RPSC School Lect. 26.07.2016 JEE MAIN 2022
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80. The velocity of sound in a gas. in which two 87. The two nearest harmonics of a tube closed at
wavelengths 4.08m and 4.16m produce 40 beats one end and open at other end are 220 Hz and
in 12s, will be : 260 Hz. What is the fundamental frequency of
(a) 2.82.8 ms–1 (b) 175.5 ms–1 the system?
(c) 353.6 ms–1 (d) 707.2 ms–1 (a) 20 Hz (b) 30 Hz
JEE MAIN 2022 (c) 40 Hz (d) 10 Hz
81. A submarine A travelling at 18 km/h is being NEET 2017
chased along the line of its velocity by another
88. The second overtone of an open organ pipe has
submarine B travelling at 27 km/h. B sends a
sonar signal of 500 Hz to detect A and receives the same frequency as the first overtone of a
a reflected sound of frequency n. The value of n closed pipe L metre long. The length of the
is close to (Speed of sound in water = 1500 ms )-1 open pipe will be
(a) 504 Hz (b) 507 Hz (a) Lj (b) 2L
(c) 499 Hz (d) 502 Hz L
(c) (d) 4L
JEE MAIN 2019 2
82 A closed organ pipe has a fundamental NEET - II 2016
frequency of 1.5 kHz. The number of overtones 89. A sound wave of unknown frequency gives 10
that can be distinctly heard by a person with
beats with a wave of frequency 300 Hz and 15
this organ pipe will be (Assume that the highest
frequency a person can hear is 20,000 Hz) beats with a wave of frequency 325 Hz. The
frequency of unknown wave is
(a) 7 (b) 4
(a) 290 Hz (b) 310 Hz
(c) 5 (d) 6

Y
JEE MAIN 2019 (c) 340 Hz (d) None of the above
83. A hollow pipe of length 0.8 m is closed at one
SP UPPSC Ashram Paddhati PGT - 2021
end. At its open end a 0.5 m long uniform 90. If a 1 m long wire of mass 2 gram is stretched
string is vibrating in its second harmonic and it by a weight of 400 kg. Then what will be the
resonates with the fundamental frequency of frequency of fundamental note of the wire ?
the pipe. If the tension in the wire is 50 N and (a) 500 Hz (b) 700 Hz
the speed of sound is 320 1 ms- , the mass of the
(c) 50 Hz (d) 100 Hz
string is
UKPSC Lecturer (Mains) 2020
m
(a) 5 g (b) 10 g
(c) 20 g (d) 40 g 91. The volume of hollow hall is 2000 m3 and total
IIT 2010 absorption coefficient is 165 unit. Then
reverberation time of hall is
84. A tuning fork with frequency 800 Hz produces
a

resonance in a resonance column tube with (a) 4s (b) 2s

upper end open and lower end closed by water (c) 1s (d) 0.5s
surface. Successive resonance are observed at RPSC School Lect. 08.01.2020
length 9.75 cm, 31.25 cm and 52.75 cm. The 92. The musical interval between any two
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speed of sound in air is

consecutive tones in a 12 – ET tempered
(a) 500 m/s (b) 156 m/s musical scale is
(c) 344 m/s (d) 172 m/s (a) 21/6 (b) 21/12
Odisha NEET 2019 (c) 2 1/13
(d) 21/11
85. A tuning fork is used to produce resonance in a
glass tube. The length of the air column in this RPSC School Lect. 08.01.2020
tube can be adjusted by a variable piston. At 93. Using light of wavelength 6000Å in Young's
room temperature of 27°C two successive experiment, 64 fringes were observed in the
resonances are produced at 20 cm and 73 cm of field of view. How many fringes will be
column length. If the frequency of the tuning observed if light of wavelength 4800Å is used
fork is 320 Hz, the velocity of sound in air at (a) 50 (b) 64
27°C is (c) 80 (d) 120
(a) 330 m/s–1 (b) 339 m/s–1 UP PGT Physics 2016 (Exam : 02.02.2019)
(c) 350 m/s–1 (d) 300 m/s–1 94. What is the relation between phase difference
NEET 2018 (∆φ) and path difference (∆x)?
86. An organ pipe of length 0.5 m is open at both 2π λ
ends. What is the frequency of its fundamental (a) ∆φ = ∆x (b) ∆φ = ∆x
note? (Velocity of sound in air = 350 m/s) λ 2π
(a) 350 Hz (b) 175 Hz λ π
(c) ∆φ = (d) ∆φ = ∆x
(c) 700 Hz (d) 450 Hz 2π∆x λ
UP PGT Physics 2016 (Exam : 02.02.2019) UP PGT Physics 2016 (Exam : 02.02.2019)
247

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95. For which of the following, Lissajous figure will 103. Which of the following gives Doppler's
be circle? frequency shift ∆v?
(a) x = cos 2ωt : y = cos ωt v c
(a) V (b) V
 π c v
(b) x = cos 2ωt : y = cos  2ωt − 
 4 2
v
(c) x = cos 2ωt : y = sin 2ωt (c) V 1 −   (d) V v c
c
(d) None of the above
UPPSC Poly. Lect. 2021 Paper - I
UPPSC Poly. Lect. 2021 Paper - I
104. A train whistling at constant frequency is
96. Sound waves in hydrogen gas are of which type? moving towards station at a constant speed V.
(a) Transverse (b) Longitudinal The train goes past a stationary observer on the
(c) Stationary (d) Electromagnetic station. The frequency n' of the sound as heard
UP PGT Physics 2016 (Exam : 02.02.2019) by observer can be expressed by which of the
97. For diffraction at a single slit, the width of the expected curve as a function of time t ?
central maximum is_________ the wavelength of
light
(a) Proportional to
(b) Proportional to the square of
(c) Inversely proportional
(d) Independent of (a) (b)
UP PGT Physics 2016 (Exam : 02.02.2019)

Y
98. A source of unknown frequency produces 8
beats with a source of 250 Hz and 12 beats with a
source of 270 Hz. The frequency of the unknown
source is
(a) 258 Hz
(c) 262 Hz
SP
(b) 242 Hz
(d) 282 Hz
(c) (d)
RPSC School Lect. 08.01.2020
(UPPGT 2010) 105. When engine of train moves away the observer,
99. The number of beats produced by two waves 6
y1 = a sin (2000 πt) and then observer observe its frequency of its
7
am
y2= a sin (2010πt)
per second will be actual frequency. If velocity of sound in air is
(a) four (b) five 330 m/s, what will be the speed of engine ?
(c) eight (d) ten (a) 50 m/s (b)
(UPPGT 2010) 55 m/s
100. Select correct statement in which Doppler (c) 30 m/s (d)
effect is not applicable- 330 m/s
Te

(a) Discovery of twin stars UKPSC Lecturer (Mains) 2020

(b) To determine the velocity of milky way 106. A plane is flying towards east at a velocity of
(c) To determine the radius of earth 500 km/h at a height of 2000 m. A man
(d) To determine the velocity of submarine standing on the ground hears a sound coming
UPPSC Poly. Lect. 2021 Paper - I vertically above him. Plane at this instant in its
line of motion is at a distance of (velocity of
101. A car moving at 30 m/s is approaching a
sound 300 m/s):
factory, whose whistle has a frequency of 500
Hz. If the speed of sound in air is 340 m/s, what (a) 825.9 m (b) 925.9 m
is the apparent frequency of whistle as heard (c) 625.9 m (d) 725.9 m
by the car driver? UKPSC Lecturer (Mains) 2020
(a) 480 Hz (b) 500 Hz 107. In light the shift of wavelength in Doppler’s
(c) 544 Hz (d) 600 Hz effect is expressed as (for non-relativistic
UP PGT - 2021 velocities)
102. The shape of the Lissajous Figures depends on νc ν
(a) The amplitude of the superposing waves (a) ∆λ = (b) ∆λ = λ
(b) Frequencies of superposing waves λ c
2 2 2
(c) The phase difference between the superposing ν c ν
waves (c) ∆λ = λ (d) ∆λ = λ
λ 2
(d) All of the above c
UP PGT - 2021 UKPSC Lecturer (Mains) 2020
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108. Doppler shift in frequency does not depends on 112. Two sound sources have equations y1 = 0.25 Sin
(a) speed of observer 316 t and y2 = 0.25 Sin 310 t respectively. If the
listener hears both together how many beats will
(b) speed of source be hear per second?
(c) frequency of wave 6
(a) 6 (b)
(d) distance between the source and the observer π
RPSC School Lect. 26.07.2016 3
(c) (d) 3π
109. A sound source of frequency 440 Hz is tied to π
the end of a 1.5 m long string and rotated in a UP PGT Physics 2016 (Exam : 02.02.2019)
horizontal plane at an angular velocity of 20 113. If we take E = 1 m v 2 and P = m v, then the
O o
radians/sec. What is the frequency range of the 2
sound heard by a listener standing for away? phase velocity of the corresponding wave
packet is
(Velocity of sound in air = 330 m/s)
v
(a) 440 – 480 Hz (b) 403 – 484 Hz (a) (b) v
2
(c) 400 – 500 Hz (d) 408 – 490 Hz
c2 v2
UP PGT Physics 2016 (Exam : 02.02.2019) (c) (d)
v c
110. A sound source is moving towards a stationary
UP LT Grade Science 2018 (Exam : 29.07.2018)
1 ο
listener with speed of sound. The ratio of real 114. A star emitting light of wavelength 5000 A is

Y
10
coming towards the earth with speed equal to
frequency as heard by the listener is
1.5× 106 m/sec. The change in wavelength of the
(a)
9
10
(b)
10
11
SP radiation received on the earth will be
(a) 2.5 A
ο
(b) 100 A
ο

2 2 ο
 10   10  (c) Zero (d) 25 A
(c)   (d)  
 11  9 (UPPGT 2009, 2002)
m
(UPPGT 2010) 115. If light of wavelength λ = 5000 Å coming from a
111. The power of a small loudspeaker is 10 W. The star be observed as λ = 5200 Å :
intensity of sound obtained at a distance of 3 m A. The star is moving away from earth
a

from it is 2 Wm–2. If the power of the loudspeaker B. Its speed is 1.2 × 107 m/s
is doubled, the intensity at 6 m will be : (a) A, B both are false
–2 –2 (b) B is true, A is false
(a) 4 Wm (b) 2 Wm
Te

(c) A is true, B is false

–2
(c) 1 Wm (d) 0.5 Wm–2 (d) A, B both are true
UPPCS Pre 2010 UPPCS PRE 1996

Answer Key
1. (d) 2. (c) 3. (b) 4. (d) 5. (b) 6. (c) 7. (b) 8. (c) 9. (d) 10. (a)
11. (d) 12. (d) 13. (c) 14. (b) 15. (c) 16. (c) 17. (d) 18. (c) 19. (a) 20. (b)
21. (d) 22. (d) 23. (d) 24. (a) 25. (a) 26. (c) 27. (b) 28. (c) 29. (b) 30. (d)
31. (c) 32. (d) 33. (b) 34. (c) 35. (b) 36. (b) 37. (d) 38. (c) 39. (c) 40. (d)
41. (b) 42. (b) 43. (a) 44. (d) 45. (b) 46. (d) 47. (b) 48. (d) 49. (d) 50. (c)
51. (d) 52. (b) 53. (b) 54. (b) 55. (a) 56. (b) 57. (c) 58. (d) 59. (b) 60. (a)
61. (c) 62. (c) 63. (b) 64. (d) 65. (b) 66. (d) 67. (c) 68. (c) 69. (d) 70. (c)
71. (b) 72. (a) 73. (b) 74. (b) 75. (c) 76. (b) 77. (b) 78. (c) 79. (a) 80. (d)
81. (d) 82. (d) 83. (b) 84. (c) 85. (b) 86. (a) 87. (a) 88. (b) 89. (b) 90. (b)
91. (b) 92. (b) 93. (c) 94. (a) 95. (d) 96. (b) 97. (a) 98. (a) 99. (b) 100. (c)
101. (c) 102. (d) 103. (a) 104. (c) 105. (b) 106. (b) 107. (b) 108. (d) 109. (b) 110. (a)
111. (c) 112. (c) 113. (a) 114. (d) 115. (d)

249

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06
Electricity &Magnetism
(1) Electrostatics
■ Introduction:
• Electrostatics is that branch of electricity in which properties of static (non-moving) electrical charges are
studied.

Y
• Matter can apply force due to its two characteristics-
SP
(i) Mass (For applying gravitational force).
(ii) Electric charge (For applying electrostatics force).
■ Electric Charge:- Electric charge is a physical property carried by a matter due to which it can apply force on
other matter particle. A charged matter can apply force and this force is found to be of two types to explain it
we have to discover that charges are of two type -
(i) Positive Charge
am
(ii) Negative Charge
Like charges repel and unlike charges attract each other.
Basic properties of Electric Charge -
• Additive: Charges can be added by simple rule of Algebra.
• Quantization of Charge : Electric charges on a body is not a continuous quantity but it is integral multiple of
charge on one electron.
Q = ± ne
Te

• Charge is conserved : The total charge of isolated system is always conserved, it may get redistributed.
Isolated electric charge can neither be created nor destroyed, it can only be transferred.
238
U = 234 Th + 4 He (Active decay)
The charges in pair can be created or destroyed.
Annihilation:-
e – + e + 
→γ+ γ (Radiation)
↓
Gamma rays
Pair Production:–

Charging a body -
• By rubbing: - Electrons get entangled and are transferred to other.
• By conduction :-An uncharged body can be charged by contact of surfaces.
• By Electrostatic Induction :- When a charged body is brought near an uncharged body, the charges in
uncharged body get polarised. This phenomenon is called electrostatic Induction.

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250
Conductors and Insulators -
• Conductors are those substances which allow charges to move within it. e.g. metal, electrolytes, tap water,
human body etc.
• Insulators are those substances which do not allow charges to move through it. e.g. Non-Metals, Plastic, Gases,
Pure water etc.
■ Coulomb's law of electrostatics -

• The law states that if two point charges q1, q2 are separated by a distance r in vacuum the magnitude of the
force (F) between them is given by -
Kq1q 2
F=
r2
1
Where K = = 9×109 Nm 2 C –2 (ε0 = Permittivity of free space = 8.85×10–12 C2N–1m–2 )
4πε 0
• The law is applicable only for static and point charges.
• Moving charges may result in magnetic interaction.
• If charges are extended, Induction may charge the charge distribution.
• K is arbitrary (we choose any positive value)
• The choice of K determines the size of the unit of charge.
• The Separation between the charges must be greater than nuclear distance.

Y
Permittivity and relative permittivity :-
• Permittivity is a characteristics of a medium between two charges which affect the force between them.
It is represented by 'ε' (Epsilon).
SP
Permittivity of free space is represented by 'ε0'. Its dimension is [M–1 L–3T4A2].
• Relative permittivity is the ratio of absolute permittivity of medium to the permittivity of free space.
ε
εr =
ε0
m
It is also given by -
Electrostatics Force in free space Electric field in free space
( ε r )m = =
Electrostatics Force in Medium Electric field in medium
a

It is also equal to dielectric constant k.

(i) (εr) Free space = 1.
(ii) Any medium has permittivity > 1.
Te

(iii) For water 'k' = 81

(v) For metal k = ∞.
Vector form of Coulomb's law :-

• It tell us about both magnitude and direction.

• Force on charge q2 due to q1 -
1 q1q 2
F21 = ˆr21
4πε 0 r212
1 q1q 2  r21 
F21 = r21 ∵  ˆr21 = 
4πε 0 r213  | r21 | 
q1q 2 r2 – r1
F21 =
4πε 0 | r2 – r1 |3

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251
 • Similarly, the force on charge q1 due to q2 -
qq r –r
F12 = 1 2 1 2 3
4πε 0 | r1 – r2 |
• Force on q1 due to q2 = – Force on q2 due to q1 or F12 = – F21.
• The forces due to two point charges are parallel to the line joining the point charges; such force are called
central forces and so electrostatic forces are conservative forces.
Force between Multiple charges : Superposition principle -
• According to the principle of Superposition total force on a given charge due to number of charge is the vector
sum of individual forces acting on that charge due to the presence of other charges.
Let the charges be q1, q2, q3, ........ qn exert force F12, F13, ........ F1n on charge q1. The total force on charge q1 is
given by
1  q1q 2 q1q 2 q1q 2  q1 n
qi
F1 = F12 + F13 + .........F1n =  2 rˆ12 + 2 rˆ13 + ........ 2 rˆ1n  =
4πε 0  r12 r13 r1n 4 πε0
∑r 2
rˆ1i
 i = 2 1i

Distribution of Continuous Electric Charge ;-

• The region in which charges are closely spaced is said to have continuous distribution of charge. It is of three
types :-
Linear Charge Density (λ) Surface Charge Density (σ) Volume Charge Density (δ)
• It is defined as the charge per • It is defined as the charge per • It is defined as the charge
unit length. unit surface area. per unit volume.

Y
• Its unit is Coulomb/meter. • Its unit is Coulomb/meter .
2
• Its unit is Coulomb/meter3.
dq dq dq
•λ = . •σ= . •δ= .
dL
■ Electric Field :-
dS
SP dV

• Electric field is space around a charge where its effect can be experienced, the effect can be strong or weak, we
call it intensity of electric field. It is represented by 'E'.
1 q F
• Mathematically, Electric field produced by a charge q at a point 'r' is given by E = ˆr = .
am
2
4πε 0 | r | q0
• Unit of 'E' = NC–1, Dimension = MLA–1T–3.
Electric Field due to a system of Charges :-
Te

• If we place a unit test charge q0 near n point charges q1, q2, .......... qn then the net force F from the n point
charges acting on the test charge is F = F1 + F2 + F3 + .......... + Fn .

Then net electric field at the position on the test charge is-
F1 F2 F3 F
E = E1 + E2 + E3 + ......... En = + + + ......... + n
q0 q0 q0 q0
1 q1 1 q2 1 q3
E= rˆlP + rˆ2P + rˆ3P + ........
4πε 0 r1P2 4πε 0 r2P2 4πε 0 r3P2
n
1 qi
E(r) =
4πε 0
∑r
i=1
2
ˆriP
iP

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252
Physical Significance of Electric field -
• Electric field is a characteristics of the system of charges. It is independent of the test charge that you place at a
point to find the field.
• Since force is a vector quantity so electric field is a also vector quantity.
• Electric field can be detected only by its effects (forces) on charges. It has an independent dynamics of a force
on q2. Effect of any motion of q1 and charge q2 cannot arise instantaneously. The accelerated motion of charge
q1 produces electromagnetic waves, which then propagate with the speed of light c reach q2 and causes a force
on q2.
Electric field lines :-
• Electric field lines are imaginary smooth curves drawn in sphere to represent electric field over there.
Characteristic of electric field lines:-
• Start from positive charge terminate at negative charge. These are discontinuous curve.
• Field lines are always smooth curves. Tangent at any point gives direction of electric field at that point.
• Two lines never cross each other because if they cross that will indicate two directions at that point which is
not possible.
• Crowding of Electric field lines indicate relative strength of electric field.
• Electric field lines are always at right angle to the Surface.
1 1
• Number of lines assumed to be linked with a unit charge are = .
ε 0 8.85 ×10–12

Y
• Lines behave like stretched string trying to decrease their strength. this explains force of attraction between
positive and negative charges.
SP + –

• The lines laterally repel each other (normal to line) that indicate the force of repulsion between similar charges.
Electric field lines due to different distribution -
m
+q −q
a

+q -q
Te

■ Electric flux -
•Electric flux linked to surface area is a quantity (Scalar) formed by intensity of field E and area normal to it A,
such that flux linked to surface area is–
φE = E ⋅ A
•Flux = Intensity of electric field × Area linked
φE = E A cos θ

If E is not uniform throughout the area 'A' then φ = ∫ E i dA

•SI unit is N-m C . It is scalar Quantity.
2 –1

•'φ' does not depend on the -

(i) Shape and size of the closed surface.
(ii) The charges located outside the closed surface.

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253
■ Electric Dipoles –

• Pair of two equal and opposite point charges attached at a fixed distance is called electric dipole.
ɵ
•Na ⊕ Cl molecule represents an electric dipole.
•Dipole Moment ( P ) = q×2l
Where P is vector quantity its direction is along the line from negative to positive charge.
•SI unit - Coulomb meter (Cm)
•Dimension - [LTA]
Electric field Intensity due to an Electric dipole –
1 2Pr
• On Axial line – Electric field intensity at point P on a given axis, E =
( )
2
4πε 0 r 2 – a 2

A 2a B

Y
1 2P 2KP
If r >> 2a then E = × or 3
4πε 0 r 3 r

•
SP
On equatorial line - Electric field Intensity at point P on a given equatorial line is, E =
1 P
( )
3/2
4πε 0 r 2 + a 2
am
Te

1 P
If r >> 2a then, E = .
4πε 0 r 3
• At any point along a line making θ angle with dipole Axis -
1 P 1+ 3 cos 2θ
Electric field intensity 'E' = .
4πε 0 r3

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254
 • Electric field due to a dipole deplete faster as it varies inversely to cube of r as compared to point charge which
varies as square of r,
1 1
Epoint ∝ , EDipole ∝
r2 r3
Dipole kept in Electric field -

• Torque(τ) = P × E = PE sin θ

Where θ is angle between P and E

If P is along E
θ = 0º, τ=0 (Stable equilibrium )

Y
If P is opposite to E
θ = 180º , τ=0 (Unstable Equilibrium)
Work done in Rotating a dipole –
θ2
W = ∫ dW = ∫ τdθ = ∫ PE sin θdθ = PE [cos θ1 – cosθ2]
SP
θ1

■ Equilibrium of charges: -
m
• Equilibrium of three point charges -

Q1 Q2
a
Te

(i) Two charges must be of like nature.

(ii) Third charge should be of unlike nature.
Q1 – Q1 Q 2
x= r and q =
( )
2
Q1 + Q 2 Q1 + Q 2

• Equilibrium of Symmetric geometrical point charged system -

Value of Q at centre for which system to be in state of equilibrium.

–q
For Equilateral triangle Q =
3

For Square Q =
(
– q 2 2 +1 )
4

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255
 • Equilibrium of Suspended Point Charge System -
For equilibrium position,

T cos θ = Mg (vertical equilibrium)

K Q2
T sin θ = Fe = (Horizontal equilibrium)
x2
F K Q2
tan θ = e = 2
Mg x mg
x
If θ is small, tan θ ≈ θ =
2ℓ
1
x KQ 2 2KQ 2 ℓ  Q2 ℓ  3
= 2 ⇒ x3 = ⇒x= 

Y
2ℓ x mg mg  2πε0 mg 
■ Electric Potential -
SP
• The electric potential at a point in an electric field is the ratio of work done in carrying a test-charge from
infinity to that point to the magnitude of the test charge. It is given by –
W
V=
q
• Its S.I. unit is J/c or volt and dimension [ML2T–3A–1].
am
Kq
• For point charge, V = .
r
• Electric potential due to an electric dipoles
P
at axis of dipole V = K 2 .
r
on a Equatorial line V = 0
Te

P cos θ KP.r
at any point a line making angle θ V = K = 3
r2 r
n
qi
• For Several point charges, V = K ∑
i=1 ri
Potential gradient :-
• The rate of change of potential with distance is electric field is called Potential gradient.
dV
• Potential gradient = , its unit is V/m.
dr
 dV 
• Relation between potential gradient and electric field intensity is given by E = –  .
 dr 
Equipotential Surface –
• Every point on a surface is at same potential called equipotential surface.
(i) Electric lines always join the equipotential surface perpendicularly.
(ii) Work done in moving a charge from one point to other on an equipotential surface is zero.
(iii) It is not affected by the path.
Weq
(iv) = VA – VB ⇒ W=0
q

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256
 (v) Equipotentials are parallel to each other (means does not intersect each other).
(vi) Equipotential potential surface are planer in an uniform electric field.
(vii) In a family of equipotential surface the surfaces are closer together where the electric field is
stronger and farther apart where field weaker.
(viii) Equipotential surface due to line charge is cylindrical.
(ix) Equipotential surface due to an isolated point charge is spherical.
■ Electric potential energy -
The electric potential energy of a system of fixed point charges is equal to the work that must be done by an
external agent to assemble the system, bringing each charge from infinity.
• Potential Energy of two Charge System -
Potential energy of two point charges system that contains charges q1 and q2 separated by a distance 'r' is given
1 q1q 2
by U =
4πε 0 r
• Potential Energy of three point charge system-

Y
1  q1q 2 q 3 q1 q 2 q 3 
U=  + + 
4πε 0  r1 r2 r3 
SP
• Potential Energy for a collection of More than two Charges -
The potential energy of a system of charges is given by
K n qi q j
U= ∑
2 i ≠ j rij
m
1
K=
4πε 0
1
a

The factor is applied only with the summation sign because on expanding the summation sign each pair is
2
counted twice. It is represented by U.
• Potential energy in a dipole –
Te

2a

Potential energy of dipole is given by-

U = – P.E cos θ
If dipole is kept along E then U is given by -
U = – P.E
Where, P = dipole moment
E = Electric field
■ Motion of Charged Particle in electric field –
• Consider a charge particle having charge 'q' and mass m is initially at rest in an electric field of strength E. The
particle will experience an electric force which causes its motion.
The force experienced by the charge particle is F, where
F = qE
Acceleration produced by this force is

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257
 F qE
a= = ............... (i)
m m

At point P particle is at rest and after some time 't' , it reaches the point Q and attains velocity v which is given
by, v = at
If potential difference between P and Q be ∆V and the distance between them is d, then
qEt 2q∆V
v= =
m m
• Momentum of charge particle-
As momentum,
 qEt  2q∆V
P = mv= m   ⇒ P = qEt= m = 2mq∆V
 m  m
• Kinetic Energy of Charged Particle -
Kinetic Energy gained by the particle in time t is-

Y
2
1 1  qEt  q2E2 t 2
(a) K.E. = mv 2 = m  =
2 2  m  2m

(b) K.E. =
1
m×
2q∆V
= q ∆V
SP
2 m
■ Gauss's Law -
1
• According to Gauss theorem the electric flux linked with a closed surface is times the charge enclosed by
am
ε0
the surface.
Flux linked through surface element ∆S is
q
∆φ = E. ∆S = ∆S
4πε 0 r 2
Te

Total flux linked through the entire surface S

q q
φ = ∫ ∆φ = ∫ E.∆S = 2 ∫
∆S = S
4πε 0 r 4πε 0 r 2
For sphere S = 4πr2
q q q
φ= .4πr 2 = ⇒φ =
4πε 0 r 2
ε0 ε0
Where, q = net charge enclosed by given surface.
Similarly for a cube
q
• Total electric flux linked with whole cube =
ε0
q
• Electric flux linked with one face of cube =
6ε 0

• This law is especially useful in determining electric field when source distribution has simple symmetry.
• This law is true for closed surface only.
• Charges outside makes the flux but net flux is only due to charge enclosed.
• Use the gauss theorem with symmetrical surface to calculate E at a point.
• Gauss theorem depends on inverse square law.

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258
Gaussian Surface (Imaginary Surface)-
• The surface that we choose for the application of Gauss's law is called Gaussian surface.
• Gaussian surface does not applicable for discrete charge because electric field due to a system of discrete
charges is not well defined at the location of any charge.
• Gaussian surface can pass through a continuous charge distribution.
• It is an imaginary surface; homogenous in nature, symmetrical surface.
Applications of Gauss' Theorem -
• Electric field intensity due to an infinite line charge -
1 λ
Electric field, E = ×
2πε 0 r
λ r 
Also, Potential difference = ℓn  2 
2πε 0  r1 
Where λ is linear charge density (q/L) and r is
distance from the line charge.
Electric potential for infinite line charge is not
defined.
• Electric field near an infinite plane sheet of charge -
σ
Electric field, E =
2ε 0

Y
Where, σ = surface charge density. SP
• Electric field for a long charged conducting cylinder-
For r≥R
q
Electric field, E=
2πε 0 r
m
for, r < R, E = 0
a

• Electric field just outside charge conductor-

σ
E= , ( E inside = 0 )
ε0
Te

• Electric field due to two infinite parallel sheets of Charge-

σ
E= {for both sheets having same charge density}
ε0
• For non-conducting long sheet of surface charge density 'σ'-
σ
E=
2ε 0
• For conducting long sheet of surface charge density 'σ' -
σ
E=
ε0
• For uniformly Charged Spheres –
Figure Electric field (E) and electric Graphs
potential (V)
For r≥R
1 q 1 q
E= 2
, V=
4πε 0 r 4πε 0 r
for , r < R
Charged conducting solid sphere

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259
 1 q
E=0,V=
4πε 0 R

For r≥R
1 q 1 q
E= 2
, V=
4πε 0 r 4πε 0 r
for, r < R
Charged Non conducting solid sphere
1 qr
E=
4πε 0 R 3

1 q ( 3R – r )
2 2

V=
4πε 0 2R 3

1 xq
Ex =
( )
4πε 0 x 2 + a 2 3 2

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1  2q 
Emax =  
4πε 0  3 3a 2 
Charged Ring
SP
On the axis of uniformly charged
ring
1 q
V=
4πε 0 ( x 2 +a 2 )1/2
At centre x = 0
am
1 q
V=
4πε 0 a
for r ≥ R
1 q 1 q
E=  ,V =  
4πε 0  r 2  4πε 0  r 
Te

For r < R
1 q
E = 0, V =  
4πε 0  R 
For conducting/ non-conducting
spherical shell

----
■ Electrostatic Shielding -

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260
 • Any cavity in conductor remains shielded from outside electric influence (i.e. field inside the cavity is always
zero). This is known as Electrostatic Shielding.
■ Electrostatic of Conductor :-
• Inside a conductor, electrostatic field is zero.
• At the surface of charged conductor electrostatic field must be normal the surface at every point.
• The interior of a conductor can have no excess charge in the static situation.
• Electrostatic potential is constant throughout the volume of the conductor and has the same value on its
surface.
σ
• Electric field at the surface of charged conductor is .
ε0
■ Millikan’s Oil Drop Experiment :-
• Millikan allowed charged tiny oil droplets to pass through a hole an electric field. By varying the strength of
the electric field the charge over an oil droplet was calculated, which always came as an integral value of 'e'.

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Calculation:
Fup = Fdown
SP
Fup = Q.E
Fdown = m.g
Q is an electron's charge, E is the electric field, m is the droplet's Q.E = m.g
m
m.g
Q=
E
Conclusion:
a

The charge over any oil droplet is always an integral value of e (1.6 × 10–19). Hence, the conclusion of
Millikans Oil Drop Experiment is that the charge is said to be quantitzed, i.e. the charge on any particle will
always e or an integral multiple of e.
Te

(2) Capacitance and Capacitors

■ Capacitor :- A capacitor is a device that stores electrical energy. It consists of a pair of conductors of any
shape and size carrying charges of equal magnitudes and opposite signs and separated by an insulating
medium.
Capacitance of a Capacitor -
• The ability to store charge by a capacitor is called capacitance of the capacitor.
• It is also defined as the amount of charge required to raise the potential of the capacitor by one unit (In SI one
volt).
If 'Q' is the amount of charge given and 'V' is potential of capacitor, then capacitance of the capacitor is given
by
Q
C= .
V
• SI unit of capacitance is Farad or F.
1 Farad = 1 Coulomb /Volt.
• Dimension of capacitance = [M–1L–2T4A2].
• Capacitance is a scalar Quantity.
• The capacitance depends only on the geometry of the conductors and not on an external source of charge or
potential difference.

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261
Dielectric and Polarization :-
• A dielectric is an insulating material in which all electrons are tightly bonded to the nuclei of the atoms. Hence
free movement of charges in not possible. It is given by
C ε
k= = = εr
C0 ε 0
where, C = capacitance when space between pair of conductor is filed with dielectric.
C0 = capacitance when space is vacuum.
ε0 = permittivity of free space, ε = permittivity of medium.
εr = relative permittivity
• For a polar and non-polar molecule the dipole moment per unit volume is called polarization. It is given by
P = χe E
Where, χe is a constant characteristics of the dielectric and and is known electric susceptibility of the dielectric
medium.
Spherical Capacitor:-
• A spherical capacitor consists of a solid or hollow spherical conductor of radius a, surrounded by another
hollow concentric spherical of radius b

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• Its capacitance C is given by -
4πε 0 ba
SP
C= Farad
b–a
• If radius of outer conductor approaches to infinity then,
C = 4πε0a Farad.
am
• When inner sphere is earthed then, it serves as two capacitors in parallel where,
C1 = 4πε0b Farad. (Outer surface and earth)
4πε 0 ba
C2 = Farad. (Region between two spheres)
b–a
Capacitance of an Isolated Spherical Capacitor –
• C = 4πε0kR in a Medium
Te

C = 4πε0R in a Air
Where, ε0 = permittivity in free space
R = Radius of sphere.
k = dielectric constant

Parallel Plate capacitor :-

• Most commonly used capacitor is parallel plate capacitor, which consists of two charged parallel plates
separated by a small distance. Capacitance of a parallel plate capacitor with vacuum between the plates is
given by

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262
 ε0A
Without dielectric– C = Farad
d
If the space between capacitor filled with dielectric then–
ε kA
C= 0 Farad
d
where, k = dielectric constant of the medium between the plates
A = Area of plates
d = distance between the plates
If medium is partly filled with air then-

ε0A
C=
 t
d–t – 
 k

When a dielectric slab of thickness 't' and relative permittivity εr is introduced between the plates of an air

Y
 t 
capacitor, then the distance between the plates is effectively reduced by  t −  irrespective of the position of
 εr 
the dielectric slab.
SP
If the space between plates is completely filled with multiple dielectrics-
ε 0A
C=
t1 t 2 t 3
+ +
k1 k 2 k 3
a m

Cylindrical Capacitor :-
• It consists of two co-axial cylinders of radii a and b the outer conductor is earthed. The dielectric constant of
Te

the medium filled in the space between the cylinders is k.

2πε 0 k
The capacitance per unit length is C =
b
ln 
a

■ Combination of Capacitors -
• Capacitors in series:- In this arrangement all the capacitors when uncharged get the same charge Q but the
potential difference across each will differ (If the capacitance are unequal).
1 1 1 1 1
= + + + .......
C eq C1 C2 C3 Cn

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263
 • Capacitors in Parallel :- When one plate of each capacitor is connected to the positive terminal of the
battery & the other plate of each capacitor is connected to the negative terminals of the battery, then the
capacitors are said to be in parallel connection. The capacitor have the same potential difference, 'V' but the
charge on each one is different (If capacitance are unequal).

Ceq = C1 + C2 + C3 + ......... + Cn.

■ Energy stored in a charged capacitor:-

• Energy stored in a charged capacitor is defined as the total amount of work in charging the capacitor stored up
in the capacitor in the form of electrical potential energy.
1 1 Q2 1
U = CV 2 = = QV
2 2 C 2
• This energy is stored in the electrostatic field setup in the dielectric medium between the conducting plates of
the capacitor.
Energy Density :-
• The energy stored in a capacitor is not localized on the charges or the plates but is distributed in the field. In
case of a parallel plate capacitor, electric field is only between the plates in a volume (A×d) which is so called

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energy density. It is given by-
1
CV 2
Energy 2
Energy density =
Volume
=
A×d
SP
1ε A V 2
 ε0A 
=  0  C = 
2  d  Ad  d 
2
1 V
= ε0  
am
2 d
1 V 
= ε0E2  = E
2 d 
• Energy density is the property of electric field and above formula is valid in all cases. The unit of energy
density is J/m3.
Te

Heat Produced in Switching in Capacitive Circuit -

• Due to charge flow some amount of heat is produced when a switch is closed in a circuit which can be
obtained by energy conservation as -
Heat = Work done by battery – Energy absorbed by Capacitor.
Sharing of Charges :-
• When two charged capacitors of capacitance C1 and C2 at potential V1 and V2 respectively are connected in
parallel by a conducting wire, the charge flows form higher potential conductor to lower potential, until the
potential of the two capacitors becomes equal. The common potential (V) after sharing of Charges;
net charge q + q 2 C 2 V1 + C2 V2
V= = 1 =
net capacitance C1 + C 2 C1 + C 2
After redistribution the charge in C1 is Q1' and on C2 is Q2'. Then
Q1' = C1V and Q2' = C2V
C C ( V – V2 )
• Quantity of charge transferred = Q1– Q1' = 1 2 1
C1 + C 2
• Loss of energy in redistribution of charge-
C1C 2
( V1 – V2 )
2
Uinitial – Ufinal =
2 ( C1 + C 2 )

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264
■ Charging and discharging of Capacitors:-
Charging Discharging

 –
t
 q = q0e
– t RC
q = q 0 1 – e RC  , Where, q0 = CV0
 
Where, RC = τ known as time constant of CR circuit.
q = charge on capacitors
q0 = maximum value of charge at current I = 0.
• Time Constant (τ) -

Y
SP
Time constant of a CR circuit is the time during which the charge on the capacitor becomes 0.632 (approx,
2/3) its maximum value.
Time constant of a CR circuit is also the time during which the charge on the capacitor falls from its maximum
m
value to 0.368 (approx ... 1/3) of its maximum value.
• Current during charging and discharging of a capacitor -
a
Te

q 0 – t RC –t
Icharging = e = I0 e RC
RC
q –t –t
Idischarging = – 0 e RC = – I0 e RC
RC
q0
Where, I0 = = maximum value of current flow.
RC
■ Force between Plates of Capacitor :-
• The two plates of capacitor attract each other because they are oppositely charged. Electric field due to any
one plate (say positive plate),
σ q
E= =
2ε 0 2ε 0 A
q
Where σ = area charge density = .
A

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265
 Force on other plate (negatively charged plate),
q – q2
F = – q E = – q× =
2ε 0 A 2ε 0 A
q2
Magnitude of force (F) = .
2ε 0 A
■ Effect of Dielectric on Charge, Potential Difference, Field and Energy of Capacitor -
Effect of dielectric on various parameters of capacitors can be seen in two ways-
• If Charge is held constant, i.e. Battery is disconnected after charging -
C 0 ,V0 , E0 ,U 0

C,V, E ,U

(i) Charge remains constant, q = q0.

(ii) Capacity increases as C = kC0.

Y
q q V
(iii) Potential difference between the plates decreases as V = = 0 = 0.
C kC0 k
SP
(iv) Electric field between the plates decrease as E =
E0
k
q2 q2 U
(v) The energy stored decreases as U = = 0 = 0 .
2C 2kC0 k
am
• If Potential is held constant, i.e. battery remains attached

C0,V,0 E0,U0 C,V, E,U

Te

(i) Potential difference remains constant i.e. V = V0 as battery is a source of constant potential difference.
(ii) Capacity increases as C = kC0.
(iii) Charge on capacitor increases as q = CV = (kC0)V = kq0 .
V V
(iv) Electric field remains unchanged as E =   = 0 = E 0 .
d d
1 1 1
(v) Energy stored in the capacitor increases as - U = CV 2 = kC0 V02 = kU 0
2 2 2
Dielectric is Charge Voltage (V) Electric Field Capacitance (C) Energy (U)
inserted (Q) (E)
1. When the Constant Decreases Decreases Increases Decreases
battery is
disconnected
2. When the Increases Constant Constant Increases Increases
battery is
connected

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266
■ Van De Graff Generator :-
• This is a machine that can build up high voltages of the order of a few million volts.
• A Van De Graff generator consists of a large spherical conducting shell (a few meter in diameter). By means
of a moving belt and suitable brushes, charge is continuously transferred to be shell and potential difference of
the order of several millions volts is built up, which can be used for accelerating charged particles.

Let a small sphere be placed at the center of the large one such that the radius of the smaller sphere is r and the

Y
charge over its surface is q. The potential energy thus generated due to the smaller surface at different points in
the system can be given as the following values,
At the surface of the small sphere:

Vr1 =
1 q
4πε 0 r
SP
At the large spherical shell of radius R:
1 q
Vr2 =
m
4πε 0 R
• If we consider the total charges in the system, that is q and Q, then the total potential energy due to the system
of charges can be given as,
1  q Q
a

VR =  + 
4πε 0  R R 
1 q Q
Te

Vr =  + 
4πε 0  r R 
q  1 1
VR – Vr =  – 
4πε 0  R r 
■ Key Points –
•The energy of a charged conductor resides outside the conductor in its electric field, where as in a capacitor it is
stored within the capacitor in its electric field.
•The energy of an uncharged capacitor = 0.
•The capacitance of capacitor depends only on its size & geometry the dielectric between the conducting surface
and is independent of the conductor material, like whether it is Copper, Silver, Gold etc.
•The two adjacent conductors carrying same charge can be at different potential because the conductors may have
different sizes and hence different capacitance.
•When a capacitor is charged by a battery both the plates receive charges equal in magnitude, no matter sizes of
plates are identical or not because the charge distribution on the plates of a capacitor is in accordance with
charge conservation principle.
•On filling the space between the plates of a parallel plate air capacitor with a dielectric, Capacity of the capacitor
is increased because the same amount of charge can be stored at a reduced potential.
•The potential of grounded object is taken to be zero because capacitance of the earth is very large.
q2
•Work done by battery to charge a capacitor (W) = CV2 = qV = .
C

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267
 • It is a very common misconception that a capacitor stores charge but actually a capacitor stores electric energy
in the electrostatic field between the plates.
• Two plates of unequal area can also form a capacitor, but effective overlapping area is considered.
• Capacitance of a parallel plate capacitor doesn't depends upon the charge given. Potential raised or nature of
metals and thickness of plates.
• The distance between the plates is kept small to avoid fringing or edge effect (non-uniformly of the field) at
the boundaries of the plates.

• Radial and non-uniform electric field exists between the spherical surfaces of spherical capacitor.
• Two capacitors of capacitances C1 and C2 are charged to potential of V1 and V2 respectively. After

Y
disconnecting from batteries they are again connected to each other with reverse polarity i.e., Positive plate of
a capacitor connected to negative plate of other. The common potential is given by-
Q − Q 2 C1V1 − C 2 V2
SPV= 1
C1 + C 2
=
C1 + C 2

(3) Current Electricity and Heating effect of current

■ Electric Current
am
• When a charge flows in a conductor from one point to the other then this flow of charge is called electric
current (I).
• The charge flowing per unit time in an electric circuit is the measure of electric current i.e.
q
(I) =
t
• Its SI unit is Ampere (A).
Te

1Ampere = 1 coulomb/second
• The convectional direction of electric current is the direction of motion of positive charge.
AT
• Dimension of current = = [A] .
T
• Current is a scalar quantity because it follows addition laws of scalar quantities and not of vector quantities.
• According to its magnitude and direction electric current is of two types-
(i) Direct Current (DC)- In DC the current flows in a single direction steadily. Example: an electric cell.
(ii) Alternating Current (AC)- In AC the flow of current changes its direction forward and backward
periodically. Example: AC Dynamo.
Mechanism of flow of electric charge in metallic conductors:
• In metals the electric conduction occurs by movement of negative charge carriers (electrons) only.
• In liquids and gases it occurs by the movement of both positive and negative charge carriers (ions)
Mean free path and Relaxation time:
• The average distance moved by a free electron between two successive collisions is called 'mean free path' of
the electrons and the average time-interval between two successive collisions is called the 'relaxation time of
the electrons-
mean free path
Relaxation time ( τ ) =
rms velcity of electrons

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268
Drift Velocity (Vd) :-
• Drift velocity of electrons is the average uniform velocity acquired by free electrons inside a metal conductor
by the application of an electric field which is responsible for current through it. Drift velocity is very small, it
is of the order of 10–4 ms–1 as compared to the thermal speed ( ≈ 105ms–1) of electrons at room temperature.
• The current related with drift velocity is
I J σE E V
I = neAVd ⇒ Vd = = = = =
neA ne ne ρne ρ ℓ ne
Where, n = number of free electrons per unit volume of the conductor .
A = Area of cross section, V = Potential difference across the conductor.
V
E = Electric field inside the conductor (E) =
ℓ
I = Current, J = Current density, ρ = Specific resistance
 1
σ = Conductivity  σ = 
 ρ
e = Charge on charge carrier (Electron), ℓ = length of metallic conductor
eτE
• In terms of material parameter- Vd =
m
Where, m = mass of electron, τ = Relaxation time
Electric Current density :-

Y
• The amount of electric current travelling per unit cross-section area is called current density. It is given by-
SP J=
I
A
• It SI unit is A-m–2 and dimension is [L–2A].
• Current density (J) is a vector quantity.
m
• ' J' depends upon area (A).
E
• Current density related with electric field is J = σE = = neVd
ρ
a

Where, σ = conductivity and ρ = resistivity or specific resistance of substance, n = number of free

electrons per unit volume of the conductor, e = Charge on charge carrier (Electron), Vd = Drift velocity of
electrons
• The direction of current density is same as that of electric field 'E'.
Te

• In terms of material parameter-

ne 2
J= τE
m
Where, m = mass of charge carrier (Electron), τ = Relaxation time
Mobility -
• Mobility of charge carrier is defined as the drift velocity of the charge carrier per unit of the electric field.
• It is also defined as mobility of a charge carrier in a particular medium is drift velocity developed when electric
field applied is unity.
V
Mobility (µ)= d
E
• Its SI Unit is [m2Volt–1s–1] and its Dimension is [M–1 L0 T2 A1].
eτ
• In terms of material parameter µ = .
m
■ Ohm's Law -
• According to ohm's law when physical conditions (temperature, mechanical strain etc) remains unchanged then
the current flowing through a conductor is directly proportional to the potential difference across its ends.
I∝V ⇒ V = RI
Where, R is a constant known as the electrical resistance of given conductor.
• Miniature form of ohm's law is J = σE.

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269
Ohmic conductors -
• Those conductors which obey ohm's law are called ohmic conductor, e.g. all metallic conductors are ohmic
conductors. For ohmic conductor V-I graph is a straight line

Non-Ohmic conductor -
• Those conductors which do not obey ohmic law, are called non-ohmic conductors e.g. diode, triode valve
transistor vacuum tubes etc.
For non-ohmic conductors V-I graph is not a straight line.

■ Electrical Resistance :-

Y
• Resistance is opposition faced by charges while moving in a conductor. It is given by -
V
SP R=
I
Where V = potential difference across the ends of conductor.
I = Current flowing through the conductor.
• Its SI unit is ohm (Ω) and its dimensional formula is [ML2T–3A–2].
1Ω = 1 Volt-Ampere–1
ρℓ
am
• It is also given by R = .
A
Where, ℓ = length of the conductor
A = cross-section area of conductor
ρ = resistivity of the material of the conductor
• If a wire is stretched to a greater length, keeping volume constant, then
Te

R1  ℓ 1 
R∝ ℓ ⇒ = .
R2  ℓ 2 
2
1 R r 
and R ∝ 2
⇒ 1 = 2 
r R 2  r1 
Where, ℓ = length of the wire
r = radius of cross-section area of wire.
• In terms of material parameter it is given by -
mℓ
R=
ne2 τA
■ Specific Resistance or Electrical resistivity -
• The resistance of a conductor is directly proportional to its length 'l' and inversely proportional to the area of
cross section 'A' i.e.
ℓ
R ∝ ℓ and R∝
A
ρℓ
⇒R=
A
If ℓ = 1 unit and A = 1 unit then R = ρ.

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270
 Therefore, specific resistance of the material of a conductor is equal to the resistance offered by wire of unit
length and unit area of cross section of the material of wire. Its unit is ohm-meter. It remains constant for a
material.
• Dimension of resistivity is ML3T–3A–2
• The reciprocal of resistivity of the material of a conductor is called as conductivity(σ)
1 J
σ= =
ρ E
The unit of conductivity is ohm–1 metre–1(Ω m)–1.
• In terms of material parameter
1 m
ρ= = 2 ∴
σ ne τ
Temperature Dependence of Resistivity
• When the temperature of a metallic wire is raised, its electric resistance increases.
• The resistance of a pure metallic wire or the resistivity ρ of pure metal is directly proportional to its absolute
temperature, provided the temperature coefficient of the metal is (1/273)ºC–1
• The resistivity of alloys also increases with rise in temperature, but this increase is much smaller compared to
pure metals.
• The resistivity of semiconductor decreases rapidly with rise in temperature.
■ Superconductor -
• Super conductors are those materials whose resistance is zero. Superconductors are made at very low

Y
temperature.
• The lowers temperature at which a material becomes super conductor is called critical temperature.

■ Colour Coding of Carbon Resistors -

SP
Example: Lead Pb = 7.2 K, Mercury Hg = 4.2 K.

• In electronic circuits, carbon resistors are frequently used and their values vary over a wide range. A colour
code is used to print the value of the resistance.
• The resistance of a carbon resistor can be calculated by the code given on it in the form of coloured strips
a m
Multiplier
Te

Colour Figure Multiplies

Black (B) 0 100 = 1
Brown (B) 1 101
Red (R) 2 102
Orange (O) 3 103
Yellow (Y) 4 104
Green (G) 5 105
Blue (B) 6 106
Violet (V) 7 107
Grey (G) 8 108
White (W) 9 109

Tolerance Power -
Colour Tolerance
Gold 5%
Silver 10%
No-colour 20%

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271
 • To read the value of a carbon resistance the following sentence may be memorized:
B B R O Y Great Boy Very Good Wife
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
■ Combination of Resistors -
In Series In Parallel

• Equivalent resistance, Rs = R1 + R2 + R3. 1 1 1 1

• Equivalent resistance, = + +
R p R1 R 2 R 3
• Current through each resistor is same. • Potential difference across each resistor is same.
• Sum of potential difference across individual • Sum of electric currents flowing through
resistors is equal to the potential difference by the individual resistors is equal to the electric
source. current drawn from the source.
• If n-identical resistances are first connected in series and then in parallel, the ratio of the equivalent or
maximum to minimum resistance is-
Rs
= n2 ,

Y
Rp

• If a Skelton cube is made with 12 equal resistors, each having a resistance across
R).
SP (each side has resistor

5
(a)The diagonal of a cube = R
6
3
(b)The diagonal of a face = R
am
4
7
(c)Along a side = R
12
■ Thevenins Theorem (Network reduction theorem)
According to the thevenin's, 'Any linear bilateral network ir-respective of its complexities can be reduced into a
Thevenin's equivalent circuit having the Thevenin's open circuit Voltage 'Vth' in series with the Thevenin's
Te

equivalent resistance Rth along with load resistor RL.

OR
Any two terminal network containing a no. of e.m.f sources and resistance can be replaced by an equivalent
series circuit having a resistance R. Where-
Vth or Eo = Open circuited voltage between the two terminals.
Rth or Ro = the resistance between two terminals of the circuit obtained by looking "in" the terminals with load
removed and voltage sources replaced by their internal resistance, if any.

Vth
IL =
R th + R L

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272
■ Norton's Theorem (Network reduction theorem)
According to Norton's theorem. 'Any linear bilateral network ir-respective of its complexity (Can be reduced into
a Norton's equivalent circuit having a Norton's Short circuit 'IN' Parallel with Norton's equivalent resistance RN
in Parallel with load resistor RL.

IN R N
IL =
RN + RL

■ Electric cell
• An electric cell is a device which converts chemical energy into electrical energy. When connected in a circuit
it acts as a source of D.C. current.
It is of two types-
S.N. Primary Cell Secondary cell
1. These cannot be recharged again after getting These can be recharged easily.

Y
discharged once.
2. These are cheap of low cost. These are expensive as compare to Primary cell.
3.

4.
These are easy to use.

These can be used only once.

SP These are difficult to use in comparison to Primary
cell.
These can be used more than once.
5. In these cells irreversible reactions occur. In these cells reversible reaction occurs.
6. These have a lower self discharge rate. These have a higher self discharge rate.
m
7. These are used in torch and other portable These are used in inverters and automobiles.
devices as they produce electric current
immediately.
8. These cells don't require regular maintenance These cells require regular maintenance.
a

and can be disposed easily after use.

9. They have a low or small lifetime. They have high lifetime.
10. Examples of these cells are Dry cells, Daniel Examples of these cells lead-acid cell, nickel-iron
Te

cells etc. cell etc.

■ E.M.F. and Potential difference
S.N. E.M.F. Potential difference
1. Emf or electromotive force is the maximum It is the difference of potentials between any
potential difference between two electrodes of this two points in a closed circuit
cell when no current is drawn from the cell i.e.
When circuit is open
2. The unit of EMF is volt. The unit of potential difference is volt.
3. It is independent of resistance. It depends upon resistance between two
points.
4. It is measured using an Emf meter It is measured using a voltmeter
5. The electric, gravitational and magnetic fields are The electric field is the sole source of
responsible for this. potential difference.
■ Internal resistance
Internal resistance refers to the opposition to the flow of current offered by the cells and batteries themselves
resulting in the generation of heat. Internal resistance is measured in ohms. The relationship between internal
resistance (r) and emf (E) of cell is given by.
E = I(r + R)
Where, I = Current, r = Internal resistance, R = Resistance in circuit

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273
■ Grouping of cells -
Series combination
• Series combination of n -cells each of emf E and internal resistance r.

Eeq = E1 + E2 + E3 + .................... + En = nE
req = r1 + r2 + r3 + .................... + rn = nr
Total emf
Current through the circuit = .
Total resis tan ce
nE
I= ................ (1)
( R + nr )
(i) If nr << R then I = nE/R
If the value of the internal resistance is much lesser than the external resistance then the current in the
circuit will be n times the circuit current due to the single cell.

Y
(ii) If nr >>R then I = E/r
If the value of the internal resistance is much greater than the external resistance then the current in the circuit
SP
will be equal to the short-circuited current obtained from a single cell.
Parallel combination-
• If m cells each of e.m.f. E and internal resistance r be connected in parallel and if this combination be
connected to an external resistance then the e.m.f. of the circuit = E.
r
Internal resistance of the circuit =
am
m
Te

E mE
I= =
r mR + r
R+
m
mE
If R << r then I = → parallel combination should be used.
r
E
If R >> r then I = → No advantage of using parallel combination
R
■ Kirchhoff's Law -
• Ohm's law is unable to give current in complicated circuit, Kirchhoff's in 1842 gave two law which are
extremely useful to solve problem of complicated electrical circuits.
Kirchohoff’s two laws –
(i) Kirchhoff's voltage law. (KVL)
(ii) Kirchhoff's current law. (KCL)

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274
 Kirchhoff's Voltage Law Kirchhoff's Current Law
• In any closed circuit the algebraic sum of the • The algebraic sum of all currents meeting at
products of the current and resistance of each part junction in a closed circuit is zero i.e.
of the circuit is equal to the total e.m.f. in the ∑I = 0.
circuit i.e.-
∑IR = ∑V
• This law follows law of conservation of energy. It • This law follows law of conservation of
is also called as loop rule. charge. It is a junction rule

∑IR = ∑V I1+I2+I3 -I4 -I5=0

■ Applications of Kirchhoff's Law -

Y
■ Wheatstone Bridge -
• Wheatstone bridge is also known as resistance bridge. It is an arrangement of four resistance connected to form
SP
the arms of quadrilateral ABCD. A battery with key is connected along two vertices and Galvanometer is
connected across other two vertices.

G
a m

Where, PQ = Ratio arms

Te

R = Known resistance
S = Unknown resistance
The bridge is said to be balanced, when
(i) VB = VD
(ii) There is no flow of current through galvanometer.
The Wheatstone Bridge is said to be sensitive if it gives ample deflection in the galvanometer even on slight
change of resistance.
• For sensitivity of galvanometer the magnitude of four resistances P, Q, R, S should be of same order.
P R
• For balanced condition = , When deflection in galvanometer is zero IG = 0.
Q S
• Wheatstone bridge is most sensitive if all the arms of bridge have equal resistance i.e. = P = Q = R = S.
■ Meter Bridge:-
• It is an electrical device used to determine the resistance of material of given wire/conductor.
• It is based on the principle of balanced Wheatstone bridge.
• For uniform wire AC of length 1 meter the balanced condition of meter bridge using Wheatstone bridge
principle is given as-
P R ℓ R 100 – ℓ
= or = ⇒S= ×R .
Q S 100 – ℓ S ℓ

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275
 Where S is the unknown resistance to be determined, R is variable Resistance and l is the balancing length.
• Meter Bridge is also known as slide wire bridge.
■ Potentiometer:-
It is an electrical device which can -
(i) Measure the potential difference with greater accuracy.
(ii) Compare the e.m.f. of two cells.
(iii) Used to determine the internal resistance of a primary cell.
It works on the principle when a constant current is passed through a wire of uniform cross-section, the
potential difference across any portion of the wire is directly proportional to the length of that portion. In the
null-point position the potential difference V is equal to the emf E of the cell-
E∝ℓ

Y
SP
am

Uses of potentiometer-
For various purposes the portion between A and B is modified-
(i) Comparison of emf of two cells
E1 ℓ1
=
E2 ℓ 2
Te

Where, E1 = emf of known cell, E2 = emf of unknown cell

ℓ1 = distance of null point of cell 1 from A
ℓ2 = distance of null point of cell 2 from A.
(ii) Comparison of Resistance
R1 ℓ1
=
R2 ℓ2
where symbols have their usual meaning
(iii) Determination of internal Resistance
ℓ 
r = R  1 − 1
 ℓ2 
E 
r = R  − 1
V 
Where E = E.m.f of given cell, V = potential difference between ends of resistor R.
(iv) Measurement of low resistance
 ℓ2 
x = R 
 ℓ1 
Where x is low resistance which is to be measured connected in series with R

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276
■ Heating Effect of Electric Current -
• The generation of heat due to flow of electric energy in a conductor is known as heating effect of current.
■ Electrical Power -
• The energy liberated per second in device is called its power. The electrical power P delivered by an electrical
device is given by P = VI,
Where V = Potential difference across device then power is consumed by it (i.e. acts as load). If the current
enters the lower potential point then the device supplies power (i.e. acts as source).
V2
• Power consumed by a resistor (P) = I2R = VI = .
R
• SI unit of power is watt.
1 watt = 1J/s
• Unit in the commercial unit of electric energy, 1 unit = 1 kWh = 3.6×106J.
■ Joules Law of Electrical Heating -
• The heat generated (in Joules) when a current of I ampere flows through a resistance of R ohm for t second is
given by
I 2 Rt V2
H = I 2 Rt Joule = Colories = t Joule
4.2 R
• If current is variable passing through the conductor then we use for heat produced in resistance in time 0 to T
T

Y
is H = ∫
0
I 2 R θ dt .

■ Illumination of electric bulbs in parallel and in series-

Series
Bulbs
combination of
SP
1 1 1 1
= + + + .....
Ptotal P1 P2 P3
a m
Parallel combination of
Bulbs
Te

Ptotal = P1 + P2 + P3 + ...........

■ Chemical Effect of electric current-

• When an electric current flows through a conducing solution, chemical reactions take place in the solution.
This is called the chemical effect of electric current. Some of the chemical effects of electric current are as
follows-
(i) Gas bubbles are formed at electrodes
(ii) Metals are deposited on electrodes
(iii) Change of colour of the solution.

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277
■ Application of chemical effect of electric current
• Extracting Metals from their Ores
• Electroplating
• Purification of metals
• Production of compounds
• Decomposition of Compounds
■ Key points -
•A current flows through a conductor only when there is an electric field within conductor because the drift
velocity of electrons is directly proportional to the applied field.
•Electric field outside the conducting wire which carries constant current is zero because net charge on a current
carrying conductor is zero.
•A metal has a resistance and gets often heated by low current because when free electrons drift through a metal
They make occasional collisions with lattice. There collisions are inelastic and transfer energy to the lattice as
internal energy.
•Ohm's law holds only for small current in metallic wire, not for high currents because for small currents change
in temperature is small and hence change in resistance is small.
•Potentiometer is an ideal instrument to measure the potential difference because potential gradient along the

Y
potentiometer wire can be made very small.
•An Ammeter is always connected in series where as voltmeter is connected in parallel because an ammeter is low
SP
resistance galvanometer while a voltmeter is high resistance galvanometer.
•The drift velocity of electrons is small because of the frequent collisions suffered by electrons.
•The small value of drift velocity produces a large amount of electric current, due to the presence of extremely
large number of free electrons in a conductor.
NA × d
am
•Free electron density in a metal is given by n = where NA = Avogadro's number, d = density of metal
A
and A = Atomic weight of metal.
•In the absence of radiation loss, the time in which a fuse will melt does not depends on it's length but varies with
radius as t ∝ r4
Te

ℓ2
•If length (l) and mass (m) of a conducting wire is given then R∝
m
•Decoration of lights in festivals is an example of series grouping whereas all household appliances are connected
in parallel grouping.
•Using n conductors of equal resistance, the number of possible combinations is 2n–1.
•If the resistance of n conductors are totally different, then the number of possible combinations will be 2n.
•E.m.f is independent of the resistance of the circuit and depends upon the nature of electrolyte of the cell while
potential difference depends upon the resistance between the two points of the circuit and current flowing
through the circuit.
•If the temperature of the conductor placed in the right gap of metre bridge is increased, then the balancing length
decreases and the jockey moves towards left.
•In Wheatstone bridge to avoid inductive effects the battery key should be pressed first and the galvanometer
afterwards.
•In the measurement of resistance, Wheatstone bridge is not affected by the internal resistance of the cell.
•In case of zero deflection, the galvanometer current flows in the primary circuit of the potentiometer, not in the
galvanometer circuit.
•A potentiometer can act as an ideal voltmeter.

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278
 (4) Magnetism and Matter
■ Magnet–
• A magnet is an object that produces a magnetic field around itself

Properties of magnets –
• Magnet attracts iron and has two poles.
• A freely-suspended magnet always stays north-south.

Y
• Unlike poles attract and like poles repel each other.
• A magnet induces magnetism in magnetic materials.
•
SP
An isolated magnetic pole does not exist.
Magnetic field lines
a m
Te

field lines of a bar field lines of a current field lines of an electric

magnet carrying finite solenoid dipole
• The magnetic field lines of a magnet (or a solenoid ) form continuous closed loops. This is unlike the electric
dipole where these field lines begin from a positive charge and end on the negative charge or escape to infinity.
• The tangent to the field lines at a given point represents the direction of the net magnetic field B at that point.
■ The bar Magnet:-
A bar magnet is a rectangular piece of an object, made up of iron, steel or any other ferromagnetic
substance that shows permanent magnetic properties. It has two poles, a north and a south pole.
■ Magnetic Dipole -
• A magnetic dipole consists of two unlike poles of equal strength separated by small distance . It is another
name of bar magnet. It is given by-
M = m ×2 ℓ
Where m = pole strength
• Its SI unit is Am2.

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279
Magnetic dipole moment of a revolving electron
evr  e 
M= = −  L Am
2

2  2me 
where L = angular momentum
me = Mass of electron

Interaction between two magnetic dipole is,

µ 6m1m 2
F= 0 .
4π r 4
where m1,m2 = Pole strength of north and south pole

Magnetic dipole Moment of current Loop

M = NiA
where A = area of current loop
i = current carried by loop
N = number of turns of current carrying loop
■ Magnetic field due to a bar magnet -

Y
• An axial point (end on position) SP
µ0 2Mr
B=
4π ( r − ℓ 2 ) 2
2
ℓ
when ℓ << r
µ 0 2M
B=
4π r 3
am
• On equatorial point (broad side on-position)
µ0 M
B=
4π ( r + ℓ 2 )3 / 2
2

when, ℓ << r
Te

µ0 M
B= .
4π r 3
The direction of magnetic field is parallel to the ℓ
magnetic dipole and opposite to the direction of
dipole moment.
Torque on a bar magnet in a uniform magnetic field
τ = MB sinθ = M × B .
Where, θ is the angle between M and B. Its SI unit
M
is Joule per Tesla (JT–1).
M

■ Potential Energy -
• Potential energy of a magnetic dipole in a magnetic field is given by
U = – MB cos θ = – M.B
where θ is the angle between 'M' and 'B'.
• Work done in rotating the dipole in a uniform magnetic field from θ1 to θ2 is given by-
W = MB (cos θ1 – cos θ2).

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280
■ Oscillation of a freely Suspended magnet -
• The oscillations of a free suspended magnet (magnetic dipole) in a uniform magnetic field are SHM.
I
• The time period of oscillation T = 2π .
MB
Where, I = moment of inertia of the magnet,
M = magnetic moment
B = magnetic field intensity
■ Bar Magnet as an Equivalent Solenoid -
µ 0 2M
• The expression of magnetic field at distance 'r' from centre is given by = B = .
4π r 3
This expression is equivalent to that of bar magnet.
■ Gauss law of Magnetism:- It states that The net magnetic flux through any closed surface is zero.
• The net magnetic flux φB = ∑ ∆φB = ∑ Bi∆S = 0
all all

Y
SP
• Comparing this with Gauss law of electrostatics. The flux through closed surface is given by ∑ Ei∆S = ε
q
0

• The difference between these two laws is that electrostatics is a reflection of the facts that isolated magnetic
poles(monopoles) don’t exist.
m
■ Coulomb's Law in Magnetism -
• Magnitude of force acting between two magnetic poles is given by
a

b
Te

m1m 2
F=k . Where, m1 and m2 are magnetic strength of poles and k is magnetic force constant
r2
µ0
• SI unit of k is N- A −2 . and k = = 10–7
4π
■ Earth's Magnetism -
• Earth's magnetism is generated by convection currents of molten iron and nickel in the earth's core which has
streams of charged particles and generate magnetic fields.

• Earth behaves like a magnet whose North Pole is somewhere close to geographical South Pole and magnetic
South pole is closed to geographical North Pole.

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281
Magnetic meridian and geographical meridian -

• The vertical plane passing through the axis of a magnetic needle suspended freely through its center of gravity
and at rest under earth's field is called the magnetic meridian.
• Similarly, the vertical plane passing through line joining the geographical north and south poles is called the
geographical meridian.
Elements of Earth's Magnetism -
• Magnetic Declination (α) - The smaller angle subtended between the magnetic meridian and geographic
meridian is called magnetic declination.
• Angle of dip (θ) or Magnetic Inclination - In Magnetic meridian, the angle made by resultant of the earth's

Y
magnetic field (Be) with the horizontal in magnetic meridian is known as angle of dip (θ).
• Horizontal and Vertical Component of Earth's Magnetic Field - If B is the intensity of earth's magnetic
field, then horizontal component of earth's magnetic field H = Becos θ
SP
Vertical component of earth's magnetic field V = Be sin θ.
V
B = H 2 + V 2 , tan δ = .
H
Neutral Points -
• These points are where net magnetic field due to the magnet and magnetic field of the earth is zero are called
am
neutral points.
• When north pole of a bar magnet is placed towards South pole of the earth, then neutral point is obtained on
axial line.
µ 2Mr
B= 0 =H
4π ( r 2 – l 2 ) 2
Te

If r > > l, then

µ 2M
B= 0 3 =H
4π r
• When north pole of a bar magnet in placed towards north pole of the earth, then neutral point is obtained on
equatorial line.
µ M
B= 0 =H
( )
4π r 2 – l 2 3 2

If r > > l, then

µ M
B= 0 3 =H
4π r
where, H = horizontal component of earth of magnetic field
■ Tangent law -
The tangent law of magnetism is a way of measuring the strengths of two perpendicular magnetic fields. When
a magnet is exposed to a magnetic fields B that is perpendicular to the Earth's horizontal magnetic field (H),
the magnetic field will rest at an angle θ. The relation between the magnetic fields is as follows:
B = H tanθ
tan θ = Β/Η

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282
■ Important Terms Used to Describe the Properties of Magnetic Materials -
To describe the magnetic properties of materials following terms are required.
• Magnetic induction
When a piece of any substance is placed in an external magnetic field the substance becomes magnetised. The
magnetism so produced in the substance is called induced magnetism and the phenomenon is called magnetic
induction. It is denoted by B
Magnetic induction, B = µ0 (H + I)
Unit is tesla or Wb/m2
• Magnetic Permeability -
It is the ability of a material to permit the passage of magnetic lines of force through it.
B
Magnetic permeability (µ) = .
H
Where, B is magnetic induction and H is magnetising force or magnetic intensity.
Unit is Wb/A-m or NA–2
• Intensity of Magnetisation -
The magnetic dipole moment developed per unit volume of the magnetised substance is called intensity of
M
magnetisation. Intensity of Magnetisation (I) = .
V
Where, V = volume and A = area of cross section of the specimen
Unit is Am–1

Y
• Magnetic Force or Magnetic Intensity -
The degree up to which a magnetic field can magnetise a material is defined in terms of magnetic intensity.
SP
B
Magnetic intensity (H) = – I.
µ
Unit is same as that of Intensity of magnetisation
• Magnetic Susceptibility ( χm) - It is equal to the ratio of intensity of magnetisation and magnetising field. It
has no unit
I
m
χm = .
H

• Relation between Magnetic permeability and Susceptibility is given by -

a

µ = µ0 (1 + χm)
■ Types of magnetic substance
The magnetic materials placed in a uniform magnetic field are classified into three parts.
Te

(i) Paramagnetic Substance

(ii) Diamagnetic Substance
(iii) Ferromagnetic Substance
Property Paramagnetic Diamagnetic Substance Ferromagnetic
Substance Substance
When placed in a Freely magnetise along Freely magnetise and Strongly magnetise
uniform M.F. applied field opposite to magnetic along the magnetic
field field
Susceptibility (χm) Small and positive Small and negative Very large χm > 1
0 < χm < ε, – 1 < χm < 0
ε = small numbers
Permeability µ >µ0 µ < µ0 µ >>µ0
Relative Permeability 1 < µr < (1 + ε) Positive and less than 1 Large value µr > 1
ε = small-number 0 < µr < 1
Effect of temperature 1 Independent with 1
χm ∝ temperature χm ∝ ( T > Tc )
T T – Tc
Variation of I with H Linear change Linear change and Non-linear change
saturable low
temperature

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283
 In a non- uniform Tends to move from Tends to move from Tends to move
magnetic field weaker to stronger stronger to weaker quickly from weaker
magnetic field magnetic field to stronger magnetic
field
Examples Na, Ca, O2, CuCl2, Al Pb, H2O, NaCl, Bi, Cu, Ni, Co, Fe, Fe2, Gd
Si, Sb
■ Curie's law
• According to this law the intensity of magnetisation I of a paramagnetic substance is directly proportional to
magnetic intensity H of magnetising field and inversely proportional to kelvin temperature T.
I = C(H/T)
Where C is curie constant.
it can also the represented as χ = C/T
where χ = magnetic susceptibility
• The temperature of transition from ferromagnetic substance to paramagnetism is called Curie temperature
T C.
C
χ= (T > TC)
T − Tc
■ Hysteresis -

Y
SP
am
Te

• The lagging of intensity of magnetisation (I) or magnetic induction (B) behind magnetising field (H), when a
specimen of a magnetic substance is taken through a complete of magnetisation is called hysteresis.
Retentivity or Residual Magnetism
• The value of the intensity of magnetisation of a material, then the magnetising field is reduced to zero is called
rententivity or residual magnetism of the material.
Coercivity
• The coercivity of a substance is a measure of the reverse magnetising field required to distroy the residual
magnetism of the substance.
Hysteresis Loss
• The energy supplied to the substance during magnetisation is not fully recovered. The balance of energy left in
the substance is lost as heat.This is called Hysteresis loss.
• The energy lost per unit volume of a substance in a complete cycle of magnetisation is equal to the area of the
hysteresis loop.
Differences in magnetic properties of soft Iron and steel
• The retentivity of soft iron is greater than the retentivity of steel.
• The coercivity of soft iron is less than the coercivity of steel.
• The hysteresis loss in soft iron is smaller than that in steel.
• Permeability of soft iron is greater than of steel

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284
 (5) Alternating Current
Alternating Current :-
• An alternating current that current which changes its direction with time.
• The voltage with which AC current is associated is called AC voltage and varies like a sine function with time.
• It is represented by-
E = E0 sin(ωt + φ)
I = I0 sin (ωt + φ)
Where, I = Instantaneous current
I0 = Peak value or maximum value of AC
(ωt + φ) = Phase at any time t
φ = Initial phase or phase constant
ω = Angular frequency
2π
T = Time period =
ω
1
f = Frequency =
T
Ε0 = amplitude or peak value of voltage
E = Voltage at any time t

Y
SP
ωt
a m
Key Points
• The equation of current can also be written in cosine form as I = I0 cos (ωt +φ).
• To produce alternating current, emf / voltage should be alternating. An alternating emf / voltage can be
Te

represented by E = E0sin (ωt +φ).

• An alternating emf is produced by a AC dynamo or an electronic oscillator.
• The frequency of an AC in India is 50 Hz, i.e. f = 50 Hz, so ω = 2πf = 100 π rad/s–1
• The AC can be converted into DC with the help of a rectifier while DC into AC with the help of an inverter.
• It cannot produce chemical effects of current such as electroplating.
• It can be stepped up or stepped down with the help of transformer.
Phasor Diagram -
• The length of arrow represents the peak value of the quantity and its projection on x or y-axis gives its
instantaneous value.
For Example - Iy = I0 sin ωt
Ix = I0 cos ωt

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285
Average Or Mean Value of Alternating Current Or Voltage Over One Complete Cycle
t2
t2 ∫ I(t) dt
∫
t1
Iav = I(t) dt = Iav =
t1 t 2 – t1
Where, I = I0 sin ωt
(i) Over first half cycle-
2L0
Iav = = 0.637 I0
π
(ii) Over full cycle -
Iav = 0
So, average value of current for the full cycle is zero.
• Average value of alternating emf over complete cycle is zero.
• Average value of voltage over one half cycle is
2E
E av = 0 = 0.637 E 0 .
π
• Average value during + ve half cycle :
Iav = 0.637 I0
Eav = 0.637 E0
• Average value during – ve half cycle -
Iav = – 0.637 I0

Y
Eav = – 0.637 E0
Root Mean Square Or Virtual Or Effective Value Of Sinusoidal Voltage Or Current –
SP
• The effective or virtual value of an alternating current is that steady current which, when passed through a given
resistance for a certain time will develop the same amount of heat as the actual alternating current shall develop
when passed for the same time.
I02 I
Ieff = = 0 = 0.707 I0
2 2
1
am
• The effective or RMS value of an alternating current is times its peak value or maximum value. Similarly
2
the effective or virtual value of alternating emf is given by
E
Eeff = 0 = 0.707 E 0
2
Form Factor - It is define as the ratio of the virtual or RMS value to the average value of an alternating current
Te

or voltage. Thus
I E
Form factor = rms = rms .
Ia v E av
A.C. Circuits -
• Basic ac circuit elements are resistors, inductors and capacitors.
• Impedance - The effective resistance offered to an LCR circuit or arising from combined effect of ohmic
resistance and reactance is called Impedance .
Circuit containing pure resistance only -
• Consider resistor R is connected across emf E = E0 sin ωt.
As show in fig.

E = E0 sin ωt

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286
 E E0
• If I is the instantaneous current in the circuit, at any time t, then current I = = sin ωt Where,
R R
E0
I0 = = maximum value of current.
R
• The current is in phase with applied voltage as shown in fig. (i) and fig. (ii) shows the complex number
representation of voltage and current.

E = E0 sin ω t E0
E

ωt

Circuit containing pure inductance only-

• Fig. (i) shows a circuit containing a inductor of self inductance L with an alternating voltage E = Ε0 sin ωt
applied across it.

Y
SP
E = E0 sin ωt
Fig. (i)
m
 π E  π
• I = I0 sin  ωt –  = 0 sin  ωt − 
 2  X L  2
Where, XL = ωL is the resistance offered by inductor. It is also known as inductive reactance. Its units is Ω. I0
a

E0
= = current amplitude
XL
Te

• The current lags behind the voltage by π/2 (or quarter of cycle) or voltage leads the current by π/2 as shown in
fig (ii) and fig. (iii) shows the complex number representation.

E0
E = E0 sinωt

 π
I0 sin  ωt − 
 2

Fig. - (ii) Fig. - (iii)

• Key Points:–
(i) A phase difference of π/2 is equivalent to time difference of T/4.
(ii) For dc circuit ω = 0 ⇒XL = 0. So inductor offers zero resistance to a dc circuit.
(iii) XL depends upon the frequency of source

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287
A.C. circuit containing capacitor only
• Fig (i) shows a circuit containing a capacitor of capacitance c with an alternating voltage E = E0 sinωt applied
across it

Fig (i)
E  π
• I = I0 sin (ωt + π/2) = 0 sin  ωt + 
XC  2
1 E
Where, Xc = is known as capacitive reactance and I0 = 0 is the peak value of current
ωc Xc
• In this case current leads the voltage by π/2

Y
E = E 0 sin ωt
SP ωt

I = I0 sinω t

fig. (ii)
am
1
• Since the capacitive reactance Xc = is inversely proportional to the frequency of applied voltage. Hence the
ωc
condenser offers negligible reactance at high frequency and works as "by pass capacitor" and very high
reactance at low frequency works as blocking condenser.
• The complex no representation is shown as-
Te

E0

fig. (iii)
• In case of resistor, resistance is offered due to the obstruction to the passage of current. In inductor it is due to
induced e.m.f. In capacitor, it is potential difference developed across the capacitor.
• Values of φ and Z for different types of circuits is given the table below-
Type of circuit Phase factor Impedance
Purely resistive circuit φ = 0º Z=R
Purely inductive circuit φ = –π/2 Z = XL = ωL
purely capacitive circuit φ = π/2 1
Z = Xc =
ωc
• The reciprocal of reactance is called susceptance and that of impedance is called admittance

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288
 A.C. circuit containing Inductance and Resistance In series:-
Let us consider a circuit as shown in fig (i) containing a series combination of an inductance L and resistance
R with an alternating emf E = E0 sinωt. applied across the combination. The instantaneous current in the
circuit is given by –
Applied emf
I=
vector impedence of the circuit

E = E0 sinωt
fig. (i) fig. (ii)
E0
• I = I0 sin (ωt-θ) =sin ( ωt − θ ) ............(A)
Z
E0
Where, Z = R 2 + ω2 L2 , I0 =

Y
R + ω2 L2
2

• Equation (A) represent the variation of current in the circuit with time as shown in fig (iii). It also indicates that
SP
the current lags behind the applied phase by an angle θ or emf in current by angle θ where, θ = tan −1
ωL
R
as

shown in fig. (ii)

E = E0 sinωt
I = I0 sin(ωt- θ)
m
O ωt
a
Te

fig (iii)
• Fig (iv) represents the complex no representation–
The voltage ER across the resistance while voltage EL across the inductance leading the current I by an angle π/2
ωL
and the total voltage, E0 = I0 R 2 + ω2 L2 leading the current by an angle θ = tan −1
R

E0

ER

E0

fig (iv)

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289
 • The impedance is defined as the ratio of r.m.s (or virtual) value of the e.m.f. applied across the L – R circuit to
the r.m.s. (or virtual) value of current flowing through the circuit.
E0
E rms E
Z= = 2 = eff
I rms I 0 Ieff
2
Special Cases–
Case 1:
• If R → 0 i.e. when inductive reactance ωL is very large than to ohmic resistance R which can be neglected.
Then Z = ωL and θ = π/2
• In practice, it occurs when the frequency is very high. Then current is given by–
E
I = I0 sin (ωt – π/2) and I0 = = 0
ωL
I0 is inversely proportional to both self inductance and frequency. Therefore, when the frequency is high, a high
voltage can produce only small current.
ωL
• Phase lag is θ = tan–1
R
Hence greater the reactance compared with the ohmic resistance the phase lag comes into existence. Practically

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this is adopted in A.C voltmeters and wattmeter.
Case 2:-
• If ωL → 0 i.e. When inductance or the frequency (f = ω/2π) is small as to be negligible, then ωL will be very
small compared to R and we get,
θ = 0 and Z = R
SP
E E
and I = I0 sinωt = 0 sin ωt =
R R
am
A.C. Circuit Containing a Resistance And A Capacitance In Series:
Fig. (i) shows a circuit consisting of a series combination of a resistance R and a capacitor C with an
alternating emf E = E0 sinωt applied across the combination. The instantaneous current I is given by,
Applied emf
I=
Vector impdeance of the circuit
Te

E = E0 sinωt
fig. (i)
E 0 sin ( ωt + θ )
• I = I0 sin ( ωt + θ ) = ............... (A)
1
R + 2 2
2

ωC
E0
Where, I0 = Indicates the peak value of the current. Equation (A) represents the variation of
1
R + 2 2
2

ωC
current with time and shows that current leads the applied voltage in phase by angle θ as shown in Fig. (ii)
1/ ωC
given by θ = tan −1
R

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290
 E = E0 sinωt
I = I0 sin(ωt + θ)

ωt

fig. (ii)
1
• ( Resistance ) + ( Capacitive reactance )
2 2
The impedance, Z = R 2 + 2 2 =
ωC
• Fig. (iii) Shows the complex number representation of current and voltage.

Y
SP C

Fig. (iii)
• The current leads the applied voltage by phase is the same as the voltage lags behind the current in phase.
m
• The voltage ER across the resistance is in phase with current, while the voltage EC across the condenser
1
lagging the current I by an angle π/2. Finally the total voltage, E 0 = I0 R 2 + lagging the current I by an
ω C2
2
a

1
angle θ = tan –1 ωC .
R
Te

Special Cases
(i) If C → 0, then I0 →0, this means no current will flow in the circuit with zero capacity and this causes a break
in the circuit. The same result will be obtained with very low frequencies.
E
(ii) If C →∞, then I0 → 0 . Thus a condenser of infinite capacity does not offer any resistance to A.C. and
R
tan θ = 0 or θ → 0. This means the introduction of such condenser causes no phase change. The same result
follows if the frequency is very high.
π π
(iii) If R→ 0, then I= E0/ ωC and tan θ → ∞ or . Thus the current is leading by in phase with respect to emf.
2 2
A.C. Circuit with resistance, capacitance and inductance in series
• Let a sinusoidal alternating emf E = E0 sinωt be applied to the series combination of L.C.R. as shown in
Fig. (i)

Fig. (i)

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291
• The expression for current is given by
E0
I= sin ( ωt − θ ) ..........................(A)
2
 1 
R +  ωL −
2

 ωC 
2
E0  1 
Where, I0 = I0 is the peak value of the current and, R 2 +  ωL −  =Z
 1 
2
 ω C
R 2 +  ωL − 
 ωC 
Where Z is called the impedance of the circuit (in magnitude), which is the ratio of peak emf to the peak
current. Again impedance, is given by
E rms E0 / 2 E eff
z= = =
I rms I0 / 2 Ieff
Thus the impedance of a LC.R. Circuit can be defined as the ratio of the r.m.s. value of emf applied to the
r.m.s. current flowing through it. Eq. (A) shows that the current lags the applied voltage in phase by an angle
θ given by
1
ωL −
θ = tan–1 ω C

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R
• The variation of current and voltage with time is shown in fig. (ii). In other words, the emf and current have a
SP
phase difference of θ. This phase difference is shown in Fig. (iii) in the complex plane. The voltage across the
resistance ER is shown in phase with the current.

E = E0 sinωt
I = I0 sin(ωt+θ)
am

Fig. (ii)
Te

Fig. (iii)
• EX = EL - EC Which is the net voltage across the combination of L and C and leads the current by an angle
π/2. The total voltage E0 shown leading the current by an angle.
XL − XC
θ = tan −1
R

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292
Special Cases
Depending on the values of XL and XC there are three important cases.
Case 1 :
1  ω
If ωL > i.e. when impressed frequency  f =  is very large, the phase angle θ will be positive and the
ωC  2π 
current will lag behind the applied emf. The potential difference (I0 XL = I0 ωL) across the inductance is greater
than potential difference I0/ωC across the capacitance and the circuit behaves as an inductive circuit. The vector
voltage in complex plane is shown in Fig. (iii)
Case 2 :
1
If ωL < the phase angle θ will be negative and the current will lead the applied emf. The circuit behaves as
ωC
capacitive circuit. The vector diagram for the case is shown in Fig (iv) in complex plane.

ER

E0
EL

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EX = EC –EL
SP
EC
m
Fig. (iv)
Case 3 :
1
If ωL = a very important and interesting case arises. In this case,
ωC
a

1
ωL −
θ = tan −1 ωC = 0
Te

R
i.e. the phase angle θ becomes zero and the emf and current will be in phase. The potential difference across the
inductance and capacitance are equal in magnitude but opposite in phase and therefore cancel out and the whole
voltage is dropped across the resistance. The vector diagram in complex plane is shown in fig. (v)

R
E 0/ E0 = ER
EL
=
ER

EC

Fig. (v)

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293
 Under this condition, the peak current will be maximum given by
E0 E
I0 max = = 0
 1 
2 R
R 2 +  ωL − 
 ωC 
1
• Thus, in this particular case when ωL = the emf and current will be in phase and current is maximum. The
ωC
circuit is said to be a series resonant circuit and the phenomenon of maximum current is called resonance. Thus
at resonance,
1
ωr L =
ωr C
1 1
ωr = or f r = ..................... (B)
LC 2π LC
Here subscript r corresponds to resonance.
• The frequency at which resonance occurs is known as resonance frequency.
• Evidently from Eq. (B) the resonant frequency is the same as the frequency of the oscillatory discharge of a
series LCR circuit when the resistance is low.
• Thus the series LCR circuit is in resonance with applied voltage. The frequency of the applied voltage coincides
with the natural frequency of the circuit. Fig. (v) gives the vector diagram of voltage and current for this circuit
on the complex plane under this condition. Fig. (vi) shows the variation of peak current with frequency for

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resonant circuit. SP
X
am

Fig. (vi)
Sharpness Of Resonance Of A Series LCR Cicuit
We have discussed in the previous article that the current amplitude is,
E0
I0 = for an LCR circuit
Te

2
 1 
R +  ωL −
2

 ωC 
1 E
At resonance ωL = , therefore, I0(max) = 0
ωC R
• The curves obtained by plotting amplitude of current (or voltage drop across a fixed resistance) against ω (or f)
are known as resonance curves.
• Fig. (i) shows the variation of current amplitude as function of frequency for different values of resistance R

fig (i)

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294
• Clearly, as the resistance in the circuit is reduced the resonance curve becomes sharper. The peak value of I0
shows that the circuit responds only to the frequency exactly equal to its natural frequency of the circuit
1
ωr = for low resistance in LCR circuit and to none others. The resonance here is, therefore, said to be
LC
sharp
• Thus, sharpness of resonance is, in a way, a measure of the rate of fall of amplitude from its maximum value at
resonant frequency on either side of it. The more quickly the current amplitude falls for changes of frequency
on both sides of the resonant frequency fr the sharper is said to be resonance.
• On the other hand, if the amplitude remains more or less at its peak value an appreciable range of frequency on
1 1
either side ωr = resonant frequency i.e. even when ωr ≠ . Thus, the circuit responds to a number of
LC LC
frequencies near about fr on either side of it. The resonance in this case, is therefore, said to be flat.
• Fig. (ii) shows the variation of EL and EC with ω. Both of these curves are similar in shape in the vicinity of the
resonance to the curves of Fig. (i). This is because the resonance phenomenon takes place in a very limited
range. The reactance across which the voltage is developed remains substantially the same in the region about
the resonance.
EL EC

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SP E0 E0
m
Fig. (ii)
Quality factor (Q) of a circuit
• Qualitatively the sharpness of resonance curve is determined by a quality factor called "Q" of the circuit. It is
defined as the ratio of reactance of either the inductance or capacitance at the resonant frequency to the total
a

resistance of the circuit. Thus, mathematically,

X ωL X 1
Q = L = r or Q = C =
ωr CR
Te

R R R
• If Q is large the resonance curve is sharp.
Voltage Magnification
• The Quality factor (Q) is also a measure of voltage magnification in the series L.C.R circuit which can be
understood as follows.
• At resonance the potential difference across inductance and capacitance are equal and 180º out of phase and
hence cancel. Therefore, the only potential difference at resonance is across the resistance.
• As resonant current is maximum and given by,
E
I0 max = 0
R
Potential difference across resistance = I0max R = E0.
• At resonance the potential difference across resistance is equal to the applied emf. The voltage magnification in
L.C.R. circuit is defined as,
p.d.across the inductance or capacitance
Voltage magnification =
Applied voltage
For inductance-
I0 max ωr L E ωL ωL 1 L
m= = 0 r = r =Q=
E0 R E0 R R C

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295
 For capacitance-
10 max 1 E 1 1 1 L
m= = 0 = =Q=
E 0 ωr C RE 0 ωr C ωr CR R C
Thus, the voltage magnification of L.C.R. circuit is equal to its quality factor Q at resonance.
Comparative Study Of A Series Resonant And Parallel
Series resonant circuit Parallel resonant circuit
• 1 1 1 R2
Series resonant frequency is f r = Here, f r = −
2π LC 2π LC L2
• At resonance the power factor is unity and In this case the power factor is also unity at
the impedance is purely resistive resonance frequency but the impedance is given by,
Zr = R L
Zr =
CR
• At resonance, the impedance of the circuit is Here at resonance the impedance of the circuit is
minimum while the admittance is maximum. maximum while the admittance is minimum.
• Series circuit admits maximum current at On the other hand this circuit allows a minimum
resonant frequency. current at the resonant frequency.
• Series circuit is called acceptor circuit This circuit is called a rejecter because it rejects
because it accepts a particular frequency and only one frequency and accepts others.

Y
rejects others.
• At resonance the circuit exhibits a voltage This circuit shows a similar current magnification

Tabular Form Of Power In A.C circuit–

SP
magnification equal to the quality factor. equal to the quality factor.

A.C. Circuit Power

• Purely Resistance circuit P = Erms × Irsm
• Power in inductive circuit P=0
am
• Purely capacitive circuit E 0 I0
P= sin2 ωt
2
• Circuit containing L, C and R Pavg = Erms Irms cosθ
Power Factor-
The term Erms. Irms is called apparent power and cosθ is called power factor
Te

True Power Pavg

P.F = = = cos θ
Apparent Power I rms. E rms
Tabular Form Of Power Factor In A.C. Circuit:
A.C. Circuit Power Factor
• L–C–R R
cos θ =
2
 1 
R 2 +  ωL − 
 ωC 
• Purely inductive circuit R
cos θ =
R + ω2 L2
2

• Purely capacitive circuit R

cos θ =
1
R2 +
ω C2
2

Key Points:
(i) Out of the number of available frequencies it selects one frequency for which the current is maximum and
for other frequencies the current is comparatively very small, in other words it shows selectivity.
(ii) When emf is expressed in volt and current in ampere then unit of power is watt.

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296
 (iii) Power dissipation in a pure inductance is zero and the current in such circuit is known as idle or wattless
current. The choke coil works on this principle.
(iv) As the average of sin 2ωt over one cycle is zero. Hence the average power is zero. Thus the average power
dissipation in a pure capacitive circuit is zero, hence the current through it is also wattless or idle.
Choke Coil:
• The inductor which is used for reducing the current in the A.C. circuit is called a choke or choking coil. The
average power dissipated in the choke coil is given by.
1 R
P = E 0 I0 cos θ Where the power factor, cos θ =
2 R + ω2 L2
2

• In choke coil L is large while R is very small. Hence cos θ is nearly zero. Therefore the power consumed by the
coil is extremely small.
• Resistance is used in place of inductance the power loss is I2R. Hence to avoid this loss, we prefer choke coil.
Transformer –
• It is a device which can change a low voltage of high current into a high voltage of low current and vice
versa.
•Its working is based on mutual induction in which its converts magnetic energy into electrical energy.
There are two types of transformers -
(i) Step up Transformers-
• It converts a low voltage of high current into a high voltage of low current.

Y
SP
In this transformer-
(i) NS > NP
m
(ii) ES > EP
(iii)IP > IS,
Where symbols, NS = number of coils in secondary
a

NP = number of coils in primary

ES = voltage of secondary
EP = voltage of primary
Te

IP = current in primary coil

IS = current in secondary coil
(ii) Step down transformer -
• It converts a high voltage of low current into a low voltage of high current.

In this transformer
(i) NP > NS
(ii) EP > ES
(iii) IP < IS
Transformation Ratio -
It is represented by k
N E I
k= S = S = P
N P E P IS
• For step up transformer, k > 1.
• For step down transformer, k < 1.

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297
 Key Points:
(i) Transformer does not operate on direct current. It operates only on alternating voltage as input as well as
at output.
Output power
(ii) Efficiency of transformer is given by η = .
Input power
(iii) Generally efficiency ranges from 70% to 90%.
(iv) Transformer does not amplify power as vacuum tube.

(6) Magnetic effect of current and magnetism-

Oersted's Experiment-
In 1820 orested discovered that a current in a wire can also produce magnetic effect. It was demonstrated that
when a compass needle is brought near a wire carrying current then the compass needle shows a deflection.
Magnetic Field ( B ) -
• The space in the surrounding of a magnet or any current carrying conductor in which its magnetic influence can
be experienced is called magnetic field.
• S.I. unit of magnetic field is Wb/m2 or T (tesla).
• The strength of magnetic field is called one tesla, if a charge of one coulomb, when moving with a velocity
1ms–1 along a direction perpendicular to the direction of the magnetic field experiences a force of 1 Newton.

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1 tesla (T) = 1 weber /meter2 (wbm–2) = 1 Newton/ ampere–metre (NA–1m–1)
• C.G.S units of magnetic field are called gauss or oersted 1 gauss = 10–4 tesla.
Key Points:
SP
• A moving charge is a source of magnetic field.
• A current or moving charge creates a magnetic field in the surrounding space (in addition to its electric field)
• The magnetic field exerts a force or any other moving charge or current that is present in the field.
• At any position the direction of B is defined as that in which north pole of a compass needle tends to point.
am
Right Hand Thumb Rule –
If we hold a current carrying conductor in the grip of the right hand in such a way that thumb points in the
direction of current then curling finger shows direction of magnetic field.
Te

Magnetic Force: Lorentz Law

• The magnetic force on a charge Q, moving with velocity v in a magnetic field B is

(
Fmag = Q v × B )

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298
 This is known as the Lorentz force law. In the presence of both electric field and magnetic fields, the net force
on Q would be –
( )
F = Q E + V × B 
 
• Since, F and v are vectors, B is actually a pseudo vectors.
• In the fig at the second wire the magnetic field points into the page. The velocity of the charges is upward and
the resulting force is to the left.
Key Points–
• The magnitude Fmag of the magnetic force exerted on the particle is proportional to the charge q and to the
speed.
• When a charge particle moves parallel to the magnetic field vector, the magnetic force acting on the particle is
zero.
• When the particle is at an angle θ ≠ 0 with the magnetic field, the magnetic force acts in the direction between
both v and B .
• The magnetic forces on oppositely charged particles moving at the same velocity in a magnetic field are in
opposite direction.
• The magnitude of the magnetic force exerted on the moving particle is proportional to sinθ, where θ is the angle
of the velocity vector of particle makes with the direction of B
( ) ( )
• Magnetic force do not work because V × B is perpendicular V , so V × B = 0. Magnetic force may alter the
direction in which a particle moves, but they cannot speed it up or slow it down.

Y
Difference Between Electric and Magnetic Force on charged Particles
Electric Force Magnetic Force

to the direction of the electric field.

SP
The electric force is always parallel or antiparallel The magnetic force is perpendicular to the
magnetic field.
The electric force acts on a charged particle The magnetic force acts on a charged particles
independent of the particles velocity only when the particle is in motion and the force
is proportional to the velocity
m
The electric force does work in displacing a Magnetic force associated with a constant
charged particle. magnetic field.
Motion of A charge Particle In A Magnetic Field –
• Consider a charged particle of mass m projected in a uniform magnetic field B with an initial velocity vector
a

V perpendicular to the field.

Te

• A force will act on the particle as shown which is perpendicular to the velocity at any instant and also
magnitude of the velocity will remain same, only direction will change.
• Finally, the particle will move in a circular path. The magnetic force provides the necessary centripetal force.
So, we can write.
mv 2 mv
= qvB or r =
r qB
Where, r = radius of circular path
• The angular speed ω of the particle is given by –
v qB
ω= =
r m
• The time period T of the motion is given by–
2πr 2πm
T= =
v qB

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299
 • Frequency is given by–
1 qB
f= =
T 2πm
• The time period is independent of velocity given to charge particle. If two identical charge particle are given
different speeds from a point in the same direction, then they will return to the initial point simultaneously.
• If particle is projected at some angle φ with magnetic field.
(a) With perpendicular component of velocity it moves in a circular path of radius
mv ⊥ mv sin φ
r= =
qB qB
(b) with parallel component of velocity it moves along the field lines. The resulting force is helical. The linear
distance travelled in one revolution (time period) is called pitch.
2πmv11 2πmv cos φ
p = v11T = =
qB qB

Y
SP
Application Involving Charged Particles Moving In A Magnetic Field-
am
(a) Velocity Selector:
• In many experiments involving moving charged particles, it is important that all particles move with essentially
the same velocity, which can be achieved by applying a combination of electric field and a magnetic field
oriented. From the expression
E
qE = qvB, we find that v =
Te

Only those particles having this speed pass undeflected through the mutually perpendicular electric and
magnetic fields.
(b) Cyclotron:
• This machine was discovered by Lorentz in 1934 to increase the energy of the charge particle.
• It can impart the energy to the charge particle like α-particle, β-particle, dutron, ions, proton but not an
electron
• The maximum energy that can be supplied by the cyclotron is a 25 MeV

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300
 mv
• Radius of the circular path, r =
qB
Bq
• Cyclotron frequency, v =
2πm
qBr
• Cyclotron velocity v =
m
2πm
• Time period of cyclotron, T =
qB
qB
• Angular frequency of cyclotron, ω =
m
• The energy gained by the charge particle is
E = 2mπ2v2R2
Where, m = mass of charge particle
q = charge of the particle
B = Magnitude of the applied field
v = velocity of revolving charge particle
r = radius of the path

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• The maximum energy that can be achieved by cyclotron is 25 MeV. Sometimes the modified cyclotron is
impart the maximum energy to the charge particle and increased limits is 60 MeV. Such a cyclotron which
produces 60 MeV energy is called 60 Cyclotron
Limitation of cyclotron
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• Cyclotron cannot accelerate uncharged particle like neutron
• The +vely charged particles having large mass i.e. ions cannot move at limitless speed in a cyclotron.
Magnetic Dipole And Dipole Moment–
• Magnetic dipole is the magnetic equivalent of electric dipole.
m
• The magnetic field pattern produced by a small current loop is similar to a bar magnet. Therefore, it also acts
like a magnetic dipole.
• The magnetic moment of a flat current loop is defined as the product of current I and area A enclosed by it.
a

M = IA
• The direction of the magnetic moment coincides with the direction of area vector (which is the direction of
the magnetic field)
Te

• If the loop contains N number of turns, the magnetic moment is given by M = NIA
• Sometimes a current carrying loop does not lie in a single plane.
• Sometimes a non-conducting body is related with some angular speed. In this case the ratio of magnetic
moment and angular momentum is constant which is equal to q/2m, where q is the charge and m is the mass
of the body. For example, in case of ring of mass m, radius R and charge q distributed on its circumference.
M q
=
L 2m

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301
Torque Acting on A current carrying coil placed Inside a uniform Magnetic field
Torque acting on a current carrying coil placed inside a uniform magnetic field is given by–
τ = NBIA Sinφ
Where, N = number of turns in the coil
B = magnetic field intensity
I = current in the coil
A = area of cross-section of the coil
φ = angle between magnetic field and normal to the plane of the coil.

Energy of Dipole
• When a magnetic dipole changes orientation in a magnetic field, the field does work on it
• Energy needed to rotate the loop through on angle θ is
∆U = MB (cosθ1 – cosθ2)
If we choose θ1 such that at θ1 = 90º θ2 = 0

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U = −M.B
This is the energy stored in the loop.
Galvanometer–
SP
It is a device used for the detection and measurement of the small electric currents.
Type of Galvanometer-
• Moving coil galvanometer
• Suspended type galvanometer
am
• Mirror type galvanometer
• Torsion head type galvanometer
Moving coil Galvanometer–
• The principle of moving coil galvanometer is based on the fact that when a current carrying coil is placed in a
magnetic field, it experiences a torque.
• In equilibrium, deflecting torque = Restoring torque
Te

Cθ
NBIA = Cθ ⇒ I = = Kθ
NBA
Where, C = restoring torque per unit twist.
N = number of turns in the coil.
B = magnetic field intensity.
A = area of cross section of the coil.
θ = twist angle
C
K = galvanometer constant =
NBA
• Therefore the deflection produced in the galvanometer is directly proportional to the current flowing through
it.
Current Sensitivity -
• The deflection produced per unit current in galvanometer is called its current sensitivity.
θ NBA
Current sensitivity Is = =
I C
NBIA
Where, θ = .
C
• The unit of current sensitivity is radian per ampere or deflection per ampere.

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302
 Voltage Sensitivity -
• The deflection produced per unit voltage applied across the ends of the galvanometer is called its voltage
sensitivity
θ NBIA
Voltage sensitivity, VS = = .
V kV
NBA
VS = .
CR
I 1
• = ; Where, R is the resistance of the galvanometer.
V R
• The unit of the voltage sensitivity is radian per volt or deflection per volt.
For the Sensitivity of the galvanometer -
• A galvanometer is said to be more sensitive if it shows a large deflection for a small value of current. For a
given value of I, θ will be large.
• Be can be increased using strong magnets.
• The value of C for a quartz and phosphor - bronze is very small. So the suspension wire of quartz or phosphor
is used.
• 'N' should be large.
• 'B' should be large.
• 'A' should be large.
• 'k' should be small.
Ammeter

Y
An ammeter is a low resistance galvanometer used for measuring the current in a circuit. It is always
connected in series.
SP
Conversion of a Galvanometer into a Ammeter
A galvanometer can be converted into an ammeter by connecting a low resistance into its parallel. If G is the
resistance of a galvanometer and it give full scale deflection for current Ig, then required low resistance S,
connected in its parallel for converting it into an ammeter of range I is given by
a m
Te

The resistance of an ideal ammeter is zero.

Voltmeter
A voltmeter is a high resistance galvanometer used for measuring the potential difference between two points.
It is always connected in parallel.
The resistance of an ideal voltmeter is infinity.
Conversion of Galvanometer into voltmeters
A galvanometer can be converted into a voltmeter by connecting a high resistance into its series.
If a galvanometer of resistance G shows full scale deflection for current Ig, then required high resistance R,
connected in series for converting it into a voltmeter of range V is given by
V
V = Ig (G +R) ⇒ R = − G
Ig

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303
 Magnetic field of A Moving Point Charge (Laplace Rule)
• It was found experimentally that the magnetic induction resulting from a charge q moving with velocity v at
a distance r away from the charge where r is a vector pointing from the charge to the point where the field is
being found is related by–
µ  v× r 
B = 0 q 3 
4π  r 

Where, r is unit vector along r,

µ0 is called permeability of free space.
• In S.I. units. the numerical value of µ0 is exactly 4π × 10–7.
µ0 = 4π×10–7 NS2C–2 = 4π × 10–7 ωb (Am–1) = 4π ×10–7τ mA–1
Key Points–
• For Points lying very far from the particle the magnetic field is zero.
• The magnetic field due to a stationary particle is zero, As the velocity increases, the magnetic field increases.

Y
• For points lying on a line parallel to v and passing through the charge, θ is zero and hence the magnetic field is
zero.
• For points lying on a plane perpendicular to v , the magnetic field is greatest since θ is 90º.
SP
• Magnetic field of lines are concentric circles centered on the line of the velocity v and lying in planes
perpendicular to this line.
• The direction of the magnetic field lines is given by the right hand rule.

The Biot-Savart Law–

• In 1820, Biot and Savart formulated the equation for the field due to current in a long straight wire. They
am
produced mathematical formula for the field due to a single current element rather than a finite length of wire.
The equation can be used to calculate configuration as shown in fig.
Te

dB = I
( )
µ0 d ℓ × rˆ µ Idℓ sin θ
= 0
4π r 3
4π r 2
Application of Biot-Savart Law–
(i) Magnetic field Due to current In A straight wire
• Magnetic field due to a wire segment carrying current I at P, when the wire segments subtends angle α and β
as shown is given by–
µI
B = 0 [sin α + sin β]
4πR

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304
Key Points-
• For points along the length of the wire (but not on it), the field is always zero.
• The field is always perpendicular to the plane containing the wire and the point. So, in a plane perpendicular to
the wire and containing the point, the lines of force are concentric circles encircling the wire as shown in fig.

• If the wire is of infinite length and the point P is not near its ends as shown in fig above.
α = β = (π/2), then –

Y
µ 2I
B= 0
4π d
SP
• If the point is near one end of an infinitely long wire as shown in fig α =
π
2
and β = 0

µ0 I
B=
4π d
m
• Direction of magnetic field for straight current carrying wire:
(a) When the current I is coming outward (out of the page), the magnetic field B is a circle in the
anticlockwise.
a

(b) When the current I is pointing inward (x) (into the page) the magnetic field B is a circle in the clockwise
sense.
Te

• Direction of magnetic field in closed current carrying loop

(a) When the current I is flowing in the anticlockwise sense, the magnetic field B is outwards (out of page)
(b) When the current I is flowing in the clockwise sense, the magnetic field B is inward (×) (into the page)

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305
 (ii) Magnetic field at the centre of a current. Carrying circular Arc–
• Magnetic field B at the centre of a circular arc of radius r is given by –
µ0 I
Barc = θ
4πr

µ0 I
• For circular loop θ = 2π, Barc =
2r
(iii) Magnetic field on the axis of a circular current loop-
• Consider a circular loop of wire of radius a and carrying current I, as shown in fig. Let the plane of the loop be
perpendicular to the plane of paper and point P at a distance r from the centre C.

Y
SP
• As the direction of the field is along +ve x-direction, so we can write-
µ 0 Ia 2 ˆi
B=
am
2 (r2 + a 2 )
3/ 2

If the coil consists of N turns, then–

µ 0 NIa 2
B=
2 ( r2 + a 2 )
3/ 2
Te

• Variation of magnetic field along the axis of a circular current loop.

fig. shows the magnetic field along the axis of a circular loop with distance from its centre. The value of B is
maximum at the centre and decrease as we go away the centre, on either side of loop.
Special Cases:
(a) At the centre of the current loop, r = 0 therefore
µ 0 NIa 2 µ 0 NI
B= =
2a 3 2a
µ 0 NIA
or B =
2πa 3

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306
 Key Points-
• A loop as a magnet: The pattern of the magnetic field is comparable with the magnetic field produced by a bar
magnet

• The side I (the side from which B emerges out) of the loop acts as "north pole and side" (the side in which
B enter) acts as the "south pole". It can be verified by studying force on one loop due to a magnet or a loop.

Y
Ampere's circuital Law –
SP
• Ampere's circuital law states that the line integral of the magnetic field B around any closed circuit is equal to
µ0 times the total current I threading or passing through this closed circuit. Mathematically.
∫ B.dℓ = µ I
0
m
In a simplified form BL = µ0I
a
Te

Key points-
• While applying the ampere's law, the following right hand convention is used-
(a) Current into the plane of the paper is negative
(b) Current out of plane of the paper is + ve
(c) Circulation is taken in the counter clockwise direction is +ve.
(d) Circulation taken in clockwise direction is –ve.
• If B is everywhere tangent to the integration path and has the same magnitude B at every point on the path, then
its line integral is equal to B multiplied by the circumference of the path.
• If B is everywhere perpendicular to the path, for all or some portion of the path, that portion of the path makes
an contribution to the line integral.
• In the integral ∫ B.d ℓ, B is always the total magnetic field at each point on the path. In general, this field is
caused partly by current enclosed by the path and partly by current outside.
• Even when no current is enclosed by the path, the field at points on the path need not be zero. In that case,
however, ∫ B.d ℓ is always zero

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307
• Some judgment is required in choosing an integration path. Two useful guiding principles are that the point or
points at which the field is to be determined must lie on the path, and that the path must have enough symmetry
so that he integral can be evaluated.
Application of Ampere's circuital law
• Magnetic field B outside and inside a cylindrical wire

(i) B outside the wire (r ≤ R)

Consider a circular loop of radius r (≥ R) as shown by loop 1 in fig.
Here, the integral ∫ B.d ℓ = B ∫ dl = B ( 2πr )
Applying Ampere's Law,
µI
B (2πr) = µ0I B = 0

Y
2πr

(ii) B inside the wire (r ≤ R)

Consider the loop 2 as shown in fig.
πr 2
SP
The current enclosed is Ie = I
πR 2
Using Ampere's law,
 I  µ Ir
B. ( 2πr ) = µ 0  2 ( πr 2 )  or B = 0 2
am
 πR  2πR
The variation of B with r is shown in the figure.
Te

Toroid
A toroidal solenoid is an anchor ring around which is large number of turns of a copper wire are wrapped.

A toroid is an endless solenoid in the form of a ring. Magnetic field inside the turns of toroid is given by B =
µ0nI
Where n = number of turns/length
Magnetic field inside a toroid is constant and is always tangential to the circular closed path.
Magnetic field at any point inside the empty space surrounded by the toroid and outside the toroid is zero,
because net current enclosed by these space is zero.

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308
Solenoid
A solenoid is a closely wound helix of insulated copper wire.

Magnetic field at a point well inside a long solenoid is given by B = µ0nI

where, n = number of turns per unit length and I = current flowing through the solenoid.
Magnetic field at a point on one end of a long solenoid is given by
µ nI
B= B= 0
2
Force on a current carrying conductor in a Magnetic Field
The magnetic force on a segment of current carrying wire is evidently
Fmag = ∫ ( v × B) dq = ∫ ( v × B) λdℓ = ∫ ( I × B) dℓ
I and dℓ both point in the same direction-

Y (
Fmag = ∫ I d ℓ × B )

( )
Fmag = I ∫ dl × B = BIl sin θ
SP
Typically, the current is constant (in magnitude) along the wire, and in that case I comes outside the integral.

q
Where, λ = = linear charge density
l
m
I = λv (when a line charge λ travelling down a wire at speed v)
Idl = current element
a
Te

Direction of force on a current carrying conductor can be found out by Fleming's left had rule.
Force between Two infinitely Long Parallel Current Carrying Conductors
Force between two long parallel current carrying conductors is given by
µ II
F= F= 0. 1 2 ℓ
2π r

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309
• The force is attractive if current in both conductors is in same direction and repulsive if current in both
conductors is in opposite direction.
• If the current is both parallel wires are equal and in same direction, then magnetic field at a point exactly half
way between the wire is zero
The Hall Effect:
• If a conductor is placed in a magnetic field such that the direction of flow of current is at right angle to the
magnetic field, a voltage is developed across the conductor in the direction perpendicular to both current and
field. The phenomena by which voltage developed is called Hall effect and voltage itself is Hall voltage

Y
KH =
VH
I.B
.t
SP
Where KH = Hall coefficient
I = Applied current
am
B = Magnetic field
t = Thickness of crystal
Important Comments:
If the analogy of H to E and B to D is pursued, it is possible to achieve a formal or mathematical symmetry
between many of the electric and magnetic field equations. However, electric and magnetic fields are
Te

fundamentally different, and the analogy of B to E and H to D has more meaningful physical significance.
Static electric fields are due to electric charge, a scalar quantity while static magnetic fields are due to electric
current, a vector quantity.
A Comparison of static Electrical and Magnetic Field Equations:

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310
 * E c is the static electric field intensity (due to charge)

E (without subscript) implies that emf producing field (not due to charges) may also be present.
Comparison on Equations involving Polarisation P Magnetisation M

Y
SP
a m
Te

(7) Electromagnetic Induction (EMI)

Electromagnetic Induction (EMI) :-
• A current carrying coil produces a magnetic field.
• The magnetic field lines form appropriate closed curves.
• Whenever the total number of magnetic field lines linked normally with a coil/circuit changes (i.e. the magnetic
flux linked with coil/circuit changes), an induced emf is produced in its as per the phenomena of
electromagnetic induction.

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311
• The phenomena of electromagnetic induction (EMI) is the basis of the working of power generators, dynamos,
transformers, etc.
Magnetic Flux:-
• Magnetic flux through any surface held in a magnetic field is measured as the total number of magnetic field
lines crossing the surface. It is a scalar quantity.
• Now the magnetic flux passing through the area is defined as
φ = B.A
or φ = BA cosθ = (B cos θ) A = B ⊥ A
where B⊥ = B cosθ is the component of the magnetic field B perpendicular to the face of the area. Direction of
area vector is normal to the face of the area.
• Special Cases.
1. if θ = 0º, then φ = BA cos0º ⇒ φ = BA (maximum flux)
2. if θ = 90º, then φ = BA cos90º ⇒ φ = 0
3. if θ < 90º, then cosθ > 0 ⇒ φ > 0 (positive flux)
4. if θ > 90º, then cosθ < 0 ⇒ φ < 0 (negative flux)

Y
• SI unit of magnetic flux:
SP
The SI unit of magnetic flux is weber (Wb). One weber is the flux produced when a uniform magnetic field of
one tesla acts normally over an area of 1 m2
1 weber = 1 tesla × 1 metre2
or 1 Wb = 1 Tm2
• CGS unit of magnetic flux.
am
The CGS unit of magnetic flux is maxwell (Mx). One maxwell is the flux produced when a uniform magnetic
field of one gauss acts normally over an area of 1 cm2
1 maxwell = 1 gauss × 1 cm2
or 1 Mx = 1 G cm2
• Relation between weber and maxwell:
Te

1 Wb = 1 T × 1 m2 = 104 G × 104 cm2

or 1 Wb = 108 maxwell.
• Law of Electromagnetic Induction:-
There are two types of laws which govern the phenomena of electromagnetic induction.
A. Faraday laws of electromagnetic Induction:
These can be stated as follows-
First Law : Whenever the magnetic flux linked with a closed circuit changes, an emf (and hence a current) is
induced in it which lasts only so long as the change in flux is taking place. This phenomena is called
electromagnetic induction.
Second Law : The magnitude of the induced emf is equal to the rate of change of magnetic flux linked with the
closed circuit mathematically.
dφ
| E |=
dt
If the flux changes from φ1 to φ2 in time t, then the average induced emf will be-
φ −φ
E = − N 2 1 Where N= Number of turns in the coil
t
B. Lenz's Law:
This law states that the direction of induced current is such that it opposes the causes which produces it i.e. it
opposes the change in magnetic flux.

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312
 Motional Electromotive Force-
( )
b
E = ∫ v × B dℓ
a

( )
As dℓ × v is the area swept per unit time by length dℓ and hence B. dℓ × v is the flux of induction through
the area. Therefore, the motional emf is equal to the flux of induction cut by the conductor per unit time.

• We can write the expression for induced emf in various forms:

( ) ( ) ( )
b b b
E = ∫ v × B dℓ = ∫ B × dℓ v = ∫ dℓ × v B
a a a

• If any two out of v, B and dℓ becomes parallel or antiparallel, E will become zero.
Special Cases:
• A straight conductor moving in a magnetic field–
Induced emf in the rod is given by-

Y
SP
m
E = BVL
a

Where, L = length of conductor

B = magnetic field
Te

v = velocity
• Rotating straight conductor:
The magnitude of induced emf in the rod is–

vv

1
E= BωL2
2
Where, ω = angular velocity
L = length of rod

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313
■ Instaneous induced EMF -
E = NAB ωsin ωt = E0 sin ωt
Where, N = Number of turns in the coil.
A = Area of one turn.
B = Magnetic Induction
ω = Uniform angular velocity of the coil.
E0 = Maximum induced emf.
■ Fleming's Right Hand rule :-
• If the thumb forefinger and middle finger of right hand are stretched mutually perpendicular to each other such
that the forefinger points the direction of magnetic field, middle finger points towards the direction of induced
current in the conductor and thumb points towards the direction of magnetic force.

Y
■ Eddy Currents :-
• Eddy Currents are the current induced in solid metallic masses, when magnetic flux threading through them
changes .
SP
• Direction of eddy currents can be given by Lenz's Law or by Fleming's Right Hand rule.
■ Application of Eddy currents :-
• Inspite of the undesirable effects, eddy currents are used in many ways. Some of them are given below.
(i) Speedometer (ii) Induction meter
(iii) Induction furnance (iv) Electromagnetic shielding
am
(v) Electromagnetic damping (vi) Energy meter
■ Key Points:
• Eddy currents are basically the induced currents set up inside the body of conductor whenever the magnetic flux
linked with it changes.
• Eddy currents tend to follow the path of least resistance inside a conductor. So they form irregularly shaped
loops. However, their directions are not random, but guided by Lenz's law.
Te

• Eddy currents have both undesirable effects and practically useful applications.
• Eddy currents can be induced in biological tissues. For example the cavity of the eye is filled with a conducting
fluid. A large transient magnetic field of 1 T alternating at a frequency of 60 Hz then induces such a large
current in the retina that it produces a sensation of intense brightness.
■ Self Induction :-
• The phenomenon of production of induced emf in a coil, when a changing current passes through it.

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314
■ Coefficient of Self Induction:
• At any instant, the magnetic flux φ linked with a coil is proportional to the current I through it, i.e.,
φ∝I
or φ = LI
• Any change in current sets up an induced emf in the coil given by
dφ dI
e=− = −L
dt dt
• SI unit of self induction is Henry (H)
1 Henry (H) = 1 V-s/A or 1 Tm2/A.
■ Self Induction of Different Cases–

Cases Formula Figure

• Long Solenoid L = µ0n lA 2

Where
n = no. of turns per unit length
N
=
l

Y
• µ = µ0µr, µr = relative
permeability
SP
• If solenoid is wound over a core of
permeability µ, then
L = µ n2lA
• Two parallel µ0 d−r
L=
m
log e
wires π r
Where,
d = distance between two parallel
a

wires A and B
r = radius of each wire
• Two coaxial
Te

µ0 b
L= log e
Cylinder 2π a
a = radius of inner cylinder
b = radius of outer cylinder.

• Toroidal coil of µ0 N 2 h b
L= log e
rectangular 2π a
cross-section If coil is wound over a core of
permeability µ, then -
µN 2 h b
L= log e
2π a

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315
 • A Toroidal coil µ0 N2A
of circular L=
2πR
cross
Where,
A= cross-sectional area
R = radius of circular path
for a toroid wound on a core of
constant permeability µ
µN 2 A
L=
2πR

■ Energy stored in magnetic field of solenoid–

1
U B = Li 2
2
µ0 N2A
Where, L =
ℓ
Bℓ
i=
µ0 N
■ Energy Density-
The energy is stored within the volume because B outside of the solenoid is zero. Moreover, the stored energy

Y
must be uniformly distributed throughout the volume of the solenoid because the magnetic field is uniform
everywhere inside. The energy density is defined as the energy per unit volume. The energy stored per unit
volume of the magnetic field.
U B 1 B2
=
Aℓ 2 µ 0
Joules/meter3
SP
This equation gives the energy density stored at any point where the magnetic induction is B
■ Mutual Inductance-
am
Mutual Induction is the phenomenon of production of induced emf in one coil due to a change of current in the
neighboring coil.
Te

■Coefficient of mutual induction

Magnetic flux linked with the secondary coil ∝ current in the primary coil
i.e. φ ∝ I
or φ = MI
The proportionality constant M is called the mutual inductance or coefficient of mutual induction of the two
coils. Any change in the current I sets up an induced emf in the secondary coil which is given by.
dφ dI
e=− = − M.
dt dt
■ Unit of mutual inductance
1Vs
∴ SI unit of M = = 1VsA −1 = 1henry ( H )
1A
■ Factors on which mutual inductance depends.
a. Number of turns : Larger the number of turns in the two solenoids, larger will be their mutual inductance.
M ∝ N1 N2
b. Common cross-sectional area: Larger the common cross-sectional area of two solenoids, larger will be
their mutual inductance.

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316
 c. Relative separation: Larger the distance between two solenoids, smaller will be the magnetic flux linked
with the secondary coil due to current in the primary coil. Hence smaller will be the value of M.
d. Relative orientation of the two coil: M is maximum when the entire flux of the primary is linked with the
secondary, i.e., when the primary coil completely envelopes the secondary coil. M is minimum when the
two coils are perpendicular to each other, as shown in figure.

e. Permeability of the core material. If the two coils are wonder over an iron core of relative permeability µr,
their mutual inductance increases µr times.
Coefficient of coupling: The coefficient of coupling of two coils gives a measure of the manner in which the
two coils are coupled together. If L1 and L2 are the self-inductances of two coils and M is their mutual
inductance, then their coefficient of coupling is given by
M
K=

Y
L1L 2
The value of K lies between 0 and 1.
■ Key Points-
SP
• When two coils are inductively coupled, in addition to the emf produced due to mutual indication, induced emf
is set up in the two coils due to self-induction also.
• The mutual inductance of two coils is a property of their combination. The value of M remains unchanged
irrespective of the fact that current is passed through one coil or the other.
m
• While calculating the mutual inductance of two long co-axial solenoids, the cross-sectional area of the inner
solenoid is to be considered.
• While calculating the mutual inductance of two co-axial solenoids of different lengths, the length of the larger
solenoid is to be considered.
a

■ Theorem of Reciprocity -
In given pair of coils, M12 = M21, the two values of mutual inductance are equal in pairs. According to
Te

reciprocity theorem, for a given pair of coils, say 1 and 2, Irrespective of their shapes or size the magnetic flux
linked with coil 2, due to a unit current in coil 1, is equal to the magnetic flux, linked with coil 1 due to a units
current in coil 2.
■ Mutual Inductance of concentric solenoid –
µ 0 N1 N 2 A
M= = µ0 n1n 2 Aℓ
ℓ

Where, N1 and N2 are total no. of turns in both coils, n1 and n2 are no of turn per unit length in coils, A is area of
cross section of coils and ℓ is length of coil, S1 and S2 are inner and outer solenoid.

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317
 Grouping of Coils-
(a). When three coils of inductances L1, L2 and L3 are connected in series and the coefficient of coupling K = 0
as in series, then
L = L1 + L2 + L3

(b). When three coils of inductance L1, L2 and L3 are connected in parallel and the coefficient of coupling K = 0
as in parallel, then
1 1 1 1
= + +
L L1 L 2 L3

If coefficient of coupling K = 1, then

Y
(i) In series
SP
(a) If current in two coils are in the same direction, then L = L1 + L2 + 2M
(b) If current in two coils are in opposite direction, then L = L1 + L2 – 2M
(ii) In parallel
L1L 2 − M 2
(a) If current in two coils are in same direction, then L =
am
L1 + L 2 + 2M
L1L 2 − M 2
(b) If current in two coils are in opposite directions, then L =
L1 + L 2 − 2M
■ Formula for self induction and Mutual Induction–
Self Inductance Mutual Inductance
• φ = LI • φ = MI
Te

dI dI
• Induced emf = − L • Induced emf = − M
dt dt
• Self inductance in long solenoid • M.I of two closely wound solenoid
µ N 2A µ 0 N1 N 2 A
L= 0 = µ0 n 2 Aℓ M= = µ 0 n 2 Aℓ
ℓ ℓ

(8) Electromagnetic Waves

Displacement Current:–
• Displacement current is that current which comes into existence, in addition to the conduction current whenever
the electric field and hence the electric flux changes with time.
dφ
ID = ε 0 E
dt
Where, ID = Displacement current
φE = Electric field × area = EA is the electric flux across the loop.
Need for Displacement current
• Ampere's circuit law for conduction current during charging of a capacitor was found inconsistent. Therefore
Maxwell modified Ampere's circuit law.
• The displacement current produces in space due to change of electric flux linked with the surface. This reveals
that, varying electric field is the source of magnetic field.

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318
Electromagnetic waves:–
• An electromagnetic wave is a wave radiated by an accelerated or oscillatory charge in which varying magnetic
field is the source of electric field and varying electric field is the source of magnetic field. Thus two fields
becomes source of each other and the wave propagates in a direction perpendicular to both the fields.

 x
E = E0 sin ω  t − 
 c
 x
B = B0 sin ω  t −  a
 c
Properties of E M waves:–
1. The electric and Magnetic fields E and B are always perpendicular to the direction in which the wave is
travelling thus the electromagnetic wave is a transverse wave.
2. E M waves carry momentum and energy.

Y
1
3. E M wave travel through vacuum with the speed of light 'c' where c = = 3×108 ms–1.
SP µ0 ε0
E
4. The instanteous magnitude of E and B in an E M waves are related by the expression =c
B
5. The cross product E × B always gives the direction in which the wave travels.
1 B2
6. Energy associated with an electromagnetic wave is U = ε 0 E 2 +
2µ 0
m
2
U
7. Linares Momentum delivered to the Surface P =
c
a

U = Total energy transmitted by Electromagnetic waves

c = Speed of electromagnetic wave.
Poynting vector:–
Te

• Poynting Vector can be defined as the rate at which the energy is carried out of the volume across the bounding
surface. It is always in the direction of the propagation of wave, as it is perpendicular to both electric and
magnetic field.
• The poynting vector is proportional to the cross product of electric and magnetic field E × B . The poynting
vector is given by-
1
S = (E × B)
µ0
Key Points:–
1. An alternating current of frequency 50 Hz becomes zero, 100 times in one second because alternating
current changes direction and becomes zero twice in a cycle.
2. An alternating current cannot be used to conduct electrolysis because the ions due to their inertia cannot
follow the changing electric field.
3. Average value of AC is always defined over half cycle because average value of AC over a complete cycle
is always zero.

Maxwell's Equations of Electromagnetic waves:–

• Maxwell's Equation are the basic laws of electricity and Magnetism. These equations give complete description
of all electromagnetic interactions.

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319
■ Maxwell's Equations in Differential and Integral Form-
Differential form Integral form
• ρ q
∇.E =
E0 ∫ E.dS = ε 0
(Gauss law in Electrostatics)

• ∂B ∂B
∇×E = −
∂t ∫ E.dℓ = −∫ ∂t . dS (Faraday 's law of Electomagnetic Induction)

• ∇. B = 0 ∫ B.dS = 0 (Gauss law in Magnetism)

∂B ∂E
∇ × B = µ 0 J + µ0 ε0
∂t ∫ B.dℓ = µ I 0 enc + µ0 ε0 ∫
∂t
(Modified Ampere 's circuital law)

Key Points:-
• Maxwell equations for different medium can be obtained by,
(i) For free space ρ = 0 , J = 0 and Km(or µr) = relative permeability = 1
D = ε0 E
B = µ0 H
(ii) For Isotropic non-conducting medium

Y
D = Kε 0 E = ε E
B = µ0µ r H = µH
J=0
ρ=0
SP
Electromagnetic Spectrum
• The arranged array of electromagnetic radiation in the sequence of their wavelength or frequency is called
electromagnetic spectrum.
am
Type Wavelength range Production Detection
Radio > 0.1 m Rapid acceleration and Receiver's aerials
decelerations of
electrons in aerials
Microwave 0.1m to 1 mm Klystron valve or Point contact diodes
Te

magnetron valve
Infra-red 1 mm to 700 nm Vibration of atoms and Thermopiles
molecules Bolometer, Infrared
photographic film
Light 700 nm to 400 nm Electrons in atoms emit The eye Photocells,
light when they move Photographic film
from one energy
level to a lower
energy level
Ultraviolet 400 nm to 100 nm Inner shell electrons in Photocells
atoms moving from Photographic film
one energy level to a
lower level
X-rays 10 nm to 10–2nm X-ray tubes or inner Photographic film
shell electrons Geiger tubes
Ionisation chamber
Gamma rays < 10–3 nm Radioactive decay of -do-
the nucleus

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320
 Exemplar Problems
Electricity & Magnetism
Electrostatics 5. Find out the surface charge density at the
intersection of point x = 3 m plane and x-axis,
1. Three identical charged balls each of charge 2C in the region of uniform line charge of 8 nC/ m
are suspended from a common point P by silk lying along the z-axis in free space.
threads of 2m each (as shown in figure). They
(a) 0.424 nC m–2 (b) 47.88 C/m
form an equilateral triangle of side 1m.
The ratio of net force on a charged ball to the (c) 0.07 nC m–2 (d) 4.0 nC m–2
force between any two charged balls will be : JEE MAIN 2021
6. Two hollow conducting spheres of radii R1 and
R2 (R1 >> R2) have equal charges. The
potential would be
(a) Dependent on the material property of the
sphere
(b) More on bigger sphere
(c) More on smaller sphere
(d) Equal on both the spheres

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(a) 1 : 1 (b) 1 : 4 NEET 2022
(c) 3:2 (d) 3 :1 7. Two point charges –q and +q are placed at a

2.
SP
JEE MAIN 2022
The three charges q/2, q and q/2 are placed at
the corners A, B and C of a square of side 'a' as
distance of L, as shown in the figure.

shown in figure. The magnitude of electric field

(E) at the comer D of the square, is : The magnitude of electric field intensity at a
distance r(R>>L) varies as :
m
1 1
(a) (b)
R6 R2
1 1
q  1 1 q  1  (c) (d)
a

(a) + (b) 1+ R3 R4
4π ∈0 a  2 2 
2  2 
4π ∈0 a  
2 NEET 2022
q  1  q  1 1  8. Two charged spherical conductors of radius R1
1− −
Te

(c) 2   (d)
4π ∈0 a  2 4π ∈0 a  2 2 
2  and R2 are connected by a wire. Then the ratio
of surface charge densities of the spheres (σ1/σ2)
JEE MAIN 2022 is
3. Two point charges A and B of magnitude
R 12 R1
+8 ×10-6 C and -8 ×10-6 C respectively are (a) (b)
placed at a distance d apart. The electric field R 22 R2
at the middle point O between the charges is
R2  R1 
6.4 ×104 NC-1 . The distance ‘d’ between the (c) (d)  
point charges A and B is: R1  R2 
(a) 2.0 m (b) 3.0 m NEET 2021
(c) 1.0 m (d) 4.0 m 9. A dipole is placed in an electric field as shown.
JEE MAIN 2022 In which direction will it move?
4. An oil drop of radius 2 mm with a density 3g
cm–3 is held stationary under a constant electric
field 3.55×105 V m–1 in the Millikan's oil drop
experiment. What is the number of excess
electrons that the oil drop will possess?
(consider g = 9.81 m/s2)
(a) 48.8 × 1011 (b) 1.73 × 1010
(c) 17.3 × 1010 (d) 1.73 × 1012
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 (a) Towards the right as its potential energy will 15. The electric potential due to dipole p, at a point
increase. distant r from it and in the direction θ from the
(b) Towards the left as its potential energy will dipoles is
increase. 1 p cos θ 1 p
(c) Towards the right as its potential energy will (a) (b)
4π ∈0 r 2
4π ∈0 r 3
decrease.
(d) Towards the left as its potential energy will 1 p sin θ 1 p tan θ
(c) (d)
decrease. 4π ∈0 r 2 4π ∈0 r 2
NEET 2021 UP PGT - 2021
10. The electrostatic force between the metal plates 16. Infinite equal charge q are placed along a line
of an isolated parallel plate capacitor C having at distances 1 meter, 2 meter, 4 meter, 8 meter,
a charge Q and area A, is 16 meter, 32 meter and so on. Potential due to
(a) Independent of the distance between the all charges are
plates q
(b) Linearly proportional to the distance between (a) Zero (b)
4πε0
the plates
(c) Proportional to the square root of the distance q q
(c) (d)
between the plates 2πε0 8πε0
(d) Inversely proportional to the distance between UP PGT - 2021
the plates. UKPSC Lecturer (Mains) 2020
NEET 2018

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Capacitance & Capacitors
11. In going from the surface of a charged metallic
sphere towards the centre of the sphere, the 17. Two metallic plates form a parallel plate
capacitor. The distance between the phase is
electric filed
(a) increases
SP 'd'. A metal sheet of thickness
d
2
and of area
(b) decreases
(c) remains same as at the surface equal to area of each plate is introduced
between the plates. What will be the ratio of the
(d) is zero everywhere new capacitance to the original capacitance of
UPPSC Ashram Paddhati PGT - 2021 the capacitor?
am
UP PGT Physics 2016 (Exam : 02.02.2019) (a) 2:1 (b) 1:2
12. Electric flux in an electric field E through a (c) 1:4 (d) 4:1
small area ds is given by - JEE MAIN 2022
(a) E.ds (b) ∫ S
E.ds 18. A force of 10N acts on a charged particle
placed between two plates of a charged
(c) ε 0 E.ds (d) E × ds capacitor. If one plate of capacitor is removed,
Te

then the force acting on that particle will be :

UPPSC Poly. Lect. 2021 Paper - II
(a) 5 N (b) 10 N
13. The flux of the electric field strength through
each of the faces of a closed cube of edge length (c) 20 N (d) Zero
l, if a charge q is placed at its centre, is JEE MAIN 2022
q q 19. For changing the capacitance of a given
(a) (b) parallel plate capacitor, a dielectric material of
6 ∈0 l 2
6 ∈0 l dielectric constant K is used, which has the
q q same area as the plates of the capacitor. The
(c) (d) 3
6 ∈0 6 ∈0 l 3 thickness of the dielectric slab is d, where 'd'
UP PGT - 2021 4
is the separation between the plates of parallel
UP PGT Physics 2016 (Exam : 02.02.2019) plate capacitor. The new capacitance (C') in
14. 4 equal point charges, +4µC, are placed at four terms of original capacitance (C0) is given by
corners of a square that is 50 cm on a side. The the following relation:
force on any of the charges, is
3+ K 4+K
(a) 1.10 N inward along diagonal (a) C ' = C0 (b) C ' = C0
3 3
(b) 0.72 N inward along diagonal
(c) 0.72 N outward along diagonal 4K 4
(c) C ' = C0 (d) C ' = C0
(d) 1.10 N outward along diagonal K +3 3+ K
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20. A capacitor of capacitance C = 900 pF is 24. The equivalent capacitance of the combination
charged fully by 100 V battery B as shown in shown in figure below, is
figure (a). Then it is disconnected from the
battery and connected to another uncharged
capacitor of capacitance C = 900 pF as shown
in figure (b). The electrostatic energy stored by
the system (b) is (a) 3C (b) 2C
C
(c) C (d)
2
(1) (2) UP PGT - 2021
25. A capacitor with air between its plates has a
capacitance of 8 µF. Its capacitance on
introducing a dielectric with dielectric constant
(a) 1.5 × 10 −6 J (b) 4.5 × 10 −6 J
6 between its plates, is
(c) 3.25 × 10−6 J (d) 2.25 × 10 −6 J (a) 48 µF (b) 40 µF
NEET 2022 (c) 32 µF (d) 16 µF
21. A parallel plate capacitor has a uniform UP PGT - 2021
electric field 'E' in the space between the plates. 26. Two capacitors C1 and C2 are charged to 120 V
If the distance between the plates is 'd' and the and 200 V, respectively. It is found that by
area of each plate is 'A', the energy stored in connecting them together, the potential on each

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the capacitor is one can be made zero. Then -
(ε0 = permittivity of free space) (a) 3C1 = 5C2 (b) 9C1 = 4C2

(a)
E 2 Ad
ε0
(b)
1
2
SP
ε0 E 2
(c) 3C1 + 5C2 = 0 (d) 5C1 = 3C2
UKPSC Lecturer (Mains) 2020
27. Three capacitors each of 3 µF are provided.
1 These cannot be combined to provide resultant
(c) ε0 EAd (d) ε0 E 2 Ad
2 capacitance of :
m
NEET 2021 (a) 1 µF (b) 2 µF
22. The equivalent capacitance of the combination (c) 4.5 µF (d) 6 µF
shown in the figure is UKPSC Lecturer (Mains) 2020
a

28. A capacitor of 20 µF charged to 500 volts is

connected in parallel with another capacitor of
10 µF charged to 200 volts. Common potential
Te

is:
(a) 300 volts (b) 500 volts
3C
(a) (b) 3C (c) 200 volts (d) 400 volts
2
UKPSC Lecturer (Mains) 2020
C 29. A parallel plate capacitor has a uniform
(c) 2C (d)
2 electric field E in the space between the plates.
NEET 2021 If the distance between the plates is d and area
23. The capacitance of a parallel plate capacitor of each plate is A, the energy stored in the
with air as medium is 6 µF. With the capacitor is
introduction of a dielectric medium, the 1 1
(a) ε 0 E 2 Ad (b) ε 0 EAd
capacitance becomes 30 µF. The permittivity of 2 2
the medium is : 1 ε 0 EA ε0E2A
–12 2 –1 –2 (c) (d)
(∈0 = 8.85 × 10 C N m ) 2 d d
(a) 1.77 × 10–12 C2 N–1 m–2 RPSC School Lect. 08.01.2020
(b) 0.44 × 10–10 C2 N–1 m–2 30. A parallel plate capacitor has two layers of
(c) 5.00 C2 N–1 m–2 different dielectrics as shown in figure. The
ratio of potential difference across the
(d) 0.44 × 10–13 C2 N–1 m–2
dielectric layers when connected to the battery
NEET 2020 is
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 1 VA 3 VA
(a) (b)
4 ρl 4 ρl
1 ρl VA
(c) (d) 4
4 VA ρl
JEE MAIN 2021
35. As the temperature increases, the electrical
resistance
K1 K1a (a) Decreases for conductors but increases for
(a) (b) semiconductors
K2 K 2b
(b) Increases for both conductors and
K 2a semiconductors
(c) (d) 1 : 1
K1 b (c) Decreases for both conductors and
RPSC School Lect. 08.01.2020 semiconductors
(d) Increases for conductors but decreases for
Current electricity & Heating effect semiconductors
of current NEET 2022
36. A copper wire of length 10 m and radius
31. If n represents the actual number of deflections
in a converted galvanometer of resistance G  10 −2 
  m has electrical resistance of 10Ω. The
and shunt resistance S. Then the total current I  π 

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when its figure of merit is K will be : current density in the wire for an electric field
KS (G + S) strength of 10 (V/m) is
(a) (b) (a) 105A/m2 (b) 104A/m2
(S + G )
nKS
nKS
SP
nK ( G + S )
(c) 106A/m2 (d) 10–6A/m2
NEET 2022
(c) (d)
(G + S) s 37. The energy that will be ideally radiated by a
100 kW transmitter in 1 hour is
JEE MAIN 2022 (a) 1 × 106 J (b) 36 × 107 J
32. Two cells of same EMF but different internal
am
4
(c) 36 × 10 J (d) 36 × 106J
resistances r1 and r2 are connected in series NEET 2022
with a resistance R. The value of resistance R,
38. A Wheatstone bridge is used to determine the
for which the potential difference across second
value of unknown resistance X by adjusting the
cell is zero, is variable resistance Y as shown in the figure.
(a) r2 − r1 (b) r1 − r2 For the most precise measurement of X, the
resistances P and Q
Te

(c) r1 (d) r2
JEE MAIN 2022
33. In the experiment of Ohm's law, a potential
difference of 5.0 V is applied across the end of a
conductor of length 10.0 cm and diameter of
5.00 mm. The measured current in the
conductor is 2.00 A. The maximum permissible
percentage error in the resistivity of the
conductor is:-
(a) 3.9 (b) 8.4
(c) 7.5 (d) 3.0 (a) Do not play any significant role
JEE MAIN 2021 (b) Should be approximately equal to 2X
34. A conducting wire of length 'l', area of cross (c) Should be approximately equal and are small
section A and electric resistivity r is connected (d) Should be very large and unequal
between the terminals of a battery. A potential NEET 2022
difference V is developed between its ends,
39. The effective resistance of a parallel connection
causing an electric current. that consists of four wires of equal length, eaual
If the length of the wire of the same material is area of cross-section and same material is 0.25
doubled and the area of cross-section is halved, Ω. What will be the effective resistance if they
the resultant current would be : are connected in series?
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 (a) 4 Ω (b) 0.25 Ω 45. J = σE , where J is current density, σ is
(c) 0.5 Ω (d) 1 Ω conductivity and E is electric field, is
NEET 2021 (a) Maxwell's equation
40. Three resistors having resistances r1, r2 and r3 (b) Continuity equation
are connected as shown in the given circuit. (c) Ampere's law
i (d) A form of Ohm's law
The ratio 3 of currents in terms of resistances
i1 UP PGT - 2021
used in the circuit is 46. 20 µA current is flowing in a wire for 30
seconds. The number of electrons passing
through wire is
(a) 375×1013 (b) 375×1015
16
(c) 375×10 (d) 375×1017
UP PGT - 2021
r2 r1 47. If the standard electrode potentials for zinc and
(a) (b) copper electrodes in the cell ZnZN2+Cu2+Cu
r1 + r3 r2 + r3
are –0.76 V and 0.34 V respectively, the value
r2 r1 of standard potential of the cell in volts will be
(c) (d)
r2 + r3 r1 + r2 (a) 0.11 (b) 11.0
NEET 2021 (c) 1.10 (d) 0.011
41. A resistance wire connected in the left gap of a UPTGT Science - 2021

Y
metre bridge balances a 10 Ω resistance in the 48. A current is flowing through a metallic wire. If
right gap at a point which divides the bridge the wire is heated, which quantities change?
wire in the ratio 3 : 2. If the length of the
SP
resistance wire is 1.5 m, then the length of 1 Ω
of the resistance wire is:
(a) Drift speed only
(c) Resistance only
(b) Resistivity only
(d) All of the above
UPTGT Science - 2021
(a) 1.0 × 10–1 m (b) 1.5 × 10–1 m
–2
(c) 1.5 × 10 m (d) 1.0 × 10–2 m 49. The resistances in a post office box are made of
NEET 2020 (a) Copper (b) Iron
m
42. A charged particle having drift velocity of 7.5 × (c) Manganin (d) Brass
10–4 m s–1 in an electric field of 3 × 10–10 Vm–1, UPTGT Science - 2021
has a mobility in m2 V–1 s–1 of : 50. The potential difference of a cell in an open
(a) 2.5 × 106 (b) 2.5 × 10–6 circuit is 6 volts but it falls to 4 volts, when a
a

(c) 2.25 × 10–15 (d) 2.25 × 1015 current of 2 Amp is drawn from it. The
NEET 2020 internal resistance of the cell is :
(a) 0.5 Ω (b) 2 Ω
Te

43. In the circuit below, battery B has electro

motive force 2 V and internal resistance 0.5 Ω. (c) 1.5 Ω (d) 1 Ω
What should be the value of Resistance R for UKPSC Lecturer (Mains) 2020
current I to be maximum ? 51. A 220 V, 100 W bulb is connected to 110 V
B
source. The power consumed by the bulb is :
(a) 20 W (b) 25 W
I 1Ω
(c) 15 W (d) 50 W
UKPSC Lecturer (Mains) 2020
R
52. Daniel cell consists of
(a) Infinite (b) 1 Ω/1 Ω (a) Zn and Cu as electrodes
(c) 0.5 Ω/0.5 Ω (d) Zero (b) Zn and Fe as electrodes
UPTGT Science - 2021 (c) An and Si as electrodes
44. The internal resistance of an ideal constant (d) Zn and Ag as electrodes
voltage source is - UP TGT Physics 2016
(a) Zero 53. The internal resistance of an ideal voltmeter
(b) Infinite should be
(a) Zero
(c) equal to resistance of load (b) Infinite
(d) None of the above (c) Equal to internal resistance of source
UPPSC Poly. Lect. 2021 Paper - II (d) Negative
(UPPGT 2013) UP PGT Physics 2016 (Exam : 02.02.2019)
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54. The cell reaction of a secondary battery is 1 1
(a) Reversible (b) Irreversible (a) (b)
3 2
(c) Equilibrium (d) Endothermic
UP TGT Physics 2016 (c) 3 (d) 1
55. Kirchhoff's Laws are applicable to JEE MAIN 2022
(a) DC only (b) AC only 61. A metallic conductor of length lm rotates in a
(c) AC and DC both (d) None of the above vertical plane parallel to east-west direction
UP PGT - 2021 about one of its end with angular velocity 5
56. The potential difference between the points a rad/s. If the horizontal component of earth's
and B in steady state in adjoining diagram is : magnetic field is 0.2 × 10–4 T, then EMF
induced between the two ends of the conductor
is :
(a) 5µV (b) 50µV
(c) 5mV (d) 50mV
JEE MAIN 2022
62. The soft-iron is a suitable material for making
an electromagnet. This is because soft-iron has:
(a) 25 V (b) 20 V (a) low coercively and high retentively
(c) 15 V (d) 10 V (b) low coercively and low permeability
UKPSC Lecturer (Mains) 2020 (c) high permeability and low retentively
57. A piece of copper and the other of germanium (d) high permeability and high retentively

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are heated from room temperature to 400 K. JEE MAIN 2022
Then choose the correct statement.
63. A bar magnet of length 14 cm is placed in the
(a) Resistance of each decreases.
(b) Resistance of each increases.
SP magnetic meridian with its north pole pointing
towards the geographic north pole. A neutral
(c) Resistance of copper increases while that of point is obtained at a distance of 18 cm from
germanium decreases. the center of the magnet. If BH = 0.4 G, the
(d) Resistance of copper decreases while that of magnetic moment of the magnet is (1 G=10–4T)
germanium increases. (a) 2.880 × 103 J T–1 (b) 2.880 ×102 J T-1
am
–1
RPSC School Lect. 26.07.2016 (c) 2.880 J T (d) 28.80 J T–1
58. The value of current I in the following figure is: JEE MAIN 2021
64. A long solenoid of radius 1 mm has 100 turns
per mm. If 1 A current flows in the solenoid,
the magnetic field strength at the centre of the
solenoid is
Te

(a) I = 2.6 A (b) I = 4.6 A (a) 6.28 × 10 −4 T (b) 6.28 × 10 −2 T

(c) I = 3.6 A (d) I = 5.6 A (c) 12.56 × 10−2 T (d) 12.56 × 10−4 T
UKPSC Lecturer (Mains) 2020 NEET 2022
59. In the circuit show in figure, power developed 65. A long solenoid of 50 cm length having 100
across 1 Ω, 2 Ω and 3 Ω resistance are in the turns carries a current of 2.5 A. The magnetic
ratio of field at the centre of the solenoid is :
(µ0 = 4 π × 10–7 T m A–1)
(a) 3.14 × 10–4 T (b) 6.28 × 10–5 T
(c) 3.14 × 10–5 T (d) 6.28 × 10–4 T
NEET 2020
66. An iron rod of susceptibility 599 is subjected to
(a) 1 : 2 : 3 (b) 4 : 2 : 27 a magnetising field of 1200 A m–1. The
(c) 6 : 4 : 9 (d) 2 : 1 : 27 permeability of the material of the rod is :
RPSC School Lect. 08.01.2020 (µ0 = 4 π × 10–7 T m A–1)
Magnetism and Matter (a) 8.0 × 10–5 T m A–1
(b) 2.4π × 10–5 T m A–1
60. At a certain place the angle of dip is 30° and
the horizontal component of earth's magnetic (c) 2.4π × 10–7 T m A–1
field is 0.5 G. The earth's total magnetic field (d) 2.4π × 10–4 T m A–1
(in G), at that certain place, is : NEET 2020
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67. A 250-turn rectangular coil of length 2.1 cm 74. For a 1m long solenoid, if n=500 and I=5 Amp,
and width 1.25 cm carries a current of 85 mA then calculate ‘B’ at its centre -
and subjected to a magnetic field of strength −3
(a) 3.14 × 10 Weber / m
2

0.85 T. Work done for rotating the coil by 180°

2
against the torque is (b) 3.14 Weber / m
(a) 4.55 µJ (b) 2.3 mJ −2
(c) 3.14 × 10 Weber / m
2

(c) 1.15 mJ (d) 9.1 mJ

−7
(d) 3.14 × 10 Weber / m
2
NEET 2017
68. An iron rod of susceptibility 599 is subjected to UPPSC Poly. Lect. 2021 Paper - II
a magnetising field of 1200 A m–1. The 75. Two coaxial solenoids of different radii carry
permeability of the material of the rod is (m0 = current I in the same direction. Let F1 be the
4π × 10–7 T m A–1)
magnetic force on the inner solenoid due to the
(a) 2.4π ×5 10–4 T m A–1
outer one and F 2 be the magnetic force on the
(b) 8.0 × 10–5 T m A–1
outer solenoid due to the inner one. Then
(c) 2.4π × 10–5 T m A–1
(a) F1 is radially inwards and F1 is radially
(d) 2.4 p × 10–7 T m A–1 outwards
NEET 2020
(b) F1 is radially inwards and F2 = 0
69. A thin diamagnetic rod is placed vertically
between the poles of an electromagnet. When (c) F1 is radially outwards and F2 = 0
the current in the electromagnet is switched on,
then the diamagnetic rod is pushed up, out of (d) F1 = F2 = 0

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the horizontal magnetic field. Hence the rod UKPSC Lecturer (Mains) 2020
gains gravitational potential energy. The work
76. The dilute solution of all the alkali metals in
required to do this comes from
(a) the current source
(b) the magnetic field
SP anhydrous liquid ammonia is
(a) Diamagnetic
(c) Ferromagnetic
(b) Paramagnetic
(d) Anti-ferromagnetic
(c) the lattice structure of the material of the rod
UPTGT Science - 2021
(d) the induced electric field due to the changing
77. The magnetic permeability is maximum for
magnetic field
m
which of the following ?
NEET 2018 (a) Diamagnetic (b) Paramagnetic
70. The magnetic susceptibility is negative for (c) Ferromagnetic (d) Anti ferromagnetic
(a) ferromagnetic material only UKPSC Lecturer (Mains) 2020
a

(b) paramagnetic and ferromagnetic materials 78. When a superconductor is placed in an

(c) diamagnetic material only external magnetic field, its superconductivity
(d) paramagnetic material only (a) decreases with increase in the intensity H of
Te

NEET 2016 the external field.

71. The dipole moment of current loop does not (b) increases with increase in the intensity H of
depend upon : the external field.
(c) is independent of the intensity H of the
(a) Current in the loop external field.
(b) Area of the loop (d) None of these
(c) Number of turns in the loop UKPSC Lecturer (Mains) 2020
(d) Shape of the loop 79. A paramagnetic material is placed in a
UKPSC Lecturer (Mains) 2020 magnetic field. The magnetic field is increased
till magnetization becomes constant. Now
72. A magnetized steel wire 31.4 cm long has a pole
temperature is decreased, the magnetization
strength of 5 CGS units. It is then bent in the
will:
form of a semi-circle. The magnetic moment of
this magnet is (a) Increase (b) Decrease
(a) 100 CGS units (b) 120 CGS units (c) Remain constant (d) None of these
(c) 150 CGS units (d) 175 CGS units UKPSC Lecturer (Mains) 2020
UKPSC Lecturer (Mains) 2020 80. Choose the wrong statement for magnetic
73. The substances which are attracted by the susceptibility of ferromagnetic material
magnetic field are– through a hysteresis loop.
(a) Diamagnetic (b) Paramagnetic (a) It has a fixed value (b) It may be zero
(c) Ferromagnetic (d) Ferrimagnetic (c) It may be infinite (d) It may be negative
UP TGT Physics 2016 RPSC School Lect. 08.01.2020
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 Alternating Current 87. A circuit when connected to an AC source of 12
V gives a current of 0.2 A. The same circuit
81. A sinusoidal voltage V(t) = 210 sin 3000t volt is when connected to a DC source of 12 V, gives a
applied to a series LCR circuit in which L = 10 current of 0.4 A. The circuit is
mH, C = 25 µ F and R = 100Ω. The phase (a) series LR (b) series RC
difference ( φ ) between the applied voltage and (c) series LC (d) series LCR
resultant current will be : Odisha NEET 2019
(a) tan–1 (0.17) (b) tan–1 (9.46) 88. An inductor 20 mH, a capacitor 100 mF and a
–1
(c) tan (0.30) (d) tan–1 (13.33) resistor 50 W are connected in series across a
source of emf, V = 10 sin 314t. The power loss
JEE MAIN 2022
in the circuit is
82. The current flowing through an ac circuit is (a) 0.79 W (b) 0.43 W
given by
(c) 2.74 W (d) 1.13 W
I = 5 sin (120πt) A
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How long will the current take to reach the 89. The average value of I from t = 0 to t = T, for I
peak value starting from zero?
2π
1 = I0sin2 ωt where ω = , is
(a) s (b) 60s T
60 (a) 2I0 (b) 3I0
1 1 (c) I0/2 (d) I0/3
(c) s (d) s
120 240 UP PGT - 2021
UP PGT Physics 2016 (Exam : 02.02.2019)

Y
JEE MAIN 2022
83. In a series LCR resonance circuit, if we change 90. What is Fourier transform of unity?
the resistance only, from a lower to higher (a) 1 (b) δ(s)
value:
SP
(a) The bandwidth of resonance circuit will (c) 2π δ(s) (d)
1
2π
δ(s)
increase.
(b) The resonance frequency will increase. UPPSC GDC - 2021
91. The current in an AC circuit is wattless when
(c) The quality factor will increase.
the phase difference between current and
am
(d) The quality factor and the resonance voltage is
frequency will remain constant.
π
JEE MAIN 2021 (a) zero (b)
4
84. An AC source rated 220 V, 50 Hz is connected
to a resistor. The time taken by the current to π
(c) (d) π
change from its maximum to the rms value is : 2
UP PGT - 2021
Te

(a) 2.5 ms (b) 25 ms

(c) 2.5 s (d) 0.25 ms 92. The peak voltage in a 240V A.C. source is
JEE MAIN 2021 (a) 240 V (b) 300 V
(c) 340 V (d) 380 V
85. The peak voltage of the ac source is equal to
UP PGT - 2021
(a) 1 2 times the rms value of the ac source 93. Fourier cosine transform of f ( x ) = 1 in
(b) The value of voltage supplied to the circuit interval ( 0, π ) is -
(c) The rms value of the ac source
1 − cos pπ 1 + cos pπ
(d) 2 times the rms value of the ac source (a) (b)
p p
NEET 2022
2
86. A series LCR circuit is connected to an ac (c) (d) Zero
voltage source. When L is removed from the p
circuit, the phase difference between current UPPSC Poly. Lect. 2021 Paper - I
and voltage is p/3. If instead C is removed from 94. Instantaneous current in a circuit is given by i
the circuit, the phase difference is again p/3
= 2 2 cos ( ωt + φ) Ampere. The value of r.m.s
between current and voltage. The power factor
current is :
of the circuit is
(a) zero (b) 0.5 (a) 2 2 Ampere (b) 4 Ampere
(c) 1.0 (d) –1.0 (c) 2 Ampere (d) 2Ampere
NEET 2020 UKPSC Lecturer (Mains) 2020
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95. The given circuit diagram is equivalent to 103. Power consumed in an a.c. circuit is zero if :
(a) inductance and resistance both are high
(b) inductance and resistance both are low
(c) inductance is very low and resistance is
zero
(d) inductance may be high or low and the
(a) T Flip-flop
resistance is zero
(b) Clocked RS Flip-flop UPPCS Pre 2010
(c) JK Flip-flop 104. In an a.c. circuit the voltage across L, C and R
(d) D Flip-flop in series are 60, 20 and 30 volts respectively. The
RPSC School Lect. 08.01.2020 applied e.m.f. is :
(a) 110 volts (b) 70 volts
96. The alternating current cannot be used for
(a) Heating (c) 50 volts (d) 10 volts
(b) Lighting UPPCS Pre 2010
(c) Generate mechanical energy Magnetic effect of current &
(d) Eletroplating
UP TGT Physics 2016 Magnetism
97. An AC source (V volts) sends current through a 105. The electromagnetic waves travel in a medium
series L, C, R circuit. If voltages VL, VC, VR are at a speed of 2.0 × 108 m/s.The relative
measured across L, C, R, then permeability of the medium is 1.0. The relative
(a) V = VL + VC + VR permittivity of the medium will be:
(b) V = VR + (VL – VC)
(a) 2.25 (b) 4.25
[ ]1/ 2

Y
(c) V = VR2 + VL2 + VC2 (c) 6.25 (d) 8.25
[ 2
(d) V = VR + (VL − VC ) ]
2 1/ 2 JEE MAIN 2022

98.
SP
UP PGT Physics 2016 (Exam : 02.02.2019) 106. A long solenoid carrying a current produces a
A 220 volt A.C. sources is connected across an
inductance of One Henry. If the frequency of the
magnetic field B along its axis. If the current is
doubled and the number of turns per cm is
source is 50Hz then what is the power loss? halved, the new value of magnetic field will be
(a) 220W (b) 110W equal to
(c) Zero (d) 440W (a) B (b) 2B
m
UP PGT Physics 2016 (Exam : 02.02.2019) B
UP LT Grade Science 2018 (Exam : 29.07.2018) (c) 4 B (d)
99. In an AC circuit resonance condition is 2
1 1 JEE MAIN 2022
a

(a) L > 2 (b) L < 2 107. Two long current carrying conductors are
ωC ωC
1 placed parallel to each other at a distance of 8
(c) L = 2 (d) L = C cm between them. The magnitude of magnetic
ωC
Te

field produced at mid-point between the two

UP PGT Physics 2016 (Exam : 02.02.2019) conductors due to current flowing in them is
100. If the phase difference between an alternating
300 µT. The equal current flowing in the two
current and voltage is π/2, which of the following
conductors is :
can not be part of the circuit?
(a) R, L both present (b) C alone present (a) 30A in the same direction.
(c) L alone present (d) L and C both present (b) 30A in the opposite direction.
UP PGT Physics 2016 (Exam : 02.02.2019) (c) 60A in the opposite direction.
101. A transformer is used to− (d) 300A in the opposite direction.
(a) Change the alternating potential
(b) Change the direct current JEE MAIN 2022
(c) Both (a) & (b) 108. A loop of flexible wire of irregular shape
(d) None of these carrying current is placed in an external
(UPPGT 2011) magnetic field. Identify the effect of the field on
102. If in a transformer keeping the peak voltage in the wire.
the primary coil the same, the frequency of (a) Loop assumes circular shape with its plane
voltage is changed from 50Hz to 60Hz, The normal to the field.
voltage in the secondary coil− (b) Loop assumes circular shape with its plane
(a) Will increase in the ratio 60/50 parallel to the field.
(b) Will decrease in the ratio 50/60
(c) Will remain unchanged (c) Wire gets stretched to become straight.
(d) None of these (d) Shape of the loop remains unchanged.
(UPPGT 2011) JEE MAIN 2021
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109. A charge Q is moving dI distance in the
magnetic field B . Find the value of work done (a) (b)
by B
(a) 1 (b) Infinite
(c) Zero (d) 1
JEE MAIN 2021
(c) (d)
110. A proton, an electron and a helium nucleus,
have the same energy. They are in circular
orbits in a plane due to magnetic field NEET 2021
perpendicular to the plane. 115. Ionized hydrogen atoms and a-particles with
Let rp re and rHe be their respective radii, then same momenta enters perpendicular to a
(a) re < rp = rHe (b) re < rp = rHe constant magnetic field, B. The ratio of their
(c) re > rp = rHe (d) re > rp > rHe radii of their paths rH : rα will be
(a) 1 : 4 (b) 2 : 1
JEE MAIN 2019
(c) 1 : 2 (d) 4 : 1
111. A square loop of side 1 m and resistance 1 Ω is
placed in a magnetic field of 0.5 T. If the plane NEET 2019
of loop is perpendicular to the direction of 116. The differential form of Ampere's law is
magnetic field, the magnetic flux through the (a) ∇× H = J (b) ∇.H = J
loop is
(a) Zero weber (b) 2 weber (c) ∇× H = I (d) ∇× H = µ 0 J

Y
(c) 0.5 weber (d) 1 weber UPPSC Ashram Paddhati PGT - 2021
NEET 2022 117. According to modified Ampere’s law -
(a) curlB = µ ( j + ˆj )
SP
112. A big circular coil of 1000 turns and average
radius 10 m is rotating about its horizontal
diameter at 2 rad s–1. If the vertical component
0 free

(b) curlB = µ 0 ( jfree

d

− ˆjd )
of earth's magnetic field at that place is
(c) curlE = µ 0 ( jfree + ˆjd )
2 × 10 −5 T and electrical resistance of the coil is
12 : 56 Ω, then the maximum induced current (d) curlE = µ 0 ( jfree − ˆjd )
am
in the coil will be
UPPSC Poly. Lect. 2021 Paper - II
(a) 2A (b) 0.25 A
118. Current i is flowing in a rectangular loop. It is
(c) 1.5 A (d) 1 A kept near a long straight wire such that the
NEET 2022 wire is parallel to one arm of the loop and it is
113. From Ampere’s circuital law for a long straight also in the plane of the loop. If a stationary
wire of circular cross-section carrying a steady current I is flowing in the wire as shown in
figure.
Te

current, the variation of magnetic field in the

inside and outside region of the wire is
(a) A linearly decreasing function of distance
upto the boundary of the wire and then a
linearly increasing one for the outside region.
(b) Uniform and remains constant for both the
regions. then loop
(c) A linearly increasing function of distance (a) will rotate along an axis parallel to the wire
upto the boundary of the wire and then (b) will move away from the wire
linearly decreasing for the outside region. (c) will remain stationary
(d) A linearly increasing function of distance r (d) will move towards the wire
upto the boundary of the wire and then UPPCS Pre 2006
1 119. Two long parallel wires are at a separation of r
decreasing one with dependence for the and carry current I. The force on 1 mt of wire
r
outside region. will be
NEET 2022 µI µ I2
(a) 0 (b) 02
114. A thick current carrying cable of radius 'R' 2πr r
carries current 'I' uniformly distributed across µ0 I2 µ0 I
its crosssection. The variation of magnetic field (c) (d) 2
2πr r
B(r) due to the cable with the distance 'r' from (UPPGT 2013)
the axis of the cable is represented by UPPCS Pre 2005
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120. The phenomenon of adiabatic demagnetization L + L2
is used to (a) L1L 2 (b) 1
2
(a) Demagnetize a magnet (c) 2L1 –L2 (d) 3L1 –L2
(b) Produce very low temperature
JEE MAIN 2022
(c) Generate electricity
127. Two coils of self inductance L1 and L2 are
(d) Purify a gas connected in series combination having mutual
UPPSC Ashram Paddhati PGT - 2021 inductance of the coils as M. The equivalent
121. Faraday’s law relates electric field E and self inductance of the combination will be :

magnetic field B as -
d
(a) ∫ E.dr = − dt ∫ B.ds
c s
(b) ∫ E.dr = − ∫ B.ds
c s
(a)
1
+
1
+
1
(b) L1 + L2 + M
L1 L 2 M
d
(c) ∫ E.dr = dt ∫ B.ds
c s
(d) ∫ E.dr = ∫ B.ds
c s
(c) L1 + L2 + 2M
(d) L1 + L2 – 2M
JEE MAIN 2022
UPPSC Poly. Lect. 2021 Paper - II
128. Four identical long solenoids A, B, C and D are
122. An electron is injected into a region of connected to each other as shown in the figure.
magnetic flux density with components of If the magnetic field at the center of A is 3T,
velocity parallel to and normal to the flux. The the field at the center of C would be : (Assume
path of the electron is -
that the magnetic field is confined with in the

Y
(a) Helix (b) Parabola volume of respective solenoid).
(c) Straight line (d) Circle
UPPSC Poly. Lect. 2021 Paper - II
123. The maximum kinetic energy of the ion
emerging from the cyclotron is -
SP
2
qBR qBR
(a) (b)
m 2m
m
2 2 2 2 2 2
qBR qBR (a) 12T
(b) 6T
(c) (d)
2m m (c) 9T
(d) 1T
UPPSC Poly. Lect. 2021 Paper - II JEE MAIN 2021
a

124. A circular coil of radius ‘r’ carries a current 129. A conducting bar of length L is free to slide on
and the magnetic field at its centre is ‘B’. At two parallel conducting rails as shown in the
what distance from the centre on the axis of figure
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coil, the magnetic field will be B/8?

(a) r (b) 2r
(c) 3r (d) 8r
UPPSC Poly. Lect. 2021 Paper - II
125. Hall voltage is produced
(a) At right angle to the direction of current Two resistors R1 and R2 are connected across
(b) At right angle to the direction of mangetic the ends of the rails. There is a uniform
field magnetic field B pointing into the page. An
(c) At right angle to the direction of both current external agent pulls the bar to the left at a
and magnetic field constant speed v. The correct statement about
the directions of induced currents I1 and I2
(d) In the direction of magnetic field
flowing through R1 and R2 respectively is :
UPPSC GDC - 2021
(a) Both I1 and I2 are in anticlockwise direction
Electromagnetic Induction (b) Both I1 and I2 are in clockwise direction
126. A wire of length L is hanging from a fixed (c) I1 is in clockwise direction and I2 is in
support. The length changes to L1 and L2 when anticlockwise direction
masses 1kg and 2 kg are suspended (d) I1 is in anticlockwise direction and I2 is in
respectively from its free end. Then the value clockwise direction
of L is equal to : JEE MAIN 2021
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130. A 10 m long horizontal wire extends from 134. A 800 turn coil of effective area 0.05 m2 is kept
North-East to South-West. It is falling with a perpendicular to a magnetic field 5 × 10–5 T.
−1
speed of 5.0 ms at right angles to the When the plane of the coil is rotated by 90°
horizontal component of the earth’s magnetic around any of its coplanar axis in 0.1 s, the emf
field of 0.3×10–4 Wb/m2. The value of the induced in the coil will be
induced emf in wire is (a) 0.02 V (b) 2V
(a) 1.5×10–3 V (b) 1.1×10–3 V (c) 0.2 V (d) 2×10–3 V
–3 –3
(c) 0.2×10 V (d) 2.5×10 V NEET 2019
JEE MAIN 2019 135. Which material is used in transformer core?
131. A series LCR circuit with inductance 10H, (a) Nickel (b) Soft iron
capacitance 10µF, resistance 50Ω is connected (c) Steel (d) Copper
to an ac source of voltage, V = 200sin (100t) UPPSC Ashram Paddhati PGT - 2021
volt. If the resonant frequency of the LCR UPPCS Pre 1995
circuit is v0 and the frequency of the ac source
136. With a decrease of current in primary coil
is v, then from 2 Amp to 0 Amp in 0.01 sec, the e.m.f.
100 generated in secondary coil is 100 Volt. The
(a) v = 100Hz; v0 = Hz mutual inductance will be
π
(b) v0 = v = 50Hz (a) 10 Henry (b) 5 Henry
(c) 1 Henry (d) 0.5 Henry
50
(c) v0 = v = Hz UPPSC Ashram Paddhati PGT - 2021
π 137. The total induction of two coupled coils in

Y
50 positive coupling and negative coupling are 1.6
(d) v0 = Hz, v = 50Hz
π mH and 0.8 mH respectively. The value of
NEET 2022 mutual inductance will be -
SP
132. An inductor of inductance L, a capacitor of
capacitance C and a resistor of resistance 'R'
(a) 0.2 mH
(c) 4 mH
(b) 0.4 mH
(d) 2 mH
are connected in series to an ac source of UPPSC Poly. Lect. 2021 Paper - II
potential difference 'V' volts as shown in 138. An electric transformer has 100 turns in
figure. primary and N turns in secondary. If the input
Potential difference across L, C and R is 40 V, is 220 V A.C. and we want 11 V output, what is
am
10 V and 40 V, respectively. The amplitude of the value of N?
current flowing through LCR series circuit is (a) 1 (b) 5
10 2 A . The impedance of the circuit is (c) 100 (d) 500
UPTGT Science - 2021
139. A 200 km long telegraph wire has capacity of
0.014 µF/km. If it carries as A.C. of frequency 5
Te

kHz, what is the value of inductance required

to be connected in series such that impedance is
minimum?
(a) 0.36 mH (b) 0.45 mH
(a) 5 Ω (b) 4 2 Ω (c) 0.52 mH (d) 0.64 mH
UKPSC Lecturer (Mains) 2020
(c) 5 2 Ω (d) 4 Ω
140. A transformer is required to match the 400 Ω
NEET 2021 output impedance of a transistor power
133. A series LCR circuit is connected to an ac amplifier to a 4 Ω speaker coil. What should
voltage source. When L is removed from the be the turn ratio ?
circuit, the phase difference between current
10 1
π (a) (b)
and voltage is . If instead C is removed from 1 10
3
16
π (c) (d) None of these
the circuit, the phase difference is again 1
3
between current and voltage. The power factor UKPSC Lecturer (Mains) 2020
of the circuit is : 141. Two coils of same length and same area of
cross section are placed near each other. If L1
(a) 0.5 (b) 1.0 and L2 are their self-inductances, then the
(c) –1.0 (d) zero mutual inductance between two coils is
NEET 2020 proportional to :
332

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 L1 L2 148. A coil having inductance 0.15 H and resistance
(a) (b) 15Ω is connected across a 220 V, 50 Hz line.
L2 L1 Compute the current in the coil.
1 (a) 4.45 A (b) 4.25 A
(c) L1L 2 (d) (c) 4.00 A (d) 3.50 A
L1L 2
UP PGT - 2021
UKPSC Lecturer (Mains) 2020 149. Anderson's Bridge is used for measurement of
UPPGT 2010, 2004 (a) Capacitance
UPPCS (Pre) 1998 (b) Self-inductance
142. A 220 V input is supplied to a transformer. The (c) Resistance
output circuit draws a current of 2.0 A at 440 (d) Frequency of AC supply
V. If the efficiency of the transformer is 80% UP PGT - 2021
the current drawn by the primary winding of 150. AC, voltage 100 V, 50 Hz is applied to the ends
transformer is of a choke of L = 2 Henry. What current will
(a) 3.2 A (b) 4.0 A flow through it (in amperes)?
(c) 4.4 A (d) 5.0 A (a) 1 A.C. (b) 1 D.C.
2π 2π
RPSC School Lect. 08.01.2020
143. In given circuit, if source deliver maximum (c) 2 A.C. (d) 2 D.C.
π π
power to load, then load impedance must be
UPTGT Science - 2021
151. A sinusoidal voltage v(t) = 100 sin (500 t) is

Y
applied across a pure inductance L = 0.02 H.
SP The current through the coil is.
(a) 10 cos (500 t) (b) –10 cos (500 t)
(c) 10 sin (500 t) (d) –10 sin (500 t)
(a) 120 + 40j (b) 120 – 40j UKPSC Lecturer (Mains) 2020
(c) 40 + 120j (d) 110Ω
Electromagnetic waves
RPSC School Lect. 08.01.2020
152. Match List-I with List-II
144. The current flowing in a coil of self induction
m
0.4 mH is changed by 250mA in 0.1 seconds. List - I List - II
What is the induced emf in the coil.
A Television signal I 03 KHz
(a) –1mV (b) –2mV
B Radio signal II 20 KHz
a

(c) –3mV (d) –5mV

UP PGT Physics 2016 (Exam : 02.02.2019) High Quality
145. The power factor of LCR circuit at resonance C III 02 MHz
Music
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is
D Human speech IV 06 MHz
(a) 0.707 (b) 1
Choose the correct answer from the options
(c) zero (d) 0.5 given below :
UPPSC Ashram Paddhati PGT - 2021 (a) A-I, B-II, C-III, D-IV
(UPPGT 2005) (b) A-IV, B-III, C-I, D-II
146. The best filter used in a power supply is (c) A-IV, B-III, C-II, D-I
(a) L – section filter (d) A-I, B-II, C-IV, D-III
(b) Capacitor input filter JEE MAIN 2022
(c) Choke input filter 153. A radar sends an electromagnetic signal of
(d) π – section filter electric field (E0) = 2.25 V/m and magnetic field
-8
UP PGT - 2021 (B 0) = 1.5 x 10 T which strikes a target on line
of sight at a distance of 3 km in a medium.
147. In a driven series LCR circuit, the resonant After that, a pail of signal (echo) reflects back
frequency fr is given by towards the radar vit1i same velocity and by
1 same path. If the signal was transmitted at time
(a) f r = (b) f r = 2π LC t0 from radar. then after how much time echo
2π LC will reach to the radar?
L C (a) 2.0 × 10 −5 s (b) 4.0 × 10 −5 s
(c) f r = 2π (d) f r = 2π
C L (c) 1.0 × 10 −5 s (d) 8.0 × 10−5 s
UP PGT - 2021 JEE MAIN 2022
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154. A plane electromagnetic wave of frequency 100 159. A parallel plate capacitor of capacitance 20 µF
MHz is travelling in vacuum along the x- is being charged by a voltage source whose
direction. At a particular point in space and potential is changing at the rate of 3 V/s. The
–8 conduction current through the connecting
time, B 2.0×10 k̂T (where, k̂ is unit vector wires, and the displacement current through
along z-direction) What is E at this point? the plates of the capacitor, would be,
(a) 0.6ˆjV / m (b) 0.6kˆ V / m respectively
(a) zero, zero (b) zero, 60 µA
(c) 6.0ˆjV / m (d) 6.0kˆ V / m (c) 60 µA, 60 µA (d) 60 µA, zero
JEE MAIN 2021 NEET 2019
155. A plane electromagnetic wave of frequency 500 160. The dominant TE mode in rectangular wave
MHz is travelling in vacuum along y-direction. guide is -
At particular point in space and time, (a) TE11 (b) TE 20
−1
B = 8.0 × 10 zT. ˆ . The value of electric field at (c) TE 00 (d) TE10
this point is: UPPSC Poly. Lect. 2021 Paper - II
(speed of light = 3 × 108 ms–1) 161. Hartley oscillator uses
ˆ y,
x, ˆ zˆ are unit vectors along x, y and z (a) Positive feedback
direction. (b) Negative feedback
(a) –24 x̂ V/m (b) 2.6 x̂ V/m (c) No feedback at all
(c) 24 x̂ V/m (d) –2.6 x̂ V/m (d) Both negative and positive feedback

Y
JEE MAIN 2021 UPPSC Ashram Paddhati PGT - 2021
156. Match List-I with List-II 162. Lorentz transformation changes to Galilean
List-I
(Electromagnetic
SP List-I
(Electromagnetic
transformation, when -
(a) v ≈ c j (b) v << c
waves) waves) 1
v=
(a) AM radio waves (i) –10
10 m (c) c (d) None of the above
2
(b) Microwaves (ii) 10 m UPPSC Poly. Lect. 2021 Paper - I
am
–2
(c) Infrared radiations (iii) 10 m 163. What is the speed of electromagnetic waves in
(d) X-rays (iv) 10 m –4 free space? (Symbols have their usual meaning)
Choose the correct answer from the options
given below µ0 ∈0
(a) (a) - (ii), (b) - (iii), (c) - (iv), (d) - (i) ∈0 µ0
(a) (b)
Te

(b) (a) - (iv), (b) - (iii), (c) - (ii), (d) - (i) 1

(c) (a) - (iii), (b) - (ii), (c) - (i), (d) - (iv) µ 0 ∈0
µ 0 ∈0
(d) (a) - (iii), (b) - (iv), (c) - (ii), (d) - (i) (c) (d)
NEET 2022 UPPSC GDC - 2021
157. For a plane electromagnetic wave propagating UPPSC Poly. Lect. 2021 Paper - I
in x-direction, which one of the following 164.An electromagnetic wave going through vacuum
combination gives the correct possible is described by
directions for electric field (E) and magnetic E = Eo sin (kx - ωt) and
field (B) respectively? B = Bo sin (kx - ωt) then :
ɵ ɵ ɵ
(a) − j + k, − j + k ɵ ɵ ɵ ɵ
(b) j + k, j + k ɵ (a) Eok = Boω (b) Eo Bo = ωk
(c) Eo ω = Bok (d) None of these
(c) −ɵj + k,ɵ −ɵj − kɵ (d) ɵj + k,
ɵ −ɵj − kɵ UKPSC Lecturer (Mains) 2020
NEET 2021 165. Electromagnetic waves are produced by:
(a) a static charge
158. The ratio of contributions made by the electric (b) a moving charge
intensity of an electromagnetic wave is : (c) an accelerating charge
(c = speed of electromagnetic waves) (d) chargeless particle
(a) 1 : 1 (b) 1 : c (UPPGT 2013)
2 UPPCS Pre 2007
(c) 1 : c (d) c : 1 UPPCS Pre 2005
NEET 2020 UPPCS (Pre) 2002
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166. In electromagnetic wave, electric and magnetic 1
vectors oscillate perpendicular to each other. (a) ∈r (b)
∈r
What is the phase difference of oscillation
1
between the two vectors? (c) ∈r (d)
(a) Zero (b) π/2 ∈r
(c) π/4 (d) π UPPCS (Pre) 2003
UPPCS Pre 2007 172. Which of the following statements is not true of
167. The ray which can penetrate into 20 cm thick electromagnetic waves:
iron sheet, is (a) They are transverse in nature
(b) They always travel with the speed of light
(a) γ-ray (b) α-ray (c) Gamma rays are electromagnetic waves of
(c) β -ray (d) UV-ray very short wavelength
UPPCS Pre 2009 (d) Radio waves are electromagnetic waves of
168. High frequency electromagnetic vibration can very high frequency
be converted into high frequency mechanical UPPCS (Pre) 2003
vibrations utilizing 173. In an electromagnetic wave, the phase
(a) Piezocelectric effect only difference between the electric and the
(b) Magnetostricition effect only magnetic fields is:
(c) Magnetostricition effect and Piezoelectric (a) zero (b) π/4
effect both (c) π/2 (d) π
(UPPGT 2013)
(d) Kerr effect
UPPCS (Pre) 2000
UPPCS Pre 2009

Y
UPPCS (Pre) 1997 174. The correct order for different electromagnetic
169. Which of the following radiation is radiations in order of increasing energy is
electromagnetic in nature?
(a) Alpha-rays
(c) Gamma-rays
SP
(b) Beta-rays
(d) Ultrasonic rays
(a) Radiowave, ultraviolet, X–rays, γ–rays
(b) γ–rays, X–rays, ultraviolet, radiowave
(c) radiowave, ultraviolet, γ–rays, X–rays
UPPCS Pre 2010 (d) ultraviolet, radiowave, γ–rays, X–rays
170. The angle between the equipotential surface and UPPCS Pre 2008
electric lines of force is : 175. An electromagnetic wave has–
m
(a) 00 (b) 1800 (a) electric vector only
(c) 90 0
(d) 450 (b) magnetic vector only
UPPCS Pre 2010 (c) electric and magnetic vectors perpendicular to
each other
171. The velocity of plane electromagnetic waves in
a

(d) neither the electric vector nor the magnetic

a dielectric medium varies as: Where ∈r is the vector
relative permittivity of the medium. UPPCS (Pre) 1998
Te

Answer Key
1. (d) 2. (a) 3. (b) 4. (b) 5. (a) 6. (c) 7. (c) 8. (c) 9. (c) 10. (a)
11. (d) 12. (b) 13. (c) 14. (d) 15. (a) 16. (c) 17. (a) 18. (a) 19. (c) 20. (d)
21. (d) 22. (c) 23. (b) 24. (b) 25. (a) 26. (a) 27. (d) 28. (d) 29. (a) 30. (c)
31. (d) 32. (a) 33. (a) 34. (a) 35. (d) 36. (a) 37. (b) 38. (c) 39. (a) 40. (c)
41. (a) 42. (a) 43. (d) 44. (a) 45. (d) 46. (a) 47. (c) 48. (d) 49. (c) 50. (d)
51. (b) 52. (a) 53. (b) 54. (a) 55. (c) 56. (a) 57. (c) 58. (d) 59. (b) 60. (a)
61. (b) 62. (c) 63. (c) 64. (c) 65. (d) 66. (d) 67. (d) 68. (a) 69. (a) 70. (c)
71. (d) 72. (a) 73. (c) 74. (a) 75. (d) 76. (b) 77. (c) 78. (a) 79. (c) 80. (a)
81. (a) 82. (d) 83. (a) 84. (a) 85. (d) 86. (c) 87. (a) 88. (a) 89. (c) 90. (c)
91. (c) 92. (c) 93. (d) 94. (d) 95. (d) 96. (d) 97. (d) 98. (c) 99. (c) 100. (a)
101. (a) 102. (c) 103. (d) 104. (c) 105. (a) 106. (a) 107. (b) 108. (a) 109. (c) 110. (c)
111. (c) 112. (d) 113. (d) 114. (d) 115. (b) 116. (a) 117. (a) 118. (d) 119. (c) 120.(b)
121. (a) 122. (a) 123. (c) 124. (c) 125. (c) 126. (c) 127. (d) 128. (d) 129. (c) 130. (a)
131. (c) 132. (a) 133. (b) 134. (a) 135. (b) 136. (d) 137. (a) 138. (b) 139. (a) 140.(b)
141. (c) 142. (d) 143. (b) 144. (a) 145. (b) 146. (d) 147. (a) 148. (a) 149. (b) 150. (a)
151. (b) 152. (c) 153. (b) 154. (c) 155. (a) 156. (a) 157. (c) 158. (a) 159. (c) 160.(d)
161. (a) 162. (b) 163. (c) 164. (a) 165. (c) 166. (a) 167. (a) 168. (c) 169. (c) 170. (c)
171. (d) 172. (d) 173. (a) 174. (a) 175. (c)
335

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07.
Modern Physics
(1) Atomic Physics
■ Dalton’s Atomic Theory:- According to Dalton's Atomic Theory, all elements are consist of very small
invisible particles, called atoms. Atoms of same elements are exactly same and atoms of different elements are
different.
■ Thomson's model of the atom:-
The first model of atom was proposed by J.J. Thomson in 1898. According to this model, every atom is
uniformly positive charged sphere of radius of order of 10-10m. The positive charge of the atom is uniformly
distributed throughout the volume of the atom and the negatively charged electrons are embedded in it like
seeds in a watermelon. This model was picturesquely called plum pudding model of the atom. The atom is
considered as a whole neutral.

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SP
Limitations of Thomson’s atomic model:
• It could not explain the origin of spectral series of hydrogen and other atoms.
am
• It could not explain large angle scattering of α-particles.
■ Rutherford's Atomic Model:
Ernst Rutherford proposed an experiment of scattering of α-particles by atoms to investigate the atomic
structure.
Rutherford's Experiment of Alpha – Particle:-
At the suggestions of Ernst Rutherford in 1911, Geiger and Marsden performed α-scattering experiment.
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They directed a beam of 5.5 MeV α-Particles emitted from a 214Bi83 radioactive source on a thin metal foil made
of gold.
The beam was allowed to fall on a thin foil of gold of thickness 2.1×10–7m. Alpha particles emitted by
radioactive source were collimated into a narrow beam by passing through lead bricks. The scattered α-particles
were received by a rotatable detector with zinc sulphide screen and a microscope.
Distribution of the number of scattered particles was studied as a function of angle of scattering by flashes or
scintillations produced by striking α-particles on the zinc sulphide screen.

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 Size of the nucleus = 1 Fermi = 10–15m,
Size of the atom= 1Ǻ = 10–10m
On the basis of this experiments, Rutherford made following observations :
• The entire positive charge and almost entire mass of the atom is concentrated at its centre in a very tiny region
of the order of 10-15m, called nucleus.

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• The negatively charged electrons revolve around the nucleus in different orbits.
• The total positive charge on nucleus is equal to the total negative charge on electron. Therefore, atom is neutral.
SP
• The centripetal force required by electron for revolution is provided by the electrostatic force of attraction
between the electrons and the nucleus.
For electron orbits:
The electrostatic force of attraction, Fe between the revolving electrons and the nucleus provides the requisite
centripetal force (Fc) to a dynamically stable orbit in a hydrogen atom.
m
Fe = Fc
1 e 2 mv 2
= thus the relation between the orbit radius and the electron velocity is
4πε o r 2 r
a

e2
r=
4πε 0 mv 2
The kinetic energy (EK) and electrostatic potential energy (U) of the electron in hydrogen atom are,
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1 e2 e2
EK = mv2 = and U = −
2 8πε 0 r 4πε 0 r
The negative sign in U signifies that the electrostatic force is in the r-direction. Thus the total energy E of as the
electron in a hydrogen atom is.
e2 e2 e2
E = EK + U = − =−
8πε 0 r 4πε 0 r 8πε 0 r
The total energy of electron is negative. This implies the fact that the electron is bound to the nucleus. If E were
positive, an electron will not follow a closed orbit around the nucleus.
• Most of the α-particles passes through the gold foil without any deflection. This shows that most of the space in
an atom is empty.
• Few α-particles got scattered, deflecting at various angles from 0 to π. This shows that atom has a small
positively charged core called 'nucleus' at centre of atom, which deflects the positively charged α-particles at
different angles depending on their distance from centre of nucleus.
• Very few α-particles (1 in 8000) suffers deflection of 180º.
Rutherford scattering formula:
N i n t Z2 e 4
N(θ) =
θ
( 8πε0 ) r 2 E K 2 sin 4  
2

2

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337
 Where, N(θ)= number of α-particles, Ni=Total number of α-particles reaching the screen, n=number of atoms
per unit volume in the foil, Z= atomic number EK = kinetic energy of the α-particles and t= foil thickness, r=
target to detector distance, θ = scattering angle
Number of scattered α-particles,
1
N∝
θ
sin 4  
2
The graph between Number of particles scattered [N(θ)] & angle of Scattering (θ) is shown in figure.

Impact parameter:
The perpendicular distance of the velocity vector of α-particles from the central line of the nucleus, when the

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particle is far away from the nucleus is called impact parameter. Impact parameter is denoted by b.
Rutherford had analytically calculated the relation between the impact parameter b and the scattering angle θ,
given by,
SP Ze 2 cot
θ
b=
1 2 ⇒ b ∝ cot  θ 
 
4πε0 Ek 2
Where, Ek is the kinetic energy of the incident alpha particle.
• If b = 0, ⇒ Cot θ/2 = 0 or θ/2 = 90º or θ = 180º.
am
i.e.In case of head on collision, the impact parameter is zero and the Alpha-particle rebounds back.
θ θ
• If b = ∞ ⇒ Cot = ∞ or =0º or θ = 0º
2 2
i.e.The alpha particle goes nearly undeviated for a large impact parameter.
Distance of closest approach:
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Distance of closest approach is given by,

2Ze 2
r0 =
4πεo E k
Limitations of Rutherford's Model:
• Stability of atom: It could not explain stability of atom because according to classical electrodynamics theory an
accelerated charged particle should continuously radiate energy. Thus an electron moving in a circular path
around the nucleus should also radiate energy. As a result the electron should move into orbits of gradually
decreasing radius and should ultimately fall into nucleus.

• Line Spectrum: Rutherford atomic model cannot explain atomic line spectrum.
■ Bohr's atomic model:
Bohr proposed a model for hydrogen atom which is also applicable for some lighter atom in which a single
electron revolves around a stationary nucleus of positive charge Ze (called hydrogen like atom).

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338
 Bohr's model is based on the following postulates.
i. He postulated that an electron in an atom can move around the nucleus in certain circular stable orbits without
emitting radiations.
ii. Bohr's found that the magnitude of the electron's angular momentum is quantized. i.e.
 h 
L = mvnrn = n  
 2π 
Where n = 1,2,3, ….. and each value of n corresponds to a permitted value of the orbit radius.
rn = radius of nth orbit and vn = Corresponding Speed in nth orbit.
iii. The radiation of energy occurs only when an electron jumps from one permitted orbit to another.
When electron jumps from higher energy orbit (E2) to lower energy orbit (E1) then difference of energies of
these orbits, i.e. E2 – E1 emits in the form of photon.
But if electron goes from E1 to E2 it absorbs the same amount of energy.
Drawbacks of Bohr's atomic model:
• It is valid only for one electron atoms e.g. H, He+, Li+2, Na+1 etc.
• Orbits were taken as circular but according to Sommerfeld these are elliptical.
• Intensity of spectral lines could not be explained.
• Nucleus was taken as stationary but it also rotates on its own axis.
• It could not explain the fine structure in spectrum line.
• It does not explain the Zeeman Effect.
• It does not explain the doublets in the spectrum of some of the atoms like sodium (5890Aº & 5896Aº).
Bohr's orbits (for Hydrogen and H-like atoms) :

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i. Bohr's orbits for H
(i). Electrons revolve around the nucleus in stationary circular orbits where centripetal acceleration is provided
SP
by the columbic attraction of protons on electrons as:-
Calculating radius (rn) and speed (Vn) of nth orbit we know that
Ze 2 nh
= mv 2 − − − − − − − (i) and L = mvr = ------------(ii)
4πε 0 r 2π
n 2 h 2 ε0 n2
From equation (i) & (ii) we have rn = = (0.53Å)
m
Ze πm
2
Z
Ze 2
= ( 2.18 × 106 m / sec )
Z
Vn =
2nhε0 n
a

For H- atoms, Z = 1
Radius of 1st orbit r1 = 0.53Å
Speed of 1st orbit, V1 = 2.18×106m/sec
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1  mz 2 e 4  z 2
• Kinetic energy of electron in nth orbit- KE n =  ∝
2  4ε02 n 2 h 2  n 2
 mz 2 e 4  z 2
• Potential energy of electron, in nth orbit- U n = −  2 2 2  ∝ 2
 4ε0 n h  n
1  mz 2 e 4  z 2
• Total Energy of Electron in nth orbit- E n = KE n + U n = −  2 2 2  ∝ 2
2  4ε 0 n h  n
U
• If we observe the relations carefully then- E n = −KE n = n
2

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339
 (ii). Speed of electron :
From the above relations, speed of electron in nth orbit can be calculated as -
2πkZe 2  c  Z 6 Ζ
vn = =  = 2.2 × 10 m / s
nh  137  n n
Where, c = Speed of light = 3 × 108 m / s
(iii). Ionization energy and potential :
The energy required to ionize an atom is called ionization energy. It is the energy required to make the electron
jumps from the present orbit to the infinite orbit.
 z2  13.6z 2
Hence, Eionization = E∞ – En = 0 –  −13.6 2  = + eV
 n  n2
For H-atom in the ground sate
+13.6 (1)
2

Eionization = = 13.6eV ( n = 1)
n2
The potential through which an electron needs to be accelerated so that it acquires energy equal to the ionization
energy is called ionization potential.
E ionization
Vionization =
e

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(iv). Energy level for Hydrogen atom:
The description of the energy of the electron in different orbits around the nucleus is called energy level.
Energy level of hydrogen is given below-
Principle quantum number Orbit
SP Excited state Energy for H-atom
n=∞ Infinite Infinite 0 eV
n=4 Fourth Third –0.85eV
n=3 Third Second –1.51eV
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n=2 Second First –3.4eV
n=1 First Ground –13.6eV
■ Hydrogen spectrum and spectral series :
When hydrogen atom is excited, it returns to its normal unexcited state by emitting the energy it had absorbed
earlier. This energy is given out by the atom in the form of radiations of different wavelengths as the electron
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jumps down from a higher to a lower orbit.

Transition from different orbits cause different wave lengths,

The spectral lines arising from the transition of electron forms a spectra series.
(i). Mainly there are five series and each series is named after it's discoverer as Lyman series, Balmer series,
Paschen series, Brackett series and p-fund series.
(ii). According to the Bohr's theory the wavelength of the radiations emitted from hydrogen atom is given by.
1 1 1 n2n2 n12
= R  2 − 2  ⇒ λ = 2 1 22 =
λ  n1 n 2  ( n 2 − n1 ) R 1 − n12  R
 2 
 n2 
Where n2 = outer orbit (electron jumps from this orbit). n1 = inner orbit (electron falls in this orbit). The
wavelength of spectral lines increases with the increases of order of the series i.e.,
λ p-fund > λbrackett > λpaschen > λBalmer > λLyman

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340
 (iii). First line of the series is called first member for this line wavelength is maximum (λmax)
For maximum wavelength if n1 = n then n2 = n + 1

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n 2 ( n + 1)
2

λmax =
( 2n + 1) R
SP
(iv). Last line of the series is called series limit for this line wavelength is minimum (λmin).
For minimum wavelength n2 = ∞ n1= n
n2
λmin =
R
m
(v). The ratio of first member and series limit can be calculated as :
λ max ( n + 1)
2

=
λ min ( 2n + 1)
a

Spectral series Transition λmax λmin λ max Region

λ min
1. Lyman series n2 = 2,3,4,…∞ 4 1 4 Ultraviolet
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n1 = 1 3R R 3
2. Balmer series n2 = 3,4,5,… ∞ 36 4 9 Visible region
n1 = 2 5R R 5
3.Paschen series n2 = 4,5,6,… ∞ 144 9 16 Near Infrared
n1 = 3 7R R 7 region
4. Brackett series n2 = 5,6,7,… ∞ 400 16 25 Far Infrared
n1 = 4 9R R 9 region
5. P-fund series n2 = 6,7,8,… ∞ 900 25 36 Far Infrared
n1 = 5 11R R 11 region
■ Balmer series in the emission spectrum of hydrogen:

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341
■ The energy level diagram for the hydrogen atom.

(2) Nuclear Physics

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■ Nucleus:
• Rutherford's α-scattering experiment established that the mass of atom is concentrated with small positively
SP
charged region at the centre which is called 'nucleus'.
• The total number of protons (Z) termed as atomic number.
• Nuclei are made up of protons and neutrons. The total number of neutrons (N) and protons (Z) in a nucleus is
called mass number A. So,
A=Z+N
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• Neutrons and proton's when described collectively are called nucleons.
• A single nuclear species having specific value of both Z and N is called a nuclide. Nuclides are represented as
A
Z X ; where X denotes the chemical symbols of the elements.

■ Proton:
Proton is a stable subatomic particle, symbol p, H+ or 11 H with a positive charge '+1e' elementary charge.
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Charge = 1.6×10-19C
Mass = 1.6726×10-27 kg = 1 amu
■ Neutron:
Neutron is a fundamental particle which is essential constituent of all nuclei except that of hydrogen atom. It was
discovered by Chadwick. A free neutron outside the nucleus is unstable and decays into proton and electron.
0 n → 1 H + −1 β +
1 1 0
V
Pr oton Electron Antineutrino

• The charge of neutron : neutral (0) , symbol → 10 n

• The mass of neutron : 1.6750 × 10–27 kg
1  h 
• It's spin angular momentum : ×   J − S
2  2π 
• It's magnetic moment : 9.57 × 10–27 J/tesla
• It's half life : 12 minutes
• Penetration power : High
• Neutrons are of two types slow neutron and fast neutron. Both are fully capable of penetrating a nucleus and
causing artificial disintegration.
Classification of Nuclei:
The nuclei have been classified on the basis of the number of protons (atomic number) or the total number of
nucleons (mass number) as follows:

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342
 Condition Examples
Isotopes Z → equal Isotopes of Hydrogen: 1H1, 1H2, 1H3
A → different Isotopes of Oxygen: 8O16, 8O17, 8O18
(same atomic number) Isotopes of Chlorine: 17Cℓ35, 17Cℓ37,
Isotopes of Helium: 2He3, 2He4
Isotopes of Uranium: 92U235, 92U238
3 3
Isobars Z → different 1H and 2He
14 14
A → equal 6C and 7N
17 17
(same mass number) 8O and 9F
9 10
Isotones (A – Z) → same 4Be and 5B
14 13
A → different 7N and 6C
18 19
Z → different 8O and 9F
7 8
(same neutrons) 3Li and 4Be
3 4
1H and 2He
Note: - Average Atomic = M1×n1 + M2×n2
Where,
M1 = Mass of 1 isotope
M2 = mass of 2 isotope
n1 = % of 1 isotope
n2 = % of 2 isotope
• Nuclear radius:
Experimental results indicates that the nuclear radius is proportional to A1/ 3 , where A is the mass number of

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nucleus. i.e. R∝(A)1/3 ⇒ R = Ro (A)1/3, where Ro = 1.2 × 10–15m = 1.2fm.
• Nuclear volume:
The volume of nuclear is given by :
4 4
V = πR 3 = πR 30 A ⇒ V ∝ A
SP
3 3
• Nuclear density:
Mass per unit volume of a nucleus is called nuclear density.
m
Mass of nucleus mA
Nuclear density (ρ) = =
4
Volume of nucleus π ( R o A1/ 3 )
3
a

3
A × 1.67 × 10−27 1.67 ×10−27
= = = 2.38 × 1017 kg / m 3
π× (1.2 × 10 )
4 3 4 −15 3
πR 0 A
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3 3
Where,
m = Average mass of a nucleon (mass of proton + mass of neutron) = 1 amu = 1.66 × 10–27 kg
and mA = Mass of nucleus
• Number of nucleon per unit volume :
Density of Nucleus 2.38 × 1017 Nucleons
= = ≅ 1044
Mass of one Nucleus 1.67 × 10−27 m3
Note:-
(i) Nuclear density is independent of mass number A. It is same for nuclei of all atoms.
(ii) Nuclear density is 1014 times more than that of water i.e.103 kg/m3
■ Nuclear force :
Forces that keep the nucleons bound in the nucleus are called nuclear forces.

(A) At low speeds, electromagnetic repulsion prevents the collision of nuclei

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 (b) At high speeds, nuclei came close enough for the strong force to bind them together.

• Nuclear forces are short range forces, these do not exist at large distances greater than 10–15m.
• Nuclear forces are the strongest forces in nature.
• These are attractive force and cause stability of the nucleus.
• These forces are charge independent.
• Nuclear forces are non-central force.
■ Atomic Mass Unit (AMU) :
i. In nuclear physics, a convenient unit of mass is the unified atomic mass unit abbreviated amu or u.
1
ii. The amu is defined as th mass of a 6 C12 atom.
12
iii. 1 amu (or 1u) = 1.6605402×10–27kg
■ Masses of electrons, proton and neutrons :
Mass of electron (Me) = 9.1 × 10–31 kg = 0.0005486 amu
Mass of proton (Mp) = 1.6750×10–27 kg = 1.007276 amu
Mass of neutron (Mn) = 1.6750×10–27kg = 1.0078 amu
Mass of Hydrogen atom (Me + Mp) = 1.6729 × 10–27kg = 1.0078 amu
The energy associated with a nuclear process is usually large, of the order of Mev.
According to Einstein, mass and energy are inter convertible. The Einstein's mass energy relationship is given

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by:
E = mc2
If m = 1amu, c = 3×108 m/s then E= 931 MeV
i.e. 1 amu (or 1u) = 931 MeV
MeV
SP MeV
(1 u) c2 = 931 MeV ⇒ 1amu = 931 2 or c2 = 931
c u
■ Neutral atomic masses for some light nuclides–
Element and Isotope Atomic mass (u) For calculation (u)
Hydrogen ( 1 H )
am
1 1.007825 1

Deuterium ( H 2 )
1
2.014102 2

Tritium ( 1 H3 ) 3.016049 3

Helium ( 2 He3 ) 3.016029 3

Helium ( 2 He4 ) 4.002603 4

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Lithium ( 3 Li 7 ) 7.016004 7

Beryllium ( 4 Be9 ) 9.012182 9

Carbon ( 6 C12 ) 12.000000 12

Nitrogen ( 7 N14 ) 14.003074 14

Oxygen ( 8 O16 ) 15.994915 16

■ Mass defect (∆m) :
It is found that the mass of a nucleus is always less than the sum of masses of it's constituent nucleons in free
state.
This difference in masses is called mass defect.
Hence mass defect(∆m) = Sum of masses of nucleons – Mass of nucleus
= {Zmp + (A – Z)mn} – M
Where,
mp = mass of proton
mn = Mass of neutron
me = mass of electron
M = Mass of Nucleus
Z = Atomic number
A = Mass number

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■ Packing fraction
∆m
Mass defect per nucleon is called packing fraction (f) :
A
Where M = Mass of nucleus
A = Mass number
Packing fraction measures the stability of a nucleus. Smaller the value of packing fraction, longer is the stability of
the nucleus. Packing fraction may be of positive, negative or zero.
At A = 16, f = 0
F

A = 16

Binding Energy:
• The neutrons and Protons in a stable nucleus are held together by nuclear forces and energy is needed to pull

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them infinitely apart. This energy is called the binding energy of the nucleus.
If ∆m is mass defect then according to Einstein's mass energy relation.
SP
• Binding Energy = ∆mc2 = [{mpZ + mn(A – Z)}–M]c2
The binding energy expressed in Joule, because ∆m is measured in kg.
If ∆m is measured in amu then binding energy = ∆m amu = [{MpZ+ Mn(A – Z)} – M]amu = ∆m × 931 MeV
Binding Energy per nucleon :
The average energy required to release a nucleon from the nucleus is called binding energy per nucleon.
Total binding energy ∆m × 931 MeV
m
Binding energy per nucleon. = =
Mass number (i.e. total number of nucleons) A Nucleon
Binding energy per nucleon ∝ stability of nucleus.
Nuclear reactions:
a

The process by which the identity of a nucleus is changed when it is bombarded by an energetic particle is called
nuclear reaction the general expression for the nuclear reaction is as follows :
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Here X and a are known as reactants and y and b are known as products. This reaction is known as (a, b)
reaction and can be represented as X(a,b)y.
Q Value or energy of nuclear reaction:
The energy absorbed or released during nuclear reaction is known as Q value of nuclear reaction.
Q Value = (Mass of reactants – Mass of Products) C2 Joules
= (Mass of reactants – Mass of Products) amu.
• If Q < 0, then nuclear reaction will be endothermic.
• If Q > 0, then nuclear reaction will be exothermic.
Law of conservation in nuclear reactions:
i. Conservation of mass number and charge number.
ii. Conservation of momentum: Linear momentum/angular momentum of particles before reaction is equal to
the linear/angular momentum of the particles after the reaction. That is ∑p = 0
iii. Conservation of Energy: Total energy before the reaction is equal to total energy after the reaction. Term Q
is added to balance the total energy of the reaction.
Common nuclear reaction:
The nuclear reactions lead to artificial transmutation of nuclei. Rutherford was the first to carry out artificial
transmutation of nitrogen to oxygen in the year 1919. It is called (α, p) reaction which is give below,
2 He + 7 N → 9 F18 → 8 O17 + 1H1
4 14

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345
 Some other nuclear reactions are (p, n)
(p,n) reaction ⇒ 1 H1 + 5 B11 → 6 C12 → 6 C11 + 0 N1
(P, α) reaction ⇒ 1 H1 + 3 Li 7 → 4 Be8 → 2 He 4 + 2 He4
(p, γ) reaction ⇒ 1 H1 + 6 C12 → 7 N13 → 7 N13 + γ
(n, p) reaction ⇒ 0 n1 + 7 N14 → 7 N15 → 6 C14 + 1H1
( γ, n ) reaction ⇒ γ + 1H 2 → 1H1 + 0 n1
Nuclear Fission:
• The Process of splitting of a heavy nucleus into two lighter nuclei of comparable masses with liberation of
energy is called nuclear fission.
• The phenomenon of nuclear fission was discovered by Scientist Ottohann and F. Strassman and was
explained by N. Bohr and J.A. Wheeler on the basis of liquid drop model of nucleus.
• Fission reaction of U235:
92 U 235 + 0 n1 → 92 U 236 → 56 Ba141 + 36 Kr 92 + 30 n1 + Q
(Unstable
nucleus)

• The energy released in U235 fission is about 200 MeV or 0.8 MeV per nucleon.
• Nuclear Reactor: The nuclear reactor is a device in which nuclear fission can be carried out through a

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sustained and a controlled chain reaction. It is also called an atomic pile. It is thus a source of controlled
energy which is utilised for many useful purposes.
Nuclear fusion:
SP
• In nuclear fusion two or more than two lighter nuclei combine to form a single heavy nucleus. The mass of
single nucleus so formed is less than the sum of the masses of parent nuclei. This difference in mass results in
the release of tremendous amount of energy.
• For fusion high pressure (≈ 106 atm) and high temperature (of the order of 107K to 108K) is required and so the
reaction is called thermonuclear reaction.
am
• Here are three examples of energy – liberating fusion reactions, written in terms of the neutral atoms. Together
the reactions make up the process called the Proton – Proton chain.
1 H1 + 1H1 → 1H 2 + β+ + Ve

1 H 2 + 1H1 → 2 He3 + γ
He3 + 2 He3 → 2 He 4 + 1H1 + 1H1
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4 1 H1 → 2 He3 → 2β+ + 2 γ + 26.73MeV

Note: The Proton chain takes place in the interior of the sun and other stars.
Radioactivity: The phenomenon of spontaneous emission of radiations by heavy elements is called
radioactivity and the elements which show this phenomenon are called radioactive elements.
• Radioactivity was discovered by Hennery Becquerel in Uranium Salt in the year 1896.
• After the discovery of radioactivity in uranium, Pierre curie and Madame curie discovered a new radioactive
element called radium,
Example of radioactive Elements: - Thorium, Polonium, Neptunium etc.
• All the elements with atomic number (Z) > 82 are naturally radioactive.
• The conversion of lighter elements into radioactive elements by the bombardment of fast moving particles is
called artificial or induced radioactivity.
• Radioactivity is a nuclear event and not Atomic.
Nuclear radiations:
According to Rutherford's experiment when a sample of radioactive substance is put in a lead box and allow the
emission of radiation through a small hole only when the radiation enters into the external electric field, they
split into three parts (α-rays, β-rays & γ-rays)

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346
• α- Decay- Alpha particle is a He nucleus
A−4
A
z X 
→ 2α 4 + z −2 γ
e.g.
234 n 
238
92 U  →90 Th + 42 He  increases 
 p 
In any decay the sum of mass number & atomic number remains constant.
• β Decay - electron emission
( −10 e )( −01 β )

Y
→ ( β minus decay )
0
A
z X 
→−1 β + Az +1 γ + v
e.g.
6 C 
14

A
X 
0
→−1 β + 14
0
7 N+v

→+1 β + zA−1 γ + v
SP
→ ( β plus decay )
z

e.g.
10
10
C  →1 B + 10β + ν
m
6
Actually β decay is conversion of a neutron to proton inside the nucleus.
• γ- Decay - Electromagnetic wave.
A
A
Z X  → Z X + 00 γ
a

After α or β emission the nucleus is left in an excited state, undergoes to a lower energy state by emitting a high
energy photon called the γ - ray photon.
Property Alpha Beta Gamma
Te

Symbol α, 2He4 , He2+ β, –1e0, –1β0 γ, 0 γ0

Charge +2 (Positive) –1 (Negative) 0 (Neutral)
Speed slow fast very fast (speed of light)
Ionizing ability very high medium very slow
Penetrating power low medium high
Stopped by paper Aluminum foil Lead sheet
■ Radioactive disintegration:
According to Rutherford and Soddy, Law for radioactive decay is as follows –
"At any instant the rate of decay of radioactive atoms is proportional to the number of atoms present at that
instant i.e.
-dN dN
∝N⇒ = -λN ⇒ N = No e–λt
dt dt
It terms of mass M = Mo e–λt
Where, N = Number of atoms remained un-decayed after time t,
No = Number of atoms present initially (i.e. at t = 0) M = mass of radioactive nuclei at time t
No – N = Number of disintegrated nucleus in time t, Mo = mass of radioactive nuclei at time t = 0
dN
= Rate of decay,
dt
λ = Decay constant or disintegration, Constant or radioactivity constant or Rutherford Soddy's constant or the
probability of decay per unit time of a nucleus.

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347
 (3) Electrons, Photons, and X-rays
Cathode rays: Cathode ray was discovered by Sir William Crooke. They are streams of fast moving
electrons. They can be produced by using a discharge tube containing gas at a low pressure of the order of 10–2
mm of Hg. The cathode rays in the discharge tube are the electrons produced due to ionisation of gas and are
emitted by cathode due to collision of positive ions.
Properties of Cathode Rays:
• Cathode rays are emitted normally from the cathode surface. Their direction is independent of the position of
the anode.
• Cathode rays exert mechanical force on the objects they strike.
• Cathode rays produce heat when they strike a metal surface.
• Cathode rays produce fluorescence
• Cathode rays are deflected by electric and magnetic field.
• Cathode rays can ionize the gases through which they are passed.
• Cathode rays can penetrate through thin foils of metal.
th th
 1  1
• Cathode rays are found to have velocity ranging   to   of velocity of light.
 30   10 
J.J. Thomson's Experiment :
• It’s working is based on the fact that if a beam of electron is subjected to the crossed electric field E and

Y
magnetic field B , it experiences a force due to each field. In case the forces on the electrons in the electron
beam due to these fields are equal and opposite, the beam remains un-deflected.
SP
• When no field is applied the electron beam produces illumination at point P.
• In the presence of any field electron beam is deflected up or down (Illumination (at p' or p")) if both the fields
are applied simultaneously and adjusted such that electron beam passes un-deflected and produces
illumination at point p.
am
Te

Fig : J.J. Thomson's cathode ray tube experiment

• In this case, electric force = magnetic force
⇒ eE = evB
Ε
⇒ v = ; v = velocity of electron
B
• As electron beam is accelerated from cathode to anode its loss in potential energy appears as gain in the K.E.
at the anode. If suppose V is the potential difference between cathode and anode then, loss in potential energy
1 e v2 e E2
eV. And gain in K.E. at anode will be K.E. = mv 2 ⇒ = ⇒ =
2 m 2V m 2VB2
e
Thomson found, = 1.77 × 1011 C / kg
m
m0
• If one include the relativistic variation of mass with speed m = , then specific charge of an electron
v2
1− 2
c
decreases with increase in its velocity.

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348
 1  eE  l 2
• The deflection of an electron in a electric field is given by y =   . ; where l = Length of each plate, y
2  m  v2
= deflection of electron in the field region, v = speed of electron.
Positive Rays or Canal Rays :
Canal rays were discovered by Goldstein when potential difference is applied across the electrodes of a discharge
tube (10–3mm of Hg), electrons are emitted from the perforated cathode. As they move towards anode, they gain
energy these energetic electrons when collide with the atoms of the gas in the discharge tube, they ionize the
atoms. The positive ions when reach the cathode, some pass through the holes in the cathode and a faint
luminous glow comes out from each holes on the backside of the cathode. It is called positive rays, which are
coming out from the holes

• Positive rays are positive ions having same mass if the experimental gas does not have isotopes. However if the
gas has isotopes then positive rays are group of positive ions having different masses.

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• They travel in straight lines and cast shadows of objects placed in their path but the speed of the positive rays is
SP
much smaller than that of cathode rays.
• They are deflected by electric and magnetic fields but the deflections are smaller than that of cathode rays.
• They show a spectrum of velocities. Different positive ions move with different velocities being heavy, their
velocity is much less than that of cathode rays.
• q/m ratio of these rays depends on the nature of the gas in the tube. q/m for hydrogen is maximum.
m
• They carry energy and momentum the kinetic energy of positive rays is more than that of cathode rays.
• The value of charge on positive rays is an integral multiple of electronic charge.
• They cause ionization (which is much more than that produced by cathode rays.)
a

q
•   of positive rays is much smaller than that of cathode rays and is not a universal constant.
m
Te

Thomson's Mass spectrograph:

• It is used to measure atomic masses of various isotopes in gas this is done by measuring q/m of singly ionized
positive ion of the gas.

• The positive ions are produced in the bulb at the left hand side. These ions are accelerated towards cathode.
Some of the positive ions pass through the fine hole in the cathode. This fine ray of positive ions is subjected to
electric field E and magnetic field B and then allowed to strike a fluorescent screen ( E || B but E or B ⊥ V ) .
• If the initial motion of the ions is in +x direction and electric and magnetic fields are applied along +y axis then
force due to electric field is in the direction of y-axis and due to magnetic field it is along z – direction.

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349
 S

+q

• The deflection due to electric field alone.

qELD
y= ... ( i )
mv 2
The deflection due to magnetic field alone

Y
qBLD
Z= ... ( ii )
mv

q
From eqn (i) and (ii), Z2 = K   y
SPi.e. equation of parabola.
m
B2 LD
Where, K= ;
E
am
Note:
• All the positive ions of same q/m moving with different velocity lie on the same parabola. Higher is the
velocity lower is the value of y and z. The ions of different specific charge will lie on different parabola.
• The number of parabola tells the number of isotopes present in the given ionic beam.
Te

Matter waves (De-Broglie waves)

According to De-Broglie a moving material particle sometimes acts as a wave and sometimes as a particle.
The wave associated with moving particle is called matter wave or De-Broglie wave and it propagates in the
form of wave packets with group velocity.
i. De-Broglie wavelength : According to de-Broglie theory the wave length of de-Broglie wave is given by
h h h 1 1 1
λ= = = ⇒λ∝ ∝ ∝
p mv 2mE p v E

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350
 Where h = Planck's constant = 6.62 × 10–34 Jsec.
m = Mass of the particle
v = Speed of the particle
E = Kinetic energy of particle
• The smallest wavelength whose measurement is possible is that of γ- rays.
• The smallest wavelength of matter waves associates with the microscopic particles like electron, proton,
neutron, α-particle etc. is of the order of 10–10m.
ii. De-Broglie wavelength associated with the charged particles:
The energy of a charged particle accelerated through potential difference V is
1
E = mv 2 = qV
2
h h h
Hence, De-Broglie wavelength λ= = =
p 2mE 2mqV
12.27 0.286 0.202 0.101
λElectron = Aº , λproton = Aº , λDeuteron = Aº , λα-particle = Aº
V V V V
iii. De-Broglie wavelength associated with uncharged particle.
For Neutron De-Broglie wavelength is given as :
0.286 × 10−10 m 0.286
λNeutron = = Aº ( 1Å = 10-10 m)
(
E ineV ) E ( in eV )

Y
• The De- Broglie wavelength of neutron in thermal equilibrium with heavy water at temperature T (Kelvin) and a
mass m is
λ= =
h
p
h
2m(KE)
SP
h
=
3
2m × kT
2
m
h
λ=
3mkT
• The De-Broglie wavelength of neutrons in thermal equilibrium at temperature T is -
a

h 30.8 º
λ= = A
2mkT T
Te

iv. Ratio of wave length of photon and electron :

hc
• The wavelength of a photon of energy E is given by λph =
E
h
• The wavelength of an electron of kinetic energy K is given by λe =
2mK
λ ph c 2mc 2 k
• The ratio of wavelength of photon & electron = 2mk =
λe E E2
λ ph 2m
• For same energy (K =E) =c
λe E
Characteristics of matter waves :
i. Matter wave represents the probability of finding a particle in space.
ii. Matter waves are not electromagnetic in nature.
iii. Particle observation of matter waves is possible only when the De-Broglie wavelength is of the order of the
size of the particles.
iv. Electron microscope works on the phenomena of De-Broglie waves.
v. The phase velocity of the matter waves can be greater than the speed of the light.
vi. Matter waves can propagate in vacuum hence they are not mechanical waves.
vii. The number of De-Broglie waves associated with nth orbital electron is n.

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351
 Phase Velocity (Vp) and Group Velocity (Vg)
• Phase Velocity (Vp) :- The phase velocity of a matter wave of De Broglie wave represents a velocity of
individual wave of particle and is defined as the ratio of angular frequency to the wave vector (K)
Angular Frequency ω
Phase velocity (Vp) = = =µ
Wave Vector K
Where µ is a Wave velocity.
• Group Velocity (Vg):- The group velocity of a matter wave or De-Broglie wave gives the idea of the velocity of
wave group and is defined as the ratio of change of angular frequency with wave vector.
dω
Group velocity Vg =
dK
• Product of Phase velocity and Group velocity- Vg × Vp = c2
• Phase velocity & Group velocity in terms of Energy and Momentum-
Vp=E/p and Vg = dω/dK
E d(E / p) 
Vg =  − λ
p dλ 
• Relation between the Phase velocity and Group velocity
dVp
Vg = Vp − λ
dλ

Y
Davisson and Germer Experiment:
It is used to study the scattering of electron from a solid or to verify the wave nature of electron. A beam of
electrons emitted by electron gun is made to fall on nickel crystal cut along cubical axis at a particular angle. Ni
SP
crystal behaves like a three dimensional diffraction grating and it diffracts the electron beam obtained from
electron gun.
am
Te

The diffracted beam of electrons is received by the detector which can be positioned at any angle by rotating it
about the point of incidence.
The energy of the incident beam of electrons can also be varied by changing the applied voltage to the electron
gun.
• According to classical physics, the intensity of scattered beam of electron at all scattering angle will be same
but Davisson and Germer, found that the intensity of scattered beam of electrons was not the same but different
at different angles of scattering it is maximum for diffracting angle 50º at 54 volt potential difference.

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352
 • If the De-Broglie waves exist for electrons then these should be diffracted as x-rays, so the Bragg's formula,
2d sinθ = nλ.
We can determine the wave length of these waves
Where, d = distance between diffracting planes

θ=
(1800 − φ ) = glancing angle for incident beam = Bragg's angle.
2

The distance between diffracting planes in Ni-Crystal for this experiment is d = 0.91 Å and the Braggs angle =
65º

Y
This gives for n = 1, λ = 2 × 0.91 × 10–10, sin 65º = 1.65 Å
Now the De-Broglie wavelength can also be determined by using the formula.

λ=
12.27 12.27
V
=
54
SP
= 1.67Å thus the De-Broglie hypothesis is verified.

The Bragg's formula can be rewritten in the form containing inter-atomic distance D and angle φ
φ φ
∵ θ = 90 – and d = Dcosθ = D sin
m
2 2
φ
Using sinθ = cos
2
a

 φ φ
2d sinθ = λ ⇒ 2  D sin  .cos ⇒ D sin φ = λ
 2 2
■ Heisenberg's Uncertainty Principle:
Te

According to Heisenberg's uncertainty principle, :"It is impossible to measure simultaneously both the position
and the momentum of the microscopic particle."
Let ∆x and ∆p be the uncertainty in the simultaneous measurement of the position and momentum of the particle,
then
∆x ∆p = ħ
h  h 
Where, ħ= and h = 6.63×10–34 J – s is the Planck's constant;  ℏ = = 1.05 × 10−34 J − sec  . A more
2π  2π 
ℏ h 
rigorous treatment gives ∆x∆p ≥  or 
2  4π 
If ∆x = 0, then ∆p = ∞ and if ∆p = 0, then ∆x = ∞
The Heisenberg uncertainty principle is also applicable to energy and time, angular momentum and angular
displacement. Hence
h h
∆E ∆t ≥ and ∆L ∆θ ≥
2π 2π
If the radius of the nucleus is r then the probability of finding the electron inside of the nucleus is ∆x = 2 r and
h
un-certainty in momentum is ∆p =
4πr

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353
■ Photo-electric effect :
The photo electric effect is the emission of electrons (called photo-electrons) when light strikes a surface. To
escape from the surface, the electron must absorb enough energy from the incident radiation to overcome the
attraction of positive ions in the material of the surface.
The photoelectric effect was first observed by Heinrich Hertz and it was investigated in details by Whilelm
Hallwach and Philipp Lenard.
The photo electric effect is based on the principle of conservation of energy.
• Work function (or threshold energy) (Wo) :
The minimum energy of incident radiation required to ejects the electrons from metallic surface is defined as
work function of that surface.
hc
Wo = hvo = Joules
λo
vo = Threshold frequency
λo = Threshold wave length.
hc 12375
Work function in electron volt Wo (eV) = =
eλ o ( )
λo A
0

Element Work function (eV) Element Work function (eV)

Platinum 6.4 Aluminum 4.3
Gold 5.1 Silver 4.3
Nickel 5.1 Sodium 2.7

Y
Carbon 5.0 Lithium 2.5
Silicon 4.8 Potassium 2.2

•
Copper
Threshold frequency (vo) :
4.7
SP Cesium 1.9

The minimum frequency of incident radiations required to eject the electron from metal surface is defined as
threshold frequency. If incident frequency v < vo, No photoelectron emission.
For most metals the threshold frequency is in the Ultraviolet region (corresponding to wavelength 200 and 300
nm) but for potassium and cesium oxides it is in the visible spectrum (λ between 400 and 700 nm)
am
• Threshold wavelength (λo) :
The maximum wavelength of incident radiations required to eject the electrons from a metallic surface is defined
as threshold wavelength.
If incident wavelength λ > λo ⇒ No photoelectron emission.
• Einstein's photoelectron equations :
According to Einstein, photoelectric effect is the result of one to one inelastic collision between photon and
electron in which photon is completely absorbed.
Te

Einstein's photoelectric equation is –

E = Wo + Kmax
1 2
Where, Kmax = mv max = maximum kinetic energy of emitted electrons.
2
Important formula for photoelectric effect :
• hv = hvo + Kmax and Kmax = eVo
1
• Kmax = eVo = h (v – vo) ⇒ mv max 2
=h(v – vo)
2
2h ( v − vo )
• Vmax =
m
1 1 1  λ −λ
• Kmax = mv max 2
= eVo = hc  −  = hc  o 
2  λ λo   λ.λ o 
2hc ( λ o − λ )
• Vmax =
m λ.λ o
h hc  1 1  1 1 
• Vo = ( v – v o) = −  = 12375 λ −λ 
e e  λ λ o   o 

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354
■ Compton Effect:
The scattering of a photon by an electron is called Compton effect. The energy and momentum is conserved
scattered photon will have less energy (more wave length) as compared to incident photon (less wave length).
The energy lost by the photon is taken by electron as kinetic energy.
The change in wavelength due to Compton effect is called Compton shift.
h
Compton shift λ f − λi = ∆λ = (1 − cos φ )
mo c
h
If φ = 90º, ∆λ = = 0.24nm
mo c
2h
φ = 180º, ∆λ = = 0.48nm (called Compton wavelength)
mo c

Note : Compton shift depends only on the scattering angle. It does not depend on the incident wavelength or on
the scattering material.

Y
■ X-Rays :
X-rays were discovered by scientist Roentgen. they are also called Roentgen rays.
SP
Roentgen discovered that when pressure inside a discharge tube is kept 10–3 mm of Hg and potential difference is
kept 25 kV. The some unknown radiations (x-rays) are emitted by anode.
There are three essential requirements for the production of X-rays.
i. A source of electrons.
ii. An arrangement to accelerate the electrons.
iii. A target of suitable material of high atomic weight and high melting point on which these speed electrons
m
strike.
Coolidge X-Rays tube :
It consists of a highly evacuated glass tube containing cathode and target (also known as filament type X-ray
tube). The Cathode consists of a tungsten filament. The filament is coated with oxides of Barium or Strontium to
a

have an emission of electrons event at low temperature. The filament is surrounded by a Molybdenum cylinder
kept at negative potential. w.r.t. the target.
• The target (it is a material of high atomic weight, high melting point and high thermal conductivity). Made of
Te

tungsten or molybdenum is embedded in a copper block.

• The face of the target is set at 45º to the incident electron stream.

The filament is heated by passing the current through it. A high potential difference (≈ 10kV to 80kV) is applied
between the target and cathode to accelerate the electrons which are emitted by filament the stream of highly
energetic electrons are focused on the target.

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355
⇒ Most of the energy of the electrons is converted into heat (above 98%) and only a fraction of the energy of the
electrons about 2% is used to produce X-rays.
Control of intensity of X-rays :
Intensity implies the number of X-ray photons produced from the target. The intensity of X-rays emitted is
directly proportional to the electrons emitted per second from the filament and this can be increased by
increasing the filament current. So, intensity of X-rays ∝ filament current.
Types of X-rays :
Hard X-rays Soft X-rays
More Potential power Less penetration power
More frequency of the order of ≈ 1019 Hz Less frequency of the order of ≈ 1016 Hz
Lesser wavelength range (0.1 Aº – 4Aº) More wavelength range (4Aº – 100Aº)
Properties of X-rays :
• X-rays are electromagnetic waves with wavelength range 0.1Aº–100Aº.
• The wavelength of X-rays is very small in comparison to the wavelength of light.
Hence they carry much more energy (This is the only difference between X-rays and light).
• X-Rays are invisible.
• They travel in a straight line with speed of light.
• X-Rays carry no charge so they are not deflected in magnetic field and electric field.
• λgamma rays < λX–rays < λUV- rays

Y
• X-rays do not pass through heavy metal and bones.
• Lead is the best absorber of X-rays.
• For X-rays photography of human body parts BaSO4 is the best absorber.
SP
• X-rays are not emitted by hydrogen atom because energy level of hydrogen atom are too close to each other.
Absorption of X-rays :
X-rays are absorbed when they are incident on substance intensity of emergent X–rays
I = Ioe–µx
So, intensity of absorbed X-rays
am
I' = Io – I = Io (1 – e–µx)
Where, x = thickness of absorbing medium, µ = absorption coefficient.
Te

µ ∝ λ 3; (λ = wavelength of ∝-ray)
µ ∝ v −3 (v = Frequency of X-ray)
µ∝Z 4
(Z = Atomic number of Target)
Classification of X-rays:
In X-ray tube, when high speed electrons strikes the target, they penetrate the target. They loses their kinetic
energy and comes to rest inside the metal the electron before finally being stopped makes several collisions with
the atoms in the target At each collision one of the following two types of X-rays may get formed.
i. Continuous X-rays
ii. Characteristic X-rays.
■ Mosley's Law:
Mosley studied the character of heavy elements and concluded that the spectra of different elements are very
similar and with increasing atomic number, the spectral lines merely shift towards higher frequencies.
He also gave the following relation
v = a (z − b)

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356
Where,
v = Frequency of emitted line,
Z = Atomic number of target
a = proportionality constant
b = Screening constant or shielding constant
(Z – b) = Effective atomic number, a and b does not depend on the nature of target different values of b are as
follows
b=1 for K – Series
b = 7.4 for L – Series
b = 19.2 for M – Series
• Mosley's law supported Bohr's theory.
• It experimentally determined the atomic number (Z) of elements.
• This Law established the importance of ordering of elements in periodic table by Atomic number and not by

Y
atomic weight
• Gaps in Moseley's data for A = 43, 61, 72, 75 suggested existence of new elements which were later discovered.
• The atomic numbers of Cu, Ag and Pt were established to be 29, 47 and 78 respectively.
1
λ
SP 2 1

n
 1
1 
• Wavelength of characteristics spectrum = R ( Z − b )  2 − 2  and energy of X-ray radiations.
n 2 

hc 2 1 1 
∆E = h v = = Rhc ( Z − b )  2 − 2 
λ  n1 n 2 
m
• If transition takes place from n2 = 2 to n1 = 1(k∝ – line)
3RC
i. a = = 2.47 × 1015 Hz
4
a

2 1  3RC
ii. vk∝ = RC ( Z − 1) 1 − 2  = ( Z − 1)2 = 2.47 × 1015 ( Z − 1)2 Hz
 2  4
iii. In general the wavelength of all the K-lines are given by
Te

1 2 1 
= R ( Z − 1) 1 − 2  where n = 2, 3, 4, ….
λk  n 
iv. E k∝ = 10.2 ( Z − 1) eV
2

Applications of X-rays:
• In study of crystal structure
• Structure of DNA was also determined using X-ray diffraction.
• In medical science
• In radiography
• In radiotherapy
• In engineering
• In laboratories
• In detective department
• In art the change occurring in old oil paintings can be examined by X-rays.
■ Key Points:-
• Discovery of positive rays helps in discovering isotopes.
• The De-Broglie wavelength of electrons in first Bohr orbit of an atom is equal to circumference of orbit.
• A particle having zero rest mass and non zero energy and momentum must travels with a speed equal to speed
of light.
• A photon is not material particle. It is a quanta of energy.
• By coating the metal surface with a layer of barium oxide or strontium oxide it's work function is lowered.

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357
 Exemplar Problems
Modern Physics
7. For which one of the following, Bohr model is
Atomic Physics not valid?
1. A hydrogen atom in is ground state absorbs (a) Hydrogen atom
10.2 eV of energy. The angular momentum of
(b) Singly ionised helium atom (He+)
electron of the hydrogen atom will increase by
the value of: (Given, Plank’s constant = 6.6 × (c) Deuteron atom
10–34 Js) (d) Singly ionised neon atom (Ne+)
(a) 2.10 ×10–34 Js (b) 1.05 × 10–34 Js NEET 2020
(c) 3.15 ×10 Js
–34
(d) 4.2 × 10–34 Js 8. The total energy of an electron in an atom in an
orbit is – 3.4 eV. Its kinetic and potential
JEE MAIN 2022 energies are, respectively
2. In Bohr's atomic model of hydrogen, let K. P (a) 3.4 eV, 3.4 eV (b) – 3.4 eV, – 3.4 eV
and E are the kinetic energy, potential energy
(c) – 3.4 eV, – 6.8 eV (d) 3.4 eV, – 6.8 eV
and total energy of the electron respectively.
Choose the correct option when the electron NEET 2019
undergoes transitions to a higher level : 9. The ratio of kinetic energy to the total energy

Y
(a) All K. P and E increase. of an electron in a Bohr orbit of the hydrogen
atom, is
(b) K decreases. P and E increase.
(a) 1 : 1 (b) 1 : –1
SP
(c) P decreases. K and E increase.
(d) K increases. P and E decrease.
(c) 2 : –1 (d) 1 : –2
NEET 2018
JEE MAIN 2022
10. Who made the observation that there must be
3. The electron in a hydrogen atom first jumps very large empty space within the atom?
from the third excited state to the second (a) Einstein (b) Arrhenius
excited state and subsequently to the first
am
excited state. The ratio of the respective (c) Chadwick (d) Rutherford
wavelengths λ1 / λ2 of the photons emitted in UPTGT Science - 2021
this process is 11. If the atomic size increase, the non-metallic
(a) 20/7 (b) 27/5 character will
(c) 7/5 (d) 9/7 (a) Increase
(b) Decrease
JEE MAIN 2019
Te

(c) Sometimes increases and sometimes

4. A He+ ion is in its first excited state. Its
decreases
ionisation energy is
(d) No change
(a) 54.40 eV (b) 13.60 eV
UPTGT Science - 2021
(c) 48.36 eV (d) 6.04 eV
12. When hydrogen atom is raised from the ground
JEE MAIN 2019 state to excited state
5. Let T1 and T2 be the energy of an electron in (a) P.E. increases and K.E. decreases
the first and second excited states of hydrogen (b) P.E. decreases and K.E. increases
atoms, respectively. According to the Bohr’s (c) Both P.E. and K.E. increases
model of an atom, the ratio T1 : T2 is (d) Both P.E. and K.E. decreases
(a) 9 : 4 (b) 1 : 4 UP TGT Physics 2016
(c) 4 : 1 (d) 4 : 9 13. Which is the following is incorrect statement?
NEET 2022 (a) Bohr's model of atom fails to explain spectra
of multi electron atoms
6. For which one of the following, Bohr model is
(b) Bohr's atomic model fails to explain Zeeman
not valid ?
effect.
(a) Singly ionised helium atom (He+)
(c) Bohr's atomic model fails to explain Stark
(b) Deuteron atom effect
(c) Singly ionised neon atom (Ne+) (d) Bohr's atomic model treats electron as a
(d) Hydrogen atom particle and as a wave
NEET 2020 UPTGT Science - 2021
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14. Who postulated that the momentum of an 21. If the atom 100Fm257 follows the Bohr model and
electron in an atom is quantized? the radius 100Fm257 in n times the Bohr radius,
(a) Erwin Schrodinger then n is
(b) Niels Henrik David Bohr (a) 100 (b) 200
(c) Loius Victor Pierre Ramond Duc de Broglie 1
(c) 4 (d)
(d) Wolfgang Pauli 4
UPTGT Science - 2021 (UPPGT 2010)
15. If the binding energy of the electron in a 22. Rydberg's constant is equal to
hydrogen atom is 13.6 eV, the energy required me2 me4
to remove the electron from the Ist excited state (a) R = 2 3 (b) R = 2 3
8ε 0 ch 8ε 0 ch
of Li++ is :
(a) 122.4 eV (b) 30.6 eV m2e4 m4e4
(c) R = (d) R =
(c) 13.6 eV (d) 3.4 eV 8ε 02 ch 3 8ε 02 ch 3
UKPSC Lecturer (Mains) 2020 (UPPGT 2010)
16. In a Bohr orbit of hydrogen atom, the ratio of 23. The ionization energy of Li+2 ion is related to H
Kinetic energy of an electron to its potential atom as
energy is− (a) 2 : 1 (b) 3 : 1
1 (c) 9 : 1 (d) 4 : 1
(a) (b) 2
2 (UPPGT 2013)
1 UPPCS Pre 2004
(c) − (d) −2 24. If the wavelength of first member of Balmar

Y
2 series is 6563Å. The wavelength of first
(UPPGT 2011) member of Lyman series shall be

(a)
16
(b)
8
SP
17. Wavelength of 2nd member of Balmer series is: (a) 1120 Å
(c) 1015 Å
(b) 1320 Å
(d) 1215 Å
(UPPGT 2013)
3R 5R
UPPCS Pre 2002
4 2 25. In the following nuclear reaction,
(c) (d) -
m
3R R D 
α
→ D1 
β
→ D2 
α
→ D3 
γ
→ D4
UPPCS Pre 2010 Mass number of D is 182 and atomic number is
18. Bohr Magneton is the unit of : 74.
(a) magnetic field
Mass number and atomic number of D4
a

(b) magnetization respectively will be.

(c) magnetic dipole moment (a) 174 and 71 (b) 174 and 69
(d) magnetic flux density (c) 172 and 69 (d) 172 and 71
Te

UPPCS Pre 2010 JEE MAIN 2022

19. The minimum orbital angular momentum of
26. The activity of a radioactive material is 2.56 ×
the electron in a hydrogen atom is:
10-3 Ci. If the half life of the material is 5 days,
h after how many days the activity will become 2
(a) h (b)
2π × 10-5 Ci?
h h (a) 30 days (b) 35 days
(c) (d)
2 λ (c) 40 days (d) 25 days
UPPCS (Pre) 2003 JEE MAIN 2022
20. If the electron in the hydrogen atom jumps 27. The Q-value of a nuclear reaction and kinetic
from third orbit to second orbit, the energy of the projectile particle, Kp are related
wavelength of radiations emitted in terms of as :
Rydberg constant will be: (a) Q = Kp (b) (Kp + Q) < O
5R 5 (c) Q < Kp (d) (Kp + Q) > 0
(a) (b)
36 36 R JEE MAIN 2022
36 36 R 28. Imagine that the electron in a hydrogen atom is
(c) (d) replaced by a muon (µ). The mass of muon
5R 5
particle is 207 times that of an electron and
UPPCS (Pre) 2002 charge is equal to the charge of an electron.
UPPGT 2005 The ionization potential of this hydrogen atom
UP PGT Physics 2016 (Exam : 02.02.2019) will be:-
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 (a) 13.6 eV (b) 2815.2 eV 36. Which of the following statements is true?
(c) 331.2 eV (d) 27.2 eV (a) α particles have a well defined range
JEE MAIN 2021 (b) In β -decay,the neutron-proton ratio increases
29. The half -life of Au198 is 2.7 days. The activity of (c) Neutrino can pass easily through vast amount
1.50 mg of Au198 if its atomic weight is 198 g of matter
mol–1 is, (NA = × 1023/mol) (d) 1Å photon can produce electron-positron pair
(a) 240 Ci (b) 357 Ci UPPSC Ashram Paddhati PGT - 2021
(c) 535 Ci (d) 252 Ci 37. Surface energy ES, of a nucleus having mass
JEE MAIN 2021 number A and atomic number Z is
proportional to
30. In the given nuclear reaction, the element X is 1
2
22 Na → X + e + + v (a) ( A − Z)2 (b) (A − 2Z)
11
1 2
(a) 22 Mg (b) 23 Na (c) A 3 (d) A 3
11 11
UPPSC Ashram Paddhati PGT - 2021
(c) 23 e (d) 22 Ne
10 N 10 38. What is the particle X in the following nuclear
NEET 2022 reaction?
A 4Be9 + 2 He4 →6 C12 + X
31. A radioactive nucleus ZX undergoes
spontaneous decay in the sequence (a) Electron (b) Proton
(c) Neutron (d) Meson
X → Z −1 B → Z − 3 C → Z − 2 D, where Z is the

Y
A
Z
UPPSC Poly. Lect. 2021 Paper - II
atomic number of element X. The possible
39. The particles heavier than nucleons are called -
decay particles in the sequence are
(a) β–, α, β+
+ –
(c) α, β ,β
SP
(b) α, β–, β+
(d) β+, α, β–
(a) Hyperons
(c) Gravitons
(b) Leptons
(d) Mesons
UPPSC Poly. Lect. 2021 Paper - II
NEET 2021 (UPPGT 2013)
32. A nucleus with mass number 240 breaks into UPPCS Pre 2003
two fragments each of mass number 120, the 40. The binding energy per nucleon is maximum
am
binding energy per nucleon of unfragmented for nuclei -
nuclei is 7.6 MeV while that of fragments is 8.5 56 208
(a) Fe (b) Pb
MeV. The total gain in the Binding Energy in
4 101
the process is (c) He (d) Mo
(a) 2016 MeV (b) 0.9 MeV UPPSC Poly. Lect. 2021 Paper - II
(c) 9.4 MeV (d) 804 MeV UKPSC Lecturer (Mains) 2020
Te

NEET 2021 41. When γ - rays fall on heavy substance, electron

33. When a uranium isotope 235
92 U is bombarded and positron are produced, the phenomenon is
89 known as -
with a neutron, it generates Kr , three
36
(a) β − decay (b) Meson production
neutrons and :
91 101
(c) Cosmic ray (d) Pair production
(a) 40 Zr (b) 36 Kr
UPPSC Poly. Lect. 2021 Paper - II
103 144
(c) 36 Kr (d) 56 Ba 42. The average binding energy per nucleon of
NEET 2020 most nuclei is of the order of
(a) 10–12 eV (b) 10–12 MeV
34. The energy required to break one bond in DNA –12
is 10–20 J. This value in eV is nearly (c) 10 BeV (d) 10–12 J
UP PGT - 2021
(a) 6 (b) 0.6
43. At the peak of the nuclear binding energy
(c) 0.06 (d) 0.006 curve
NEET 2020 (a) Z is even but N is odd
35. The binding energy of a nucleus is a measure of (b) Z is odd but N is even
its (c) Both Z and N are odd
(a) Stability (b) Mass (d) Both Z and N are even
(c) Charge (d) Momentum UP PGT - 2021
UPPSC Ashram Paddhati PGT - 2021 RPSC School Lect. 26.07.2016
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44. γ-emission is associated with transition 53. If 25% of a radioactive material decays in 5
years, how much of the original material will
between be left undecayed after 20 years?
(a) Atomic energy levels (a) 5% (b) 10%
(b) Nuclear energy levels (c) 25% (d) 32%
(c) Both (a) and (b) UP PGT - 2021
(d) Neither (a) nor (b) 54. Which one of the following is used as a
UPPSC GDC - 2021 coolant/moderator in a nuclear reactor?
(a) Distilled water (b) Fresh water
45. The magic numbers are related to which
nuclear property? (c) Heavy water (d) Ice
UP PGT - 2021
(a) Force (b) Decay
55. Identify the incorrect statement.
(c) Explosion (d) Stability (a) Radioactivity makes it possible to establish
UPPSC GDC - 2021 the age of many geological and biological
13 specimens.
46. 7 N is emitted in the reaction of deuteron and
(b) Radiocarbon is the beta-active carbon isotope
C12 nucleus, another emitted particle is 14
6 C.
6

(a) electron (b) positron (c) Living plants and animals have different ratio
(c) proton (d) neutron of radiocarbon to ordinary carbon.
RPSC School Lect. 26.07.2016 (d) Cosmic rays are high energy atomic nuclei
47. Nuclear forces are chiefly protons.
(a) Always repulsive UP PGT - 2021

Y
(b) Always attractive 56. Neutrino is emitted in
(c) Attractive at large distances and repulsive at (a) α-decay (b) β-decay
short distances
SP
(d) Repulsive at large distances and attractive at
short distances 57.
(c) γ-decay

In β-decay of nucleus
(d) None of the above
UPPSC GDC - 2021

UP PGT Physics 2016 (Exam : 02.02.2019) (a) Mass number changes but atomic number
48. Natural Radioactivity was discovered by remains unchanged
(a) Rutherford (b) Pierre Curie (b) Both mass number and atomic number
m
changes
(c) Becquerel (d) Roentgen
(c) Mass number remains unchanged but atomic
UPPSC GDC - 2021 number changes
235
49. The fission of a 92 ∪ nucleus (d) None of the above
a

(a) may produce pairs of fission products other UPPSC GDC - 2021
than Ba and Kr 58. Which among the following is a pair of
isotones?
(b) always produces Ba and Kr as fission product
Te

(c) produces Ba and any other fission product (a) 23

11
Na, 23 Mg
12 (b) 23 Na, 24 Mg
11 12
(d) produces Kr and any other fission product/Kr
UPPSC Ashram Paddhati PGT - 2021 (c) 24
11
Na, 24 Mg
12 (d) 24 Na, 23 Mg
11 12
50. In nuclear reactions the conversion of - UPTGT Science - 2021
(a) Mass only 59. What is the cause of nuclear fission?
(b) Energy only (a) Centrifugal force (b) Coulomb force
(c) Momentum only (c) Surface tension (d) Viscous force
(d) Mass, energy and momentum UPTGT Science - 2021
UPPSC Poly. Lect. 2021 Paper - II 60. Which of these can be the fuel in a nuclear
51. Radioactive substances do not exit - fission reactor?
(a) α − rays (b) β − rays (a) Cadmium (b) Thorium
(c) Positrons (d) Protons (c) Helium (d) Deuterium
UPPSC Poly. Lect. 2021 Paper - II UPTGT Science - 2021
52. The half life of a radio-active element depends 61. A radioactive element has half life of 10
seconds. A single nucleus of the element will
upon -
decay
(a) Amount of element present (a) in less than 10 seconds
(b) Temperature (b) at exactly 10 seconds
(c) Pressure (c) only after 10 seconds
(d) None of these (d) cannot be predicted
UPPSC Poly. Lect. 2021 Paper - II UPTGT Science - 2021
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62. A half life equation of the radioactive substance A0 A0
is (a) (b)
3 6
0.6931 λ
(a) t 1 = (b) t 1 = A0 A0
2 λ 2 0.6931 (c) (d)
9 27
0.936 λ RPSC School Lect. 26.07.2016
(c) t 1 = (d) t 1 =
2 λ 2 0.936 70. What is the half-life of 6C14, if its disintegration
UPTGT Science - 2021 constant (λ),is 2.31 ×10-4 years-1
63. Which represents Curie's law for paramagnetic
(a) 0.3 × 10 4 year (b) 0.3 × 106 year
material ?
1 (c) 3.0 × 103 year (d) 0.3 × 103 year
(a) χ∝ (T – TC) (b) χ ∝ UP LT Grade Science 2018 (Exam : 29.07.2018)
T − TC
71. The time taken for a sample of radium D to
1 decrease to 10%, if its half–life is 22 years, will
(c) χ ∝ (d) χ∝ T be:
T
UKPSC Lecturer (Mains) 2020 (a) 29 years (b) 89 years
64. The half-life of a radioactive element, which (c) 73.11 years (d) 90 years
1 (UPPGT 2013)
has only of its original mass left after a UPPCS (Pre) 2002
32 72. In a radioactive decay neither the atomic
lapse of 60 days is : number nor the mass number changes. The
(a) 12 days (b) 32 days particle emitted in the decay, is:

Y
(c) 60 days (d) 64 days (a) Proton (b) Neutron
UKPSC Lecturer (Mains) 2020 (c) Electron (d) Photon
65.
SP
An α-particle of energy 5 MeV is scattered
through 180° by a fixed uranium nucleus. The
distance of closet approach is: 73.
(UPPGT 2013)
UPPCS (Pre) 2002
A proton, a neutron, an electron and an
(a) 5.3 × 10-14 m (b) 5.1 × 10-13 m α - particle have same energy. If λ p , λ n , λ e and
(c) 5.9 × 10-14 m (d) 5.9 × 10-13 m λ α are the de Broglie’s wavelengths of proton,
UKPSC Lecturer (Mains) 2020 neutron, electron and α particle respectively,
am
66. In Einstein's model of specific heat of solids, then choose the correct relation from the
which of the following assumption is not true ? following :
(a) A crystal consists of atoms which may be
(a) λ p = λ n > λ e > λ α (b) λ α < λ n < λ p < λ e
regarded as identical and independent
harmonic oscillators (c) λ e < λ p = λ n > λ α (d) λe = λp = λn = λα
(b) Any number of oscillators may be present in
JEE MAIN 2022
Te

the same quantum state

(c) The oscillators are quantum oscillators and 74. An a particle and a carbon 12 atom has same
have discrete energy kinetic energy K. The ratio of their de-Broglie
(d) All the oscillators vibrate with different wavelength is : (λα : λC12) is :
frequency (a) 1: 3 (b) 3 :1
RPSC School Lect. 08.01.2020
(c) 3 : 1 2: 3
(d)
67. An element 84X202 emits an α – particle and then
a β– particle. If the final product is aYb, then a JEE MAIN 2022
and b are 75. For a specific wavelength 670 nm of light
(a) 82, 198 (b) 83, 198 coming from a galaxy moving with velocity v,
the observed wavelength is 670.7 nm.
(c) 82, 199 (d) 83, 199
The value of v is :
UP PGT Physics 2016 (Exam : 02.02.2019)
68. The half life of radon is 3.8 days starting with (a) 3 × 108 ms–1 (b) 3 × 1010 ms–1
5 –1
9.6 mg of radon, how much will be left after 19 (c) 3.13 × 10 ms (d) 4.48 × 105 ms–1
days JEE MAIN 2022
(a) 0.5mg (b) 0.6 mg 76. The de Brogue wavelengths for an electron and
(c) 0.3mg (d) 0.2 mg a photon are λ e and λ p respectively. For the
UP PGT Physics 2016 (Exam : 02.02.2019) same kinetic energy of electron and photon.
69. The activity of a radioactive element decreases which of the following presents the correct
in 9 years to 1/3 of its initial activity A0. After relation between the de Brogue wavelengths of
next 9 years its activity will be two ?
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 (a) λ p ∝ λ e2 (b) λp ∝ λe 82. The graph which shows the variation of the de
Broglie wavelength ( λ ) of a particle and its
1 associated momentum (p) is
(c) λ p ∝ λ e (d) λp ∝
λe
JEE MAIN 2022 (a) (b)
77. Let K1 and K2 be the maximum kinetic energies
of photo–electrons emitted when two
monochromatic beams of wavelength λ1 and λ2 (c)
(d)
, respectively are incident on a metallic surface.
If λ1 = 3λ2 then:
NEET 2022
K K
(a) K1 > 2 (b) K1 < 2 83. When two monochromatic lights of frequency,
3 3 v
K K v and are incident on a photoelectric metal,
(c) K1 = 2 (d) K 2 = 1 2
3 3 V
JEE MAIN 2022 their stopping potential becomes s and Vs
2
78. The light or two different frequencies whose respectively. The threshold frequency for this
photons have energies 3.8 eV and 1.4 eV metal is
respectively illuminate a metallic surface whose 3
work function is 0.6 eV successively. The ration (a) v (b) 2v
2
of maximum speeds of emitted electrons for the

Y
2
two frequencies respectively will be. (c) 3v (d) v
(a) 1 : 1 (b) 2 : 1 3
(c) 4 : 1 (d) 1 : 4
SP
JEE MAIN 2022
84. The number of photons per second on an
average emitted by the
NEET 2022

source of
79 A proton, a deuteron and an a-particle with monochromatic light of wavelength 600 nm,
same kinetic energy enter into a uniform when it delivers the power of 3.3 × 10–3 watt
magnetic field at right angle to magnetic field. will be (h = 6.6 × 10–34 Js)
m
The ratio of the radii of their respective (a) 1015 (b) 1018
circular paths is : (c) 10 17
(d) 1016
(a) 1: 2 : 2 (b) 1:1: 2 NEET 2021
a

(c) 2 :1:1 (d) 1: 2 :1 85. Light of frequency 1.5 times the threshold
frequency is incident on a photosensitive
JEE MAIN 2022 material. What will be the photoelectric
Te

80. A particle is travelling 4 times as fast as an current if the frequency is halved and intensity
electron. Assuming the ratio of de-Broglie is doubled?
wavelength of a particle to that of electron is 2 : (a) Doubled (b) Four times
1, the mass of particle is:- (c) One-fourth (d) Zero
1 NEET 2020
(a) times the mass of e–
16 86. The shortest wavelength of X-rays emitted
(b) 8 times the mass of e – from X-ray tube depends upon
(a) Current in the tube
(c) 16 times the mass of e–
(b) Voltage applied to the tube
1
(d) times the mass of e– (c) Nature of the gas in the tube
8 (d) None of these
JEE MAIN 2021 UPPSC Ashram Paddhati PGT - 2021
81. The de-Broglie wavelength associated with an 87. According to Moseley’s law frequency of K α
electron and a proton were calculated by
line will be -
accelerating them through same potential of
100 V. What should nearly be the ratio of their 1 2
(a) CRZ2 (b) CRZ2
wavelengths ? (mP = 1.00727 u, me = 0.00055u) 2 3
(a) 1860: 1 (b) (1680)2 : 1 3 4
(c) CRZ2 (d) CRZ2
(c) 41.4 : 1 (d) 43 : 1 4 3
JEE MAIN 2021 UPPSC Poly. Lect. 2021 Paper - II
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88. If 50kV is applied in an X-ray tube, the 95. The wavelength of the matter waves associated
minimum wavelength for X-rays will be nearly- with a fast moving sub-atomic particle depends
(a) 3 nm (b) 2 nm upon-
(i) charge (ii) mass
(c) 0.2Å (d) 2Å
(iii) velocity (iv) spin state and
UPPSC Poly. Lect. 2021 Paper - II (v) momentum
TGT 2004 The correct factors are
89. In X-ray emission tubes, X-ray is emitted by (a) Only (iii)
the acceleration of (b) Only (i), (ii) and (iii)
(a) Atoms (b) Protons (c) Only (ii), (iii) and (iv)
(c) Electrons (d) Neutrons (d) Only (ii), (iii) and (v)
UPPSC Ashram Paddhati PGT - 2021 UPTGT Science - 2021
90. The short wavelength limit of X-ray depends 96. If microwaves, X-rays, infrared rays, gamma
on- rays, ultraviolet rays, radio waves and visible
(a) Nature of target parts of E.M. spectrum are denoted by M, X, I,
(b) Potential applied on X-ray G, U, R and V respectively. Which of the
following represents the arrangement in
(c) Nature of filament ascending order of their wavelength?
(d) None of the above (a) R, M, I, V, U, X and G
UPPSC Poly. Lect. 2021 Paper - II (b) M, R, V, X, U, G and I
91. The wavelength of kα x-ray line of an element (c) G, X, U, V, I, M and R

Y
of atomic number z = 11 is λ. The wavelength (d) I, M, R, U, V, X and G
of kα x-ray line another element of atomic UKPSC Lecturer (Mains) 2020
number z is 4λ. Then z is 97. Which experiment showed that atoms have
(a) 11
(c) 6
(b) 44
(d) 4
SP discrete energy levels?
(a) Davisson and Germer (b) Frank and Hertz
UP PGT - 2021 (c) Planck (d) Rutherford
92. Mark the wrong statement. UPTGT Science - 2021
(a) The characteristic X-ray spectrum consists of 98. The equation which does NOT represent
Einstein's photoelectric equation, is-
am
sharp peaks superimposed on the continuous
spectrum. 1 1  h
(a) K max = hc  −  (b) K max = (v − v0 )
(b) The characteristic X-rays from substances of  λ λ 0  c
higher atomic number are of longer
wavelength than those from lower atomic (c) K max = hv − hv0 (d) K max = hv −φ0
number UPPSC Ashram Paddhati PGT - 2021
99.According to Einstein theory of specific heat of
Te

(c) X-rays from higher atomic number are more

penetrating. solids, all atoms of a solid vibrate with
(d) Characteristic X-rays are generated when an (a) Zero frequency
electron from a higher inner shell jumps to (b) Only one and the same frequency
lower (c) Different frequency
UP PGT - 2021 (d) Unknown frequency
93. The source of solar energy is UPPSC Ashram Paddhati PGT - 2021
(a) burning of hydrogen 100. In Compton effect change in wavelength
(b) nuclear fission reactions depends on which parameter?
(c) nuclear fusion reactions (a) Material (b) Scattering angle
(d) radiant energy received from other solar (c) Wavelength (d) Polarization
systems UPPSC Ashram Paddhati PGT - 2021
UP PGT - 2021 UPPCS (Pre) 1997
94. At the same temperature, which of the 101. The mass of photon in motion is
following will exert maximum pressure? hν hν
(a) 2 (b)
(a) Gas of classical molecules c c
(b) Gas of Bosons p
(c) Gas of Fermions (c) (d) Zero
λ
(d) None of the above UPPSC Poly. Lect. 2021 Paper - II
UPPSC GDC - 2021 UP LT Grade Science 2018 (Exam : 29.07.2018)
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102. The photoelectric threshold wavelength for a 110. The de-Broglie wavelength of a particle of mass
metal is 3000Å. What is the kinetic energy of an m and energy E is
electron ejected from it by radiation of h
wavelength 1200Å? (a) 2hmE (b)
2mE
(a) 6.2 eV (b) 3.1 eV
1 E
(c) 1.65 eV (d) 1.03 eV (c) (d)
UP PGT - 2021 2hmE 2hm
103. If 1.20 V potential difference must be applied UPPSC Ashram Paddhati PGT - 2021
to stop the fastest photoelectrons emitted by a 111. Frequency of light sufficient for creation of
nickel surface under the action of ultraviolet electron – hole pair in GaAs (Eg = 1.42eV) is -
light of wavelength 2000Å, calculate the work (a) 1.42 MHz (b) 3.43 MHz
function of nickel. (c) 1.42×1014 MHz (d) 3.43×1014 MHz
(a) 6.21 eV (b) 5.01 eV UPPSC Poly. Lect. 2021 Paper - II
(c) 4.80 eV (d) 4.50 eV 112. The de-Broglie wavelength of an electron
UP PGT - 2021 accelerated to a potential difference of V volt
104. Fermi - dirac Statistics cannot be applied to - is-
(a) Electrons (b) Protons 12.5 150
(c) Fermions (d) Photons (a) Å (b) Å
V V
UPPSC Poly. Lect. 2021 Paper - I
hv h
105. The relation between Einstin's B21 and B12 (c) (d)

Y
coefficient is 2mkT 2mV
B B21 UPPSC Poly. Lect. 2021 Paper - II
(a) 21 = 1: 2 = 2 :1
B12
B
(b)
B12
B21
SP 113. For which of the following particles will it be
most difficult to experimentally verify the de-
(c) 12 = 2 : 3 (d) = 1:1 Broglie relationship :
B 21 B12 (a) An electron (b) A proton
UPPSC GDC - 2021 (c) An α-particle (d) A dust particle
m
106. Maximum change in wavelength in a Compton UKPSC Lecturer (Mains) 2020
scattering is - 114. The shortest wavelength present in the
(a) 0.0243 Å (b) 0.2430 Å radiation from an X-ray machine whose
(c) 0.0486 Å (d) 0.4860 Å accelerating potential is 50,000 V will be
a

UPPSC Poly. Lect. 2021 Paper - II (a) 0.025 nm (b) 0.3426 nm

107. What is the value of Compton shift? (c) 0.0248 Å (d) 0.3426 Å
UKPSC Lecturer (Mains) 2020
Te

h
(a) (1 − cos φ ) (b) (1 + cos φ ) 115. The ratio of de-Broglie wavelengths λ p and
m0c
λ e associated with protons and electrons,
h m0c
(c) (1 − cos φ ) (d) (1 − cos φ ) respectively having same kinetic energy is :
m0c h
me me
UPPSC Poly. Lect. 2021 Paper - II (a) (b)
p m pm
108. The velocity of individual wave is called :
(a) Group velocity (b) Phase velocity mp me
(c) Particle velocity (d) None of these (c) (d)
UKPSC Lecturer (Mains) 2020
me 2m p
109. Davisson and Germer experiment showed that UKPSC Lecturer (Mains) 2020
the electron behaves like a 116. The wavelength of the de-Broglie wave by
(a) Particle Davisson and Germer is given by :
(b) Wave h
(c) Particle as well as wave (a) λ = (b) λ = h
(d) None of these 2 m o eV (2 m o eV)
1/ 2

UPPSC Ashram Paddhati PGT - 2021

(c) λ = h(2 m o eV) / 2 (d) λ = h(2 m o eV)
1
(UPPGT 2013)
UPPCS (Pre) 2002 UKPSC Lecturer (Mains) 2020
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117. What is the ratio of de-Broglie wavelengths of (a) 1.5 eV (b) 1.8 eV
proton, deuteron and α-particle if they are (c) 2.4 eV (d) 2.7 eV
accelerated through same potential difference? UKPSC Lecturer (Mains) 2020
1 1 1 124. A small plate of metal (work function = 1.17
(a) 1 :1: (b) 1 : :
2 2 2 eV) is placed at a distance of 2 m from a
1 1 monochromatic source of light of wavelength
(c) 1 : : (d) 1 : 1 : 1 4.8 × 10-7 m and power 1 W . Light falls
2 2 2
normally on the plate. The number of photons
RPSC School Lect. 08.01.2020 striking the plate per square meter per second
118. If the angular velocity ω and the propagation is :
number K of a wave are related by
(a) 4.8 × 1015 (b) 4.8 × 1016
ω 2 = c2K 2 + ω02 , where c and ω0 are constants, 15
(c) 6.2 × 10 (d) 6.2 × 1016
then the product of group velocity and phase UKPSC Lecturer (Mains) 2020
velocity is
125. The momentum associated with a photon of
(a) c2 (b) c 2 / 2 light of wavelength 500 nm is :
(c) c 2 / K 2 (d) c 2 / 2K 2 (a) 1.11 × 10-27 kg m/s (b) 1.21 × 10-27 kg m/s
RPSC School Lect. 26.07.2016 (c) 1.33 × 10-27 kg m/s (d) 1.41 × 10-27 kg m/s
119. The number of photons emitted per second by UKPSC Lecturer (Mains) 2020
a 25 watt source of monochromatic light of 126. A 5 MeV α-particle loses its energy in G.M.
wavelength 6000Å is counter, one electron-ion pair is produced for
(a) 7.6 × 1017 (b) 6.1 × 1017

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each 30 eV of energy lost in the gas of the G.M.
(c) 7.6 × 1019 (d) 6.1 × 1019 counter. The G.M. counter has a multiplication
UKPSC Lecturer (Mains) 2020 of 10,000 and the total capacitance between the
SP
120. A non-monochromatic light is used in an
experiment on photoelectric effect. The
two electrodes is 50 pF. The amplitude of
voltage pulse developed will be :
stopping potential (a) 1.6 V (b) 3.2 V
(a) is related to the mean wavelength (c) 4.6 V (d) 5.3 V
(b) is related to the shortest wavelength UKPSC Lecturer (Mains) 2020
am
(c) is related to the longest wavelength 127. An X-ray tube operates on 30kV. The
(d) is not related to the wavelength minimum wavelength of X-ray emitted is :
RPSC School Lect. 08.01.2020 (a) 0.133 Ǻ (b) 0.4 Ǻ
121. Radiation of wavelength λ is incident on a (c) 1.4 Ǻ (d) 6.6 Ǻ
photocell. The fastest emitted electron has UKPSC Lecturer (Mains) 2020
3λ 128. A particle of rest mass mo moves with speed of
speed v. If the wavelength is charged to ,
Te

4 c
. Its kinetic energy is :
the speed of fastest emitted electrons will be 2
1/ 1/ (a) 0.41 moc2 (b) moc2
 3 2 4 2
(a) v   (b) > v   (c) 1.41 moc2 (d) 2.41 moc2
5 3 UKPSC Lecturer (Mains) 2020
1/ 1/
4 2
4 2 129. In a cloud chamber, a short, thick and
(c) < v   (d) v   continuously straight track is obtained on the
3 5 photographic plate. The incident particle is
UKPSC Lecturer (Mains) 2020 (a) Neutron (b) α-particle
122. Einstein’s photoelectric equation is given by : (c) β-particle (d) γ-radiation
1 1 RPSC School Lect. 08.01.2020
(a) W = hv + mv 2 (b) hv = W + mv 2
2 2 130. Which of the following is dependent on the
1 1 intensity of incident radiation in a photoelectric
(c) hv + mv 2 + W = 0 (d) hv + W = mv 2 effect experiment ?
2 2
(a) work function of the surface
UKPSC Lecturer (Mains) 2020
(b) amount of photoelectric current
123. The photoelectric threshold wavelength for
tungsten is 2300 Ǻ. If this surface is irradiated (c) stopping potential
by ultra-violet light of wavelength 1800 Ǻ, the (d) maximum kinetic energy of photoelectrons
kinetic energy of emitted electrons is RPSC School Lect. 26.07.2016
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131. The experiment which demonstrated the 136. In photoelectric effect, the rate of emission of
discrete energy states of the atoms was photoelectrons depends on
performed by (a) Intensity of radiation
(a) Franck and Hertz (b) Frequency of radiation
(b) Davisson and Germer (c) Both (A) and (B) above
(c) Stern and Gerlach (d) None of the above
(d) Paschen and Back UP PGT Physics 2016 (Exam : 02.02.2019)
RPSC School Lect. 26.07.2016 137. In photoelectric effect, the most energetic
132. A proton acquire 500 V in crossing the gap in electrons are emitted from
Dee of cyclotron. If it completes 2000 rotation,
then its acquired energy will be (a) Inner shells (b) Surface of metal
(a) 1 MeV (b) 0.5 MeV (c) Nucleus (d) Deep inside the metal
(c) 2 MeV (d) 4 MeV UP PGT Physics 2016 (Exam : 02.02.2019)
RPSC School Lect. 26.07.2016 138. A beam of light of frequency υ and of intensity
133. The work funciton of sodium is 2.3 eV. What will 10 lumen falls on a metal surface of work
be the maximum kinetic energy of the function φ . In which of the following
photoelectrons emitted by the surface exposed to
the radiation of 2000 Å? conditions, there shall be no emission of
(a) 2.3 eV (b) 3.9 eV electrons ?
(c) 6.2 eV (d) 3.9V φ φ
(a) υ > For (b) υ < For
UP TGT Physics 2016 h h
134. A metal surface is illuminated by a light of given φ 10φ

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intensity and frequency to cause photoemission. (c) υ ≥
For (d) υ = For
If the intensity of illumination is reduced to one
SP h h
fourth of its original value, then the maximum UP LT Grade Science 2018 (Exam : 29.07.2018)
kinetic energy of the emitted photoelectrons 139. Two photons are moving in opposite direction
would becomes. each with velocity c. Their relative velocity will
(a) Unchanged be
(b) 1/16th of original value (a) 2c (b) c
(c) twice the original value (c) 0 (d) 2c
m
(d) four times the original value
(UPPGT 2013)
UP TGT Physics 2016
140. According to the law of photoelectric emission,
135. What potential must be applied to stop the
fastest photoelectrons emitted when ultraviolet the number of electrons emitted per second
a

light of 2000 Å wavelength falls on a nickel depends on−

surface? (a) the intensity of incident light
(Work function of nickel = 5.01 eV) (b) the nature of incident light
Te

(a) 5.01 V (b) 3.02 V (c) the frequency of incident light

(c) 2.10 V (d) 1.20 V (d) the speed of incident light
UP PGT Physics 2016 (Exam : 02.02.2019) (UPPGT 2011)

Answer Key
1. (b) 2. (b) 3. (a) 4. (b) 5. (a) 6. (c) 7. (d) 8. (d) 9. (b) 10. (d)
11. (b) 12. (a) 13. (d) 14. (b) 15. (b) 16. (c) 17. (a) 18. (c) 19. (b) 20. (c)
21. (d) 22. (b) 23. (c) 24. (d) 25. (a) 26. (b) 27. (d) 28. (b) 29. (b) 30. (d)
31. (d) 32. (a) 33. (d) 34. (c) 35. (a) 36. (c) 37. (d) 38. (c) 39. (a) 40. (a)
41. (d) 42. (d) 43. (d) 44. (b) 45. (d) 46. (d) 47. (c) 48. (c) 49. (a) 50. (d)
51. (d) 52. (d) 53. (d) 54. (c) 55. (c) 56. (b) 57. (c) 58. (b) 59. (b) 60. (b)
61. (d) 62. (a) 63. (c) 64. (a) 65. (a) 66. (d) 67. (b) 68. (c) 69. (c) 70. (a)
71. (c) 72. (d) 73. (b) 74. (b) 75. (c) 76. (a) 77. (b) 78. (b) 79. (d) 80. (d)
81. (d) 82. (a) 83. (a) 84. (d) 85. (d) 86. (b) 87. (c) 88. (c) 89. (c) 90. (b)
91. (c) 92. (b) 93. (c) 94. (c) 95. (d) 96. (c) 97. (b) 98. (b) 99. (b) 100. (b)
101. (a) 102. (a) 103. (b) 104. (d) 105. (d) 106. (c) 107. (c) 108. (b) 109. (b) 110. (b)
111. (d) 112. (b) 113. (d) 114. (a) 115. (b) 116. (b) 117. (c) 118. (a) 119. (c) 120. (b)
121. (b) 122. (b) 123. (a) 124. (b) 125. (c) 126. (d) 127. (b) 128. (a) 129. (b) 130. (b)
131. (a) 132. (c) 133. (b) 134. (a) 135. (d) 136. (a) 137. (b) 138. (b) 139. (b) 140. (a)
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08.
Electronics
(1) Introduction of Solids
■ Solids:-It is a state of matter which has a definite shape and a definite volume. The characteristic properties of
the solid depends upon the nature of forces acting between their constituent of particles (i.e., ions atoms or
molecules)
Solids are divided into two categories–
1. Crystalline Solids
(i) These solids have definite external geometrical form.
(ii) Ions, atoms or molecules of these solids are arranged in a definite fashion in all it's three dimensions.
(iii) Examples:- Quartz, Calcite, mica, diamond etc.
(iv) They have well defined facets or faces.
(v) They are ordered at short range as well as at long range.
(vi) They have sharp melting point.
(vii) Bond strengths are identical throughout the solid.
(viii) These are considered as true solids.
(ix) An important property of crystals is their symmetry.

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SP
am

2. Amorphous or glassy solids:-

(i) These solids have no definite external geometrical form.
(ii) Ions, atoms or molecules of these solids are not arranged in a definite fashion.
Te

(iii) Example:- Rubber, Plastic, Paraffin wax, Cement etc.

(iv) They do not possess definite facets or faces.
(v) These have short range order
(vi) They are isotropic
(vii) They do not have a sharp melting point
(viii) Bond strengths vary
(ix) These are considered as pseudo-solids or super cooled liquids.
(x) Amorphous solids do not have any symmetry.
■ Terms Related with Crystal Structure:-
(i). Crystal lattice:- It is a geometrical arrangement of points in space where if atoms or molecules of a solid
are placed, we obtain an actual crystal structure of the solid.
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(ii). Basis:- The atoms or molecules attached with every lattice point in a crystal structure is called the basis of
crystal structure.
(iii). Unit cell:- It is defined as that volume of the solid form which the entire crystal structure can be
constructed by the translational repetition in three dimensions. The length of three sides of a unit cell (3D)
are called primitives or lattice constant. They are denoted by a, b, c.

(iv) Primitive cell:- A primitive cell is a minimum volume unit cell or the simple unit cell with particles only at
the corners and all other types of unit cells are called non-primitive unit cells.
There is only one lattice point per primitive
(v) Crystallographic axis:- The lines drawn parallel to the lines of intersection of the faces of the unit cell are

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called Crystallographic axis. SP
All the crystals on the basis of the shape of their unit cells have been divided into seven crystal system as
shown in the following table. These system arranged in 14 Bravais lattices.
System Lattice Constants Angle between lattice Example
constants
m
Cubic
a

Diamond, NaCl,
Li, Ag, NH4Cl, Pb,
a=b=c α = β = γ = 90º
Te

Zinc blende, Cu
etc.

Number of lattices = 3
Tetragonal

White tin (SnO2),

a=b≠c α = β = γ = 90º NiSO4 TiO2,
CaSO4 etc.

Number of lattices = 2

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 Orthorhombic

HgCl2, KNO3,
Gallium Rhombic
a≠b≠c α = β = γ = 90º
Sulphure,
BaSO4etc.

Number of lattices = 4
Monoclinc

KClO3, FeSO4,
α = γ = 90º and Monoclinc

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a≠b≠c
β ≠ 90º Sulphure Na2SO4.
10 H2O elc.
SP
Number of lattices = 2
Triclinic
am

K2Cr2O7,
Te

a≠b≠c α ≠ β ≠ γ ≠ 90º CuSO4.5H2O,

H3BO3 etc.

Number of lattices = 1
Rhombohedral

Calcite(CaCO3),
a=b=c α = β = γ ≠ 90º As, Sb, Bi, HgS
(Cinnabar) etc.

Number of lattices = 1

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 Hexagonal

Zn, Cd and Ni,

α = β = 90º and
a=b≠c Graphite, ZnO,
γ = 120º CdS etc.

Number of lattices = 1
Comparison of Cell Properties of Some Crystal Structures
Body Face Hexagonal Close
Diamond Simple
S.No. Properties Centered Centered Packed
Cubic (DC) Cubic (SC)
Cubic (BCC) Cubic (FCC) Structure (HCP)
Volume of unit 3
1. a3 a3 a3 a3 3a 2 c
cell 2
Number of atoms
2. 8 1 2 4 6
per unit cell
Number of atoms 8 1 2 4 4
3.

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per unit volume a3 a3 a3 a3 3a 2 c
Number of

4.
nearest
neighbours
(coordination
4
SP 6 8 12 12

number)
Nearest
5. neighbour a 3 a a 3 a 2 a
4 2 2
m
distance (2r)
a 3 a a 3 a 2 a
6. Atomic radius
8 2 4 4 2
Atomic packing
a

7. 0.034 0.52 0.68 0.74 0.74

factor
Germanium, Sodium, Aluminium,
Magnesium Zinc
8. Examples Silicon and Polonium Lithium and Copper, Silver
Te

and Cadmium
Carbon Chromium and Lead

■ Bonding Forces in Crystals:- The properties of a solid are mainly determined by the type of bonding that
exists between the atoms. According to bonding in crystals they are classified into following types:-
1. Ionic crystal:- This type of bonding is formed due to transfer of electrons between atoms and consequent
attraction between them.
(i) In NaCl Crystal, the electron of Na atom is transferred to chlorine atom. In this way Na atom changes into
Na+ ion and Cl atom changes into Cl– ion.
(ii) Cause of bonding is electrostatic force between positive and negative ions.
(iii) These crystals are usually hard, brittle and possess high melting and boiling point.
(iv) These are bad conductors of electricity.
(v) Common examples are NaCl, CsCl, LiF etc.
2. Covalent Crystal:- Covalent bonding is formed by sharing of electrons of opposite spins between two atoms.
(i) The conductivity of these solids rise with rise in temperature.
(ii) These crystals Posses high melting point.
(iii) Bonding between H2, Cl2 molecules, Ge, Si quartz, diamond etc. are common examples of covalent
bonding.
3. Metallic bonds:- This type of bonding is formed due to attraction of valence (free) electrons with the positive
ion cores.
(i) Their conductivity decreases with rise of temperature
(ii) When visible light falls on a metallic crystal, the electrons of atom absorb visible light, so they are opaque
to visible light.
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 4. Vander Waal's crystal:- These crystals consist of neutral atoms or molecules bonded together in solid phase
by weak, short range attractive force & called Vander Waal's forces.
(i) This bonding is weakest and occurs in solid CO2, methane, paraffin, ice etc.
(ii) They are normally insulator and soft, easily compressible and posses low melting point.
5. Hydrogen bonding:- Hydrogen bonding is due to permanent dipole interaction.
(i) This bond is stronger than Vander Waal's bond but much weaker than ionic and covalent bond.
(ii) They posses low melting point
(iii) Common examples are H2O, HF etc.

(2) Energy Bands of solids

Theory of energy band is based on the Pauli Exclusion Principle. In isolated atom the valence electrons can exist
only in one of the allowed orbital's each of a sharply defined energy called energy levels. When two atom are
brought nearest to each other, there are alterations in energy levels and they spread in the form of bands.
■ Energy bands are of following types:-
1. Valence band:- The energy band formed by a series of energy levels containing valence electrons is known as
valence band. At '0' K, the electron fill the energy levels in valence band starting from lowest one.
(i) This band is always filled with electrons.
(ii) This is the band of maximum energy.
(iii) Electrons are not capable of gaining energy from external electric field.
(iv) No flow of current due to electrons present in this band.
(v) The highest energy level which can be occupied by an electron in valence band at '0' K is called Fermi
level.

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2. Conduction band:- The higher energy level band is called the conduction band.
(i) It is also called empty band of minimum energy.
SP
(ii) This band is partially filled by the electrons.
(iii) In this band the electrons can gain energy from external electric field.
(iv) The electrons in the conduction band are called the free electrons. They are able to move anywhere within
the volume of the solid.
(v) Current flows due to such electrons.
3. Forbidden energy gap:- (∆Eg)
Energy gap between conduction band and valence band is known as forbidden energy gap.
am
∆E g = ( C.B.)min − ( V.B.)max
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(i) No Free electron is present in forbidden energy gap.

(ii) Width of forbidden energy gap depends upon the nature of substance.
(iii) As temperature increase (↑), forbidden energy gap decrease (↓) very slightly.
■ Classification of solids on the basis of energy bands- Depending on whether the energy band gap is
zero, large or small the solid may be classified into conductors, insulators and semiconductor.
1. Conductors (metals):-
In case of metals either the conduction band is partially filled and valence band is partially empty or conduction
band and valence band overlap in case of overlapping, electrons from valence band can easily move into
conduction band thus large number of electrons are available for conduction.
In case valence band is empty, electrons from its lower level can move to higher level making conduction
possible. This is the reason why resistance of metals is low or the conductivity is high.

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 2. Insulators
In insulators, the valence band is completely filled whereas the conduction band is completely empty. As there
is no electron in conduction band so no electrical conduction is possible. The energy gap between conduction
band and valence band is so large (Eg > 3ev) that electron in valence band can be provided so much energy from
any external source that is can jump this energy gap.
Empty

3. Semiconductors
The energy band structure of a semiconductor is shown in figure. It is similar to that of an insulator but with a
comparatively small energy gap (Eg < 3ev)
At absolute zero temperature the conduction band of semi conductor is totally empty and valence band is
completely filled.
Therefore, they are insulators at low temperatures

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■ Holes in Semi conductors:-
(i)When an electron is removed from a covalent bond it leaves a vacancy behind. An electron from a neighbouring
SP
atom can move into this vacancy leaving the neighbour with a vacancy. In this way the vacancy formed is called
hole (or crater) and can travel through the material and serve as an additional current carrier.
(ii) A hole is considered as a seat of positive charge, having magnitude of charge equal to that of an electron.
(iii) Holes act as virtual charge, although there is no physical charge on it.
(iv) Effective mass of hole is more than electron.
(v) Mobility of hole is less than electron.
m
(3) Semiconductors
Semiconductors are the materials which have a conductivity between conductors (generally metals) and non-
conductors or insulators (such as ceramics).
a

example : Germanium. Gallium arsenide and Silicon are the most commonly used semiconductors. Silicon is used in
electronic circuit fabrication and gallium arsenide is used in solar cells, laser diodes etc.
■ Types of semiconductors
Te

(i) Intrinsic Semiconductor

• A semiconductor in its pure state is called intrinsic semiconductor. It has thermally generated current carriers.
• They have four electrons in the outermost orbit of atom and atoms are held together by covalent band.
• Free electrons and holes both are charge carriers and ne (in C.B.) = nh (in V.B.)
• The drift velocity of electrons (Ve) is greater than that of holes (Vn)
• Fermi energy level lies at the centre of the C.B. and V.B.
• In pure semiconductor, impurity must be less than 1 in 108 part of semiconductor
• In intrinsic semi conductor n (eσ) = n (o)
n = n, where n e
(σ )
= electron density in conduction band, n (o)
n = Hole
density in V.B, ni = density of intrinsic carriers.
(ii) Extrinsic Semiconductor:-
• An impure semiconductor is called extrinsic semiconductor when pure semiconductor material is mixed with
small amounts of certain specific impurities with valency different from that of the parent material the number
of mobile electrons/holes drastically changes.
• The process of addition of impurity is called doping.
• In extrinsic semiconductor ne ≠ nh.
• The number of atoms of impurity element is about 1 in 108 atoms of the semiconductor. In extrinsic
semiconductors fermi level shifts towards valence or conduction energy band.

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1. N type semiconductor – These are obtained by adding a small amount of pentavalent [Phosphorus (P), Arsenic
(As), Antimony (Sb) etc] Impurity to a pure sample of semiconductor (Ge).

Intrinsic Pentavalent
+ → N − typesemiconductor

S.C. impurity

• Majority charge carriers → electrons

Minority charge carriers → holes
• ne >> nh, ie >> ih
• conductivity σ ≈ ne µe e
• N–type semiconductor is electrically neutral (not negatively) charged. Impurity is called donor impurity because

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one impurity atom generates one electron. Donor energy level lies just below the conduction band.
SP
2. P type semiconductor:-
am
These are obtained by adding a small amount of trivalent [Boron (B), Aluminium (Al) Gallium (Ga) etc.] impurity
to a pure sample of semiconductor (Ge).
Intrinsic trivalent
+ → P − type semiconductor
S.C. impurity
Te

• Majority charge carriers – holes

Minority charge carriers – electrons
• nh >> ne; ih >> ie
• Conductivity σ ≅ n n µ n e
• P type semiconductor is also electrically neutral (not positively charged). Impurity is called acceptor impurity
acceptor energy level lies just about the valence band.

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Densities of charge carriers:-
material Type Density of conduction Density of holes (m-3)
electrons (m-3)
Copper Conductor 9×1028 0
Silicon intrinsic semiconductor 7×1015 7×1015
Silicon doped with phosphorus N-type
5×1022 1×109
(1 part in 106) semiconductor
Silicon doped with Aluminium P-type
1×109 5×1022
(1 part in 106) semiconductor

(4) P-N junction & Diodes

■ P-N junction Diode:-
When a P-type semiconductor is suitably joined to an N-type semiconductor, then resulting arrangement is called
P–N junction or P–N junction diode.

1. Depletion region:- Depletion region or depletion layer is a region in a P-N junction diode where no mobile
charge carriers are present. Depletion layer acts like a barrier that opposes the flow of electrons from n-side and
holes from p-side. On account of different concentration of charge carries in the two sections of P-N junction
the electron from N-region diffuse through the junction into P-region and the hole from P-region diffuse into N-
region.

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Due to diffusion, neutrality of both N and P type semiconductor is disturbed.
SP
m
• The thickness of depletion layer is 1 micron = 10–6 m.
a

1
• Width of depletion layer ∝
Dopping
• Depletion is directly proportional to temperature the P-N junction diode is equivalent to capacitor in which
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the depletion layer acts as a dielectric.

2. Potential barrier:- It is the potential difference created across the P-N junction due to the diffusion of
electrons and holes.
For Ge, VB = 0.3V and for silicon VB = 0.7V
On the average the potential barrier in P-N junction is ~ 0.5V and the width of depletion region ~ 10-6m.
V 0.5
So the barrier electric field E = = −6 = 5×105 V/m
d 10
■ Some important graphs:-

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 3. Diffusion and drift current:-
• Diffusion current is a current in a semiconductor caused by the diffusion of charge carriers (holes and/ or
electrons). This current is due to transport of charges occurring because of non-uniform charged particles in
a semiconductor.
• Drift current is the current flow in semiconductor due to the applied electric field. It is due to motion of
charge carriers due to the force exerted on them by an electric field.
■ Biasing:- It means the way of connecting emf sourced to P-N junction diode. It is of following two types.
(1) Forward Biasing: Positive terminal of the battery is connected to the P-crystal and negative terminal as the
battery is connected to N-Crystal.

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SP
• In forward biasing width of depletion layer decreases.
• In forward biasing resistance offered R Forward ≈ 10Ω − 25Ω
• Forward bias opposes the potential barrier and for V > VB a forward current is set up across the junction.
am
 ev 
The current is given by i = is  e KT − 1
 
Where–
is = saturation current in the exponent.
e = 1.6×10–19 C
k = Boltzmann's constant.
2. Reverse Biasing:- Positive terminal of the battery is connected to the N-crystal and negative terminal of the
Te

battery is connected to P-crystal.

• In reverse biasing width of depletion layer increases.

• In reverse biasing resistance offered reverse ≈ 105 Ω
• The net reverse current is given by-
I = Drift current – diffusion current
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■ Special Purpose Diodes:-
1. Zener diode- It is a highly doped p-n junction which is not damaged by high reverse current. It can operate
continuously without being damaged in the region of reverse background voltage. In the forward bias the Zener
diode acts as ordinary diode. It can be used as voltage regulator.

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2. Light Emitting diode (LED):- These are specially designed diodes which give out light radiations when
forward biased. LED's are made of GaAsP, GaP etc.
SP
m
3. Photo diode:- Photo diode is a special type of photo-detector. (i.e. hν > Eg).
Here, Photon energy (hν) > Band energy (Eg)
a
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4. Solar cells:- It is based on the photovoltaic effect. One of the semiconductor region is made so thin that the
light incident on it reaches the P–N Junction and gets absorbed. It converts solar energy into electrical energy.

■ P-N Junction Diode as a Rectifier:-Rectifier is a circuit which converts ac to unidirectional pulsating

output. In other words it converts ac to dc. It is of following types.
1. Half wave rectifier:- When the P-N junction diode rectifies half of the ac wave, it is called half wave rectifier.

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(i) During positive half cycle
Diode 
→ forward biased

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Output signal 
SP → obtained

(ii) During negative half cycle

Diode 
→ reverse biased
Output signal 
→ reverse obtained

(iii) Output voltage is obtained across the load resistance RL. It is not constant but pulsating (mixture of ac and dc) in
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nature.
(iv) Average output in one cycle
I V
Idc = o and Vdc = o
π π
Vo
Io =
Te

rf + R L
Vo
Vdc =
 r 
π 1 + f 
 RL 
(rf = Forward biased resistance)
I
(v) r.m.s. output: I rms = o
2
Vo
Vrms =
2
(vi) The ratio of the effective alternating component of the output voltage or current to the dc component is known
as ripple factor.
1/ 2
I  I  2 
r = ac =  rms  − 1 = 1.21
Idc  Idc  
 
(vii) The ripple frequency (ω) for half wave rectifier is same as that of a.c.
I π
(viii) Form factor = rms = = 1.57
Idc 2

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2. Full wave rectifier:- It rectifies both halves of ac input signal.

Y
Full wave rectifier:-
(i) During positive half cycle
Diode : D1 → forward biased
D2 → reverse biased
Output Signal → obtained due to D1 only
SP
(ii) During negative half cycle
Diode : D1 → reverse biased
D2 → forward biased
Output Signal → obtained due to D2 only
m
(iii) Fluctuating dc → Filter → Constant dc
(iv) Output voltage is obtained across the load resistance RL. It is not constant but pulsating in nature.
2V0 2I
(v) Average output; Vav = , Iav = 0
a

π π
2V0
Vdc =
 r 
Te

π 1 + f 
 R L 

V0 I0
(vi) r.m.s OUTPUT; Vrms = , I rms =
2 2
(vii) Ripple factor; r = 0.48 = 48%
(viii) Ripple frequency ; The ripple of full wave rectifier = 2× (Frequency of input ac)
(ix) Peak inverse voltage (piv); it's value, is 2V0
(x) Efficiency ; n = 81.2%
3. Full wave bridge rectifier:- Four diodes D1, D2, D3 and D4 are used in the circuit.
During positive half cycle D1 and D3 are forward biased and D2 and D4 are reverse biased. During negative half
cycle D2 and D4 are forward biased and D1 and D3 are reverse biased.

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 Parameter Half Wave Full Wave
(or one pulse) (two Pulse)
Center-tap Bridge
DC output voltage Vm 2Vm 2Vm
π π π
RMS value of output voltage Vms Vm Vm Vm
2 2 2
Ripple voltage Vr

Y
0.3856 Vm 0.3077 Vm 0.3077 Vm
Voltage ripple factor (V.R.F.) 1.211 0.482 0.482

Rectification efficiency ( η )
SP40.53% 81.06% 81.06%
TUF 0.2865 0.672 0.8106%
PIV Vm 2Vm Vm
C.F. 2 2 2
No. of diodes 1 2 4
am

Ripple frequency f 2f 2f

(5) Transistors
Te

Transistor is a type of a semiconductor device that can be used to both conduct and insulate electric current or
voltage. A transistor basically acts as switch and an amplifier. In simple words, we can say that a transistor is a
miniature device that is used to control or regulate the flow of electronic signals.
■ It consists of three main regions:-
• Emitter (E):- It provides majority charge carriers by which current flows in the transistor. Therefore the emitter
semiconductor is heavily doped.
• Base (B):- The based region is lightly doped and thin.
• Collector (C):- The size of collector region is larger than the two other regions.
■ Junction transistors are of two types-
1. NPN transistor – It is formed by sandwiching a thin layer of P-type semiconductor between two N-type
semiconductors. In NPN transistor electrons are majority charge carriers and flow from emitter to Base.

2. PNP transistor:- It is formed by sandwiching a thin layer of N-type semiconductor between two P-type
semiconductor. In PNP transistor holes are majority charge carriers and flow from emitter to base. In the
symbols of both NPN and PNP transistor arrow indicates the direction of conventional current.
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■ Working of transistors:-
• There are four possible ways of biasing the two P-N junctions (emitter junction and collector junction of
transistor.)
(a) Active mode:- Also known as linear mode operation.
(b) Saturation mode:- Maximum collector current flows and transistor acts as a closed switch from
collector to emitter terminals.
(c) Cut off mode:- Denotes operations like an open switch where only leakage current flows.
(d) Inverse mode:- The emitter and collector are interchanged.
• A transistor is mostly used in the active region of operation i.e. emitter base junction is forward biased and
collector base junction is reverse biased.
• From the operation of junction transistor it is found that when the current in emitter circuit changes is
corresponding change in collector current.
• In each state of the transistor there is an input port and an output port. In general each electrical quantity (V or
I) obtained at the output is controlled by the input.

Y
■ Transistor configurations:-
A transistor can be connected in a circuit in the following three different configurations. Common base (CB),
SP
Common emitter (CE) and Common Collector (CC) configuration
(i) CB Configurations- Base is common to both emitter and collector.
(ii) CE Configurations- Emitter is common to both base and collector.
(iii) CC Configurations- Collector is common to both base and emitter.
An n-channel FET (Field-Effect Transistor) consists of a block of N-type material with contacts at each end
m
together with a strip of P-type material on one side that is called the gate.
■ Transistor as an Amplifier:-
A device which increases the amplitude of the input signal is called amplifier.
The transistor can be used as an amplifier in the following three configurations.
a

(i) CB amplifier (ii) CE amplifier (iii) CC amplifier

Different gains in CE/CB Amplifiers-
(1) Transistor as CB amplifier-
Te

Small changein collector current (∆i c )

(i) ac current gain α ac =
Small changein emitter current (∆i e )
collector current (i c )
(ii) dc current gain α dc ( or α ) =
emitter current (i e )
value of αdc lies between 0.95 to 0.99
Change in output voltage (∆V0 )
(iii) Voltage gain A v =
Change in input voltage (∆Vi )
⇒ Av = αac × Resistance gain
Change in output power (∆P0 )
Power gain =
Change in input power (∆Pc )
Power gain = α ac2 ×Resistance gain
(2) Transistor as CE amplifier-
∆ 
(i) ac current gain β ac =  ie  VCE =constant
 ∆ ib 
i
(ii) dc current gain β dc = c
ib
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 ∆v 0
(iii) Voltage gain; A v = = βac × Resistance gain
∆v1
∆p 0
(iv) Power gain = A v = = βac2 ×Resistance gain
∆p1
(v) Trans conductance (gm), The ratio of the change in collector current to the change in emitter base voltage is
called conductance i.e.,

∆I C A
gm = = V ; R L = Load Resistance
∆VEB R L
(3) Relation between α and β
α β
β= or α =
1− α 1+ β
■ Comparison of Amplifier Configurations

S. No. Particulars Common Base Common Emitter Common Collector

1. Current Gain Nearly Unity High Very High
2. Voltage Gain High Very High Nearly Unity

Y
3. Power Gain High High Low
4. Input Impedance Low High Very High
5.
6.
Output Impedance
Phase Reversal
SPVery High
No
High
Yes
Low
No

(6) Logic Gates and Truth Tables

am
■ Logic Gates:- The digital circuit that can be analysed with the help of Boolean algebra is called logic gate or
logic circuit. A logic gate has two or more inputs but only one output.
There are primarily three logic gates namely the OR gate, the AND gate and the NOT gate.
■ Truth table:- The operation of a logic gate or circuit can be represented in a table which contains all possible
inputs and their corresponding outputs is called the truth table. To write the truth table we use binary digit 1 and 0.
Te

Name Logical symbol Boolean Expression Truth table

A Y=A
Not
Y=A 0 1
(Inverter)
1 0

A B Y = A.B
0 0 0
AND Y = A. B 0 1 0
1 0 0
1 1 1

A B Y =A+B
0 0 0
OR Y= A + B 0 1 1
1 0 1
1 1 1

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 A B A.B Y = A.B
0 0 0 1
NAND
(Universal) Y = A⋅B 0 1 0 1
1 0 0 1
1 1 1 0

A B A+B Y =A+B
0 0 0 1
NOR
(Universal) Y =A+B 0 1 1 0
1 0 1 0
1 1 1 0

A B Y = A ⊕ B = AB + AB
0 0 0
Y=A⊕B
XOR 0 1 1
= AB + AB
1 0 1

Y
1 1 0

A B A⊕B Y = A⊕B

X-NOR
SP Y = A⊕B
0
0
0
1
0
1
1
0
1 0 1 0
1 1 0 1
m
■ Logic gates using 'NAND' gate
The NAND gate is the building block of the digital electronics all the logic gates like the OR the AND and the
NOT can be constructed from the NAND gates.
a

1. Construction of the 'NOT' gate from the 'NAND' gate

When both the inputs (A and B) of the NAND gate are joined together then it works as the NOT gate.
Te

Truth Table and logic symbol

Input Output
A=B Y
0 1
1 0
2. Construction of the 'AND' gate from the 'NAND' gate
When the output of the NAND gate is given to the input of the NOT gate (made from the NAND gate) then the
resultant logic gate works as the AND gate.

383

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Truth Table and logic symbol
A B Y' Y
0 0 1 0
0 1 1 0
1 0 1 0
1 1 0 1
3. Construction of the 'OR' gate by the 'NAND' gate
When the output of two NOT gates (obtained from the NAND gate) is given to the inputs of the NAND gates the
resultant logic gate works as the OR gate.

Y
A B A B Y
0 0 1 1 0
0 1 1 0 1
1 0 0 1 1
SP
1 1 0 0 1
■ Key Points:-
(i) The most efficient packing of atoms in cubic lattice structure occurs for fcc.
am
(ii) The lattice for NaCl crystal is fcc
(iii) The space lattice of diamond is fcc.
(iv) Carbon, Silicon, germanium, tin can crystallize in the diamond structure.
(v) At room temperature σGe > σsi
(vi) Semiconductor device are current control devices
(vii) The Semiconductor device are temperature sensitive devices.
Te

(viii) The electric field setup across the potential barrier is of the order of 3×105 V/m for Ge and 7×105 V/m for Si
(ix) If Eg ≈ 0 eV, the material is good conductor or metal and if Eg ≈ 1 eV, the material is a simeconductor. If Eg
≈ 6 eV then the material is an insulator.
(x) Voltage obtained from a diode rectifier is a mixture of alternating and direct voltage.
(xi) The base is much thinner than the emitter while collector is wider than both emitter & base
(xii) CC (Common Collector) amplifier is called power amplifier or current booster or emitter follower.
(xiii) When a P N junction is forward biased, it can emit light hence can serve as a light emitting diode (LED).
The wavelength of the emitted light is.
c hc
λ= =
f Eg
(xiv) The Fermi energy of a given material is the energy of a quantum state that the probability 0.5 of being
occupied by an electron.
(xv) A good emitter should have low work function, high melting point, high working temperature, high electrical
and mechanical strength.
(xvi) When triode amplifier are in series then the total voltage gain-
A = A1A2A3 = ----------
(xvii) NOR and NAND gates is a universal gates because they can be used to perform the basic logic function
AND, OR and NOT.
(xviii) Output in Ex- OR gate is '1' only when inputs are different.
(xix) If both inputs of NAND gate are shorted then it will become 'NOT' gate.
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 Exemplar Problems
Electronics
Semiconductors and Diodes
1. For using a multimeter to identify diode from
electrical components. choose the correct (c)
statement out of the following about the diode :
(a) It is two terminal device which conducts
current in both directions.
(b) It is two terminal device which conducts
(d)
current in one direction only
(c) It does not conduct current gives an initial
deflection which decays to zero. JEE MAIN 2022
3. The electron concentration in an n-type
(d) It is three terminal device which conducts semiconductor is the same as hole
current in one direction only between central concentration in a p-type semiconductor. An

Y
terminal and either of the remaining two external field (electric) is applied across each
terminals of them. Compare the currents in them.

2.
SP
JEE MAIN 2022
In the given circuit the input voltage V in is
(a) No current will flow in p-type, current will
only flow in n-type
(b) Current in n-type = current in p-type
shown in figure. The cut–in voltage of p–n (c) Current in p-type > current in n-type
junction diode (D1 or D2) is 0.6 V. Which of the (d) Current in n-type > current in p-type.
following output voltage (V0) waveform across
m
NEET 2021
the diode is correct? 4. For a p-type semiconductor, which of the
following statements is true?
(a) Electrons are the majority carriers and
a

pentavalent atoms are the dopants

(b) Electrons are the majority carriers and
trivalent atoms are the dopants.
Te

(c) Holes are the majority carriers and trivalent

atoms are the dopants.
(d) Holes are the majority carriers and
pentavalent atoms are the dopants.
NEET 2019

5. (a)

(b)
(a)
(c)
In the given circuits (a), (b) and (c), the
potential drop across the two p-n junctions are
equal in
(a) Both circuits (a) and (c)
(b) (b) Circuit (a) only
(c) Circuit (b) only
(d) Circuit (c) only
NEET 2022
385

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6. Consider the following statements (A) and (B) 13. In n type semi-conductor, if doping
and identify the correct answer. concentration is high then fermi level at 0 K
(A) A zener diode is connected in reverse bias, lies
when used as a voltage regulator. (a) at the centre of band gap
(B) The potential barrier of p-n junction lies (b) very near to valence band
between 0.1 V to 0.3 V. (c) between the donor level and the bottom of
(a) (A) is incorrect but (B) is correct. conduction band
(d) between the donor level and centre of band
(b) (A) and (B) both are correct. gap
(c) (A) and (B) both are incorrect RPSC School Lect. 26.07.2016
(d) (A) is correct and (B) is incorrect. 14. In the case of p – n junction, diode at high value
NEET 2021 of reverse bias, the current rises sharply. The
7. The increase in the width of the depletion value of reverse voltage is known as
region in a p-n junction diode is due to : (a) Cut in voltage
(a) reverse bias only (b) Break-down voltage
(c) Cut off voltage
(b) both forward bias and reverse bias
(d) Inverse voltage
(c) increase in forward current UP TGT Physics 2016
(d) forward bias only 15. A p–type of semiconductor is
NEET 2020 (a) Uncharged
8. An LED is constructed from a p-n junction (b) + Vely charged
diode using GaAsP. The energy gap is 1.9 eV. (c) –Vely charged

Y
The wavelength of the light emitted will be
equal to (d) Uncharged only at 00C
UP TGT Physics 2016
(a) 10.4 × 10–26 m (b) 654 nm
(c) 654 Å
SP
(d) 654 × 10–11 m
Odisha NEET 2019
16. A P-n junction has a thickness of the order of
(a) 1 cm (b) 10–3cm
(c) 10–6m (d) 10–9cm
9. For a transistor to act as a switch, it must be UPPSC Ashram Paddhati PGT - 2021
operated in 17. The forbidden band is 1.1eV in silicon. For
(a) Active region which of the following wavelengths, it will be
am
(b) Saturation state only transparent?
(c) Cut-off state only (a) 100 nm (b) 200nm
(d) Saturation and cut-off state (c) 400nm (d) 1200nm
JEE MAIN 2022 UPPSC Ashram Paddhati PGT - 2021
10. The positive feedback is required by an 18. Solar cell is a
amplifier to act an oscillator. The feedback (a) Transistor (b) Diode
Te

here means : (c) p-n junction (d) Voltmeter

(a) External input is necessary to sustain ac UPPSC Ashram Paddhati PGT - 2021
signal in output. 19. Avalanche effect occurs in a pn junction,
(b) A portion of the output power is returned usually when -
back to the input. (a) depletion layer is thick
(c) Feedback can be achieved by LR network. (b) depletion layer is thin
(d) The base-collector junction must be forward (c) with highly doped p & n sides
(d) None of these
JEE MAIN 2022
UPPSC Poly. Lect. 2021 Paper - II
11. In a pure semiconductor 20. n-type semiconductor is obtained by doping of
(a) holes and electrons have equal mobility
Germanium with impurity of -
(b) holes have higher mobility
(c) electrons have higher mobility (a) Aluminum (b) Indium
(d) only electrons are mobile (c) Arsenic (d) Gallium
UPTGT Science - 2021 UPPSC Poly. Lect. 2021 Paper - II
12. When a p-n junction is reverse biased, its 21. For detection of light intensity, we use -
depletion region (a) LED in forward bias
(a) become wider (b) LED in reverse bias
(b) becomes narrower (c) Photodiode in forward bias
(c) disappears (d) Photodiode in reverse bias
(d) does not change UPPSC Poly. Lect. 2021 Paper - II
UPTGT Science - 2021 UPPCS (Pre) 2000
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22. A Zener diode is suitable for- 31. In p-n junction holes diffuse from the p-region
(a) Voltage regulation (b) Current regulation to n-region because of :
(c) Both (a) and (b) (d) Rectifier (a) the potential difference across the p-n junction
UPPSC Poly. Lect. 2021 Paper - II (b) the attraction of the free electrons of n-region
23. As reverse bias across the collector-base (c) the higher hole concentration in p-region is
junction increases, the width of the collector- higher than in n-region
base depletion layer increases, and the (d) All of the above
effective width of base decreases. This is called UPPCS Pre 2010
(a) Tunnel effect (b) Early effect 32. The diodes which are used for voltage
(c) Zeeman effect (d) Schottky barrier regulation, are:
UPPSC GDC - 2021 (a) Photodiodes (b) PIN diodes
24. A Zener diode can be put to break down by (c) Varacter diodes (d) Zener diodes
applying (UPPGT 2013)
(a) Forward bias (b) Large reverse bias UPPCS (Pre) 2004
(c) No bias (d) None of the above
UPPSC GDC - 2021
Transistors
25. Which of the following is correct about 33. In half wave rectification, if the input
depletion region capacitance? frequency is 60 Hz, then the output frequency
(a) It is always zero would be
(b) It is constant

Y
(a) 120 Hz (b) Zero
(c) It is independent of reverse voltage (c) 30 Hz (d) 60 Hz
(d) it depends upon the magnitude of reverse
voltage
SP
UPPSC GDC - 2021 34.
NEET 2022
Given below are two statements : One is
labelled as Assertion A and the other is
26. The colour of light emitted by a LED depends
on : labelled as Reason R.
(a) its forward bias. Assertion A : n-p-n transistor permits more
m
(b) its reverse bias. current than a p-n-p transistor.
(c) the amount of forward current.
Reason R : Electrons have greater mobility as
(d) the type of semiconductor material used.
a charge carrier.
UKPSC Lecturer (Mains) 2020
a

27. Semiconductor Lasers are formed by using: Choose the correct answer from the options
(a) combination of semiconductor and insulator given below :
(b) amorphous semiconductors (a) Both A and R true. and R is correct
Te

(c) non–degenerate semiconductors explanation of A.

(d) degenerate semiconductors (b) Both A and R are true but R is NOT the
UPPCS (Pre) 2004 correct explanation of A.
28. Zener Breakdown occurs
(c) A is true but R is false.
(a) mostly in silicon diodes
(b) mostly in Ge-diodes (d) A is false but R is true.
(c) because of rupture of covalent bonds JEE MAIN 2022
(d) due to thermally generated carriers 35. For transistor action, which of the following
(UPPGT 2013) statements is correct?
UPPCS Pre 2007, 2002
(a) Base, emitter and collector regions should
29. The depletion layer width of a p-n junction has
have same size.
maximum value in
(a) forward bias (b) reverse bias (b) Both emitter junction as well as the collector
junction are forward biased.
(c) zero bias (d) a.c. bias
UPPCS Pre 2006, 2009 (c) The base region must be very thin and lightly
30. A zener diode is used for doped.
(a) rectification (b) modulation (d) Base, emitter and collector regions should
(c) detection (d) voltage regulation have same doping concentrations.
UPPCS Pre 2009 NEET 2020
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36. For transistor action, which of the following 43. Voltage gain of a transistor amplifier with a
statements is correct? load resistance 1 kΩ and input resistance 200Ω
(a) Base, emitter and collector regions should is 450. The value of β is :
have same doping concentrations. (a) 60 (b) 80
(b) Base, emitter and collector regions should (c) 70 (d) 90
have same size. UKPSC Lecturer (Mains) 2020
(c) Both emitter junction as well as the collector 44. Which is a symbol of the n-p-n transistor?
junction are forward biased.
(d) The base region must be very thin and lightly
doped.
NEET 2020
37. In a common emitter transistor amplifier the
audio signal voltage across the collector is 3 V.
The resistance of collector is 3 kΩ. If current
gain is 100 and the base resistance is 2 kΩ, the
voltage and power gain of the amplifier is
(a) 15 and 200 (b) 150 and 15000 UP PGT Physics 2016 (Exam : 02.02.2019)
(c) 20 and 2000 (d) 200 and 1000 45. In a PNP transistor in the common base
NEET 2017 configuration the emitter current changes
38. In a common base connection, the current from 0.6 mA to 0.4 mA when the emitter to

Y
amplification factor is 0.95 . If the emitter base voltage is changed from 0.68 V to 0.64 V.
current is 0.9 mA, the value of base current The dynamic input resistance is
will be. (a) 5 × 10–3 Ohm (b) 1.133 Ohm
(a) 50 µA
(c) 45 µA
SP
(b) 55 µA
(d) 51 µA
(c) 1.60 Ohm (d) 200 Ohm
UPPCS Pre 2007
UPPSC Ashram Paddhati PGT - 2021 46. For a transistor, 'β ' is the base transport factor
39. A transistor having α = 0.975 and negligible an 'γ' is the emitter injection efficiency, then
reverse saturation current is operated in current transport ratio 'α' is given by
am
Common Emitter configuration (CE) mode. (a) α = βγ (b) α = β / γ
If I B = 250µA, I C will be -
β−γ
(a) 10.45 mA (b) 10.15 mA (c) α = γ / β (d) α=
(c) 9.35 mA (d) 9.75 mA β+γ
UPPSC Poly. Lect. 2021 Paper - II UPPCS Pre 2007
40. Which of the following circuit is being used 47. In which configuration of a transistor, the
Te

impedance matching? voltage gain is highest?

(a) transistor in common base configuration (a) Common base
(b) transistor in common emitter configuration (b) Common emitter
(c) transistor in common collector configuration (c) Common collector
(d) zener diode in reverse bias (d) Same in all the above three
UP PGT - 2021 UPPCS (Pre) 1999
41. Which of the following is correct relation
UPPCS Pre 2007
between common-emitter current gain β and
48. A common emitter amplifier has
common base current gain α? (a) large voltage gain but small current and
1 α power gains
(a) β = (b) β =
1– α 1+ α (b) large current gain but small voltage and
α 1– α power gains
(c) β = (d) β =
1– α 1 (c) large voltage current and power gains
UPPSC GDC - 2021 (d) none of the above
42. In an n-p-n transistor circuit collector current UPPCS Pre 2005
is 10 mA. If (only) 90% of electrons emitted 49. Three amplifier stages each with a gain of 10
reach collector, emitter current will be : are cascaded. The net gain will be
(a) 11 mA (b) 17 mA (a) 30 (b) 1000
(c) 9 mA (d) 15 mA (c) 3.33 (d) 10
UKPSC Lecturer (Mains) 2020 UPPCS Pre 2005, 2007
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50. The ripple voltage present in the output of a A B C A B C
half wave rectifier is 0 0 1 0 0 1
(a) more than
(c) 0 1 0 (d) 0 1 0
(b) less than
(c) equal to 1 0 0 1 0 1
(d) independent of the d.c. voltage present in its 1 1 1 1 1 0
output NEET 2022
UPPCS Pre 2005
55. For the given circuit, the input digital signals
Logic Gates & Truth Tables are applied at the terminals A, B and C. What
51. Identify the logic operation performed by the would be the output at the terminal y?
given circuit :

(a) AND gate (b) OR gate

(c) NOR gate (d) NAND gate
JEE MAIN 2022
52. In the following circuit, the correct relation

Y
between output (Y) and inputs A and B will
be: SP
m
(a) Y = AB (b) Y = A+B
(c) Y = AB (d) Y = A+B
a

(a)
JEE MAIN 2022
53. The following logic gate is equivalent to:
(b)
Te

(c)
(d)
(a) NOR Gate (b) OR Gate
NEET 2021
(c) AND Gate (d) NAND Gate
56. For the logic circuit shown, the truth table is
JEE MAIN 2021

54.

The truth table for the given logic circuit is

A B C A B C
0 0 0 0 0 0
(a) (b)
(a) 0 1 1 (b) 0 1 1
1 0 0 1 0 1
1 1 1 1 1 0

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 (a) OR Gate (b) AND Gate
(c) NOR Gate (d) NAND Gate
UPPCS Pre 2006
(c) (d) 62. The given truth table
A B Y
0 0 1
1 0 0
NEET 2019 0 1 0
57. A digital gate having two inputs A and B and 1 1 0
output C has the following truth table represents a
(a) NAND gate (b) NOR gate
A B C (c) NOT gate (d) XOR gate
1 1 0 UPPCS Pre 2008, 2006, 2004, 1999
1 0 1 63. The output of the following logic circuit is:
0 1 1
0 0 1
Given truth table corresponds to
(a) OR gate (b) AND gate
(a) y = A + B (b) y = A.B
(c) NOR gate (d) NAND gate
UPPSC Ashram Paddhati PGT - 2021 (c) y = A + B (d) y = A.B

Y
UPPCS Pre 2009
64. The combination of following gates represent:
UPPCS (Pre) 2000
58. The output of NOR gate can be represented as-
(a) Y = A + B (b)
SP
Y = A.B
(c) Y = A + B (d) Y = A.B
(a) NAND gate (b) NOR gate
UPPSC Poly. Lect. 2021 Paper - II
59. Which of the following gates is universal gate? (c) NOT gate (d) XOR gate
(a) XOR (b) NOR UPPCS Pre 2008
am
65. The Boolean expression and the output Y of
(c) NOT (d) AND
the following logic circuit with inputs A = 1, B
UPPSC Poly. Lect. 2021 Paper - II
60. Which of the following is not the basic logic = 1 and C = 0 will be
gate?
(a) OR (b) NOT
(c) XOR (d) AND
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UPPSC Poly. Lect. 2021 Paper - II

(a) Y = A.B + (B + C), Y = 1
61. The circuit given below
(b) Y = A.B + ( B + C ), Y = 0
(c) Y = A.B + B + C, Y = 0
(d) Y = A.B + B + C, Y = 1
represents UPPCS Pre 2008

Answer Key
1. (b) 2. (d) 3. (d) 4. (c) 5. (a) 6. (d) 7. (a) 8. (b) 9. (d) 10. (b)
11. (c) 12. (a) 13. (c) 14. (b) 15. (a) 16. (c) 17. (d) 18. (c) 19. (a) 20. (c)
21. (d) 22. (a) 23. (b) 24. (b) 25. (d) 26. (d) 27. (d) 28. (c) 29. (b) 30. (d)
31. (c) 32. (d) 33. (d) 34. (a) 35. (c) 36. (d) 37. (b) 38. (c) 39. (d) 40. (c)
41. (c) 42. (a) 43. (d) 44. (b) 45. (d) 46. (b) 47. (b) 48. (c) 49. (b) 50. (a)
51. (a) 52. (c) 53. (a) 54. (d) 55. (c) 56. (a) 57. (d) 58. (b) 59. (b) 60. (c)
61. (b) 62. (b) 63. (b) 64. (b) 65. (b)

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09.
Communications and
Communication system
The term communication refers to the transmitting, receiving and processing of information by electronic means.
■ Basic Communication System:-
A basic communication system consists of an information source, a transmitter, a link and a receiver.

(1) Source of Information:- The idea/message that is to be conveyed is information. The message may be
individual one or a set of messages. The message may be a symbol, code, group of words or any pre decided
unit.

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(2) Transmitter: - In radio transmission, the transmitter consists of a transducer, modulator, amplifier and
transmitting antenna.
Note:-
SP
Transducer;- Converts sound signal into electric signal.
Modulator:- Mixing of audio electric signal with high frequency radio waves.
Amplifier:- Boosting the power of modulated signal
Antenna:- Signal is radiated in the space with the aid of an antenna.
m
3. Communication Channel:- The function of communication channel is to carry the modulated signal from
transmitter to receiver. The communication channel is also called transmission medium or link. The term channel
refers to the frequency range allocated to a particular service or transmission.
a

4. Receiver:- The receiver consists of

Pick up antenna - To pick the signal
Demodulator - To separate out the audio signal from the modulated signal
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Amplifier - To boost up the weak audio signal

Transducer - To convert back audio signal in the form of electrical pulses into sound waves.
■ Types of Communication System:-
Communication systems can be classified or according to the nature of information or mode of transmission or
types of transmission channel.
1. According to the nature of information source.
(i). Speech transmission
(ii). Picture transmission
(iii). Facsimile transmission (FAX):- This involves exact reproduction of a document or picture which is static.
2. According to the mode of transmission.
(i). Analog Communication:- The communication system which makes use of analog signals is called analog
communication system.
Example of analog Communication Systems are telegraphy, Television broadcast, RADAR, Teleprinting
(ii). Digital communication:- In this communication system digital signals are used.
Examples:-Facsimile, Mobile Phone, E-mail, Communication Satellite,Global Positioning System (GPS), Tele
Conferencing.
(iii). According to the transmission Channel:-
(i) Line Communication (ii) Space Communication
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■ Modulation:-
The process of superimposing the audio signal over a high frequency carrier wave is called Modulation. In the
process of Modulation any one characteristic of carrier wave is varied in accordance with the instantaneous
value of audio signal.
• Digital and analog signals to be transmitted are usually of low frequency and hence cannot be transmitted.
• These signals require some carrier to be transported. These carriers are known as carrier waves or high
frequency signals.
• The process of placement of a low frequency (LF) signal over the high frequency (HF) signal is known as
modulation.

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SP
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Need of Modulation :-
(i) Energy carried by low frequency audio waves (20 Hz to 20000 Hz) is very small.
(ii) For efficient radiation and reception of signal the transmitting and receiving antenna's should be very high
approximately 5000 m.
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(iii) The frequency range of audio signal is so small that overlapping of signals creates a confusion.
Types of Modulation:-
1. Amplitude Modulation:- In this type of modulation the amplitude of high frequency carrier wave is varies in
accordance to instantaneous amplitude of modulating signal.
Band width required for amplitude modulation = Twice the frequency of the modulation signal.
Change in amplitude of carrier wave
Modulation index ( µ ) =
Amplitude of carrier wave

(ωc - ωm) ω c (ωc + ωm)

ω (in radians)

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2. Frequency Modulation:- (FM)
The process of changing the frequency of a carrier wave in accordance with the audio frequency signal is
known as frequency modulation.
• Audio quality of AM transmission is poor. There is a need to eliminate amplitude sensitive noise. This is
possible if we eliminate amplitude variation.
• In FM the overall amplitude of FM wave remains constant at all times.
• In FM, the total transmitted power remains constant.

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t
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m
t
a
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3. Pulse modulation:- Here the carrier is in the form of pulses.

• Pulse amplitude modulation (PAM):- The amplitude of the pulse varies in accordance with the modulating
signal.
• Pulse width modulation (PWM):- The pulse duration varies in accordance with the modulating signal.
• Pulse position modulation (PPM):- In PPM, the position of the pulses of the carrier wave train is varied in
accordance with the instantaneous value of the modulating signal.

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■ Demodulation:- The process of extracting the audio signal from the modulated wave is known as
demodulation or detection.The wireless signals consist of radio frequency (high frequency) carrier wave
modulated by audio frequency (low frequency). The diaphragm of a telephone receiver or a loud speaker cannot
vibrate with high frequency. So it is necessary to separate the audio frequencies from the radio frequency carrier
wave.
■ Band Width:- The type of communication system needed for a given signal depends on the band of
frequencies. Band width is given by difference of highest and lowest frequency within the band.
Various transmission media used for communication with their range is listed below.
Services Frequency bands Remarks
Standard AM broadcast 540 -1600 KHz Radio broadcast

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FM broadcast 88 - 108 MHz Music channel
54-72 MHz VHF

Television
SP 76-88 MHz
174-216 MHz
TV
UHF
420-890 MHz TV
Cellular 896 - 901 MHz Mobile to base station
Mobile radio 840 - 935 MHz Base station to mobile
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Satellite 5.925 - 6.425 GHz Uplink

Communication 3.7 - 4.2 GHz Downlink
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■ Antenna:- An antenna converts electrical energy into electromagnetic waves at transmitting end and pick up
transmitted signal at receiving end and converts electromagnetic waves into electrical signal.
(i) Hertz Antenna:- It is a straight conductor of length equal to half the wavelength of radio signal to be
transmitted or received.
(ii) Marconi Antenna:- It is a straight conductor of length equal to quarter of a wave length of radio signal to be
transmitted or received.
■ Earth's Atmosphere:- The gaseous envelop surrounding the Earth is called Earth's atmosphere. It contains
the following layers,
(i) Troposphere- This region extends up to a height of 12 km from earth surface.
(ii) Stratosphere- This region extends from 12 km to 50 km. In this region, most of the atmospheric ozone is
concentrated from 30 to 50 km. This layer is called ozone layer.
(iii) Mesosphere- The region extends from 50 km to 80 km.
(iv) Ionosphere- This region extends from 80 km to 400 km. This layer helps in radio Transmission.
• In ionosphere the electron density is very large in a region beyond 110 km from Earth's surface which extends
vertically for a few kilometers. This layer is called Kennelly Heaviside layer.
• In ionosphere a layer having large electron density is found at height 250 km from Earth's surface is called
Appleton layer.

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 • Atmosphere of Earth in respect of communication is shown below-

• There are four main layers in Earth's atmosphere in Ionosphere having high density of electrons and positive ions.
These layers are D, E, F1 and F2,
(i) D layer - It is at a virtual height of 65 km from surface of Earth and having electron density ≈ 109 m-3.

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(ii) E layer - It is at a virtual height of 100 km from the surface of Earth having electron density ≈ 2×1011 m-3.
(iii) F1 layer- It is at a virtual height of 180 km from the surface of Earth having electron density ≈ 3×1011 m-3.
SP
(iv) F2 layer - It is at a vertical height of about 300 km in height time and about 250 to 400 km in day time. The
electron density of this layer is ≈ 8×1011 m-3.
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■ Propagation of Radio waves:-

The three modes are discussed below:-
(i) Ground wave or surface wave propagation:- It is suitable for low and medium frequency upto 2 MHz. It is
used for local broad casting.

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(ii) Sky wave propagation:- It is suitable for radio waves of frequency between 2 MHz to 30 MHz. It is used for
long distance radio communication.

Critical Frequency- The highest frequency of radio wave that can be reflected back by the ionosphere is called
critical frequency.
Critical frequency, Vc = 9(Nmax)1/2
Where,
Nmax = Density of electrons/ metre3.
Skip distance:- The minimum distance from the transmitter at which a sky wave of a frequency but not more than
critical frequency, is sent back to the Earth.
2
V 
Skip distance (Dskip ) = 2h  max  − 1

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 Vc 
Where, h = height of reflecting layer of atmosphere.
SP
Vmax = maximum frequency of electromagnetic waves, Vc = critical frequency.
(iii) Space wave propagation- It is suitable for 30 MHz to 300 MHz. It is used in television communication and
radar communication. It is also called line of sight communication.
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T R

T R
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Range is limited due to curvature of Earth. If h be the height of the transmitting antenna then signal can be received
upto a maximum distance.
d = 2Rh
If height of transmitting and receiving antennas be hT and hR respectively. The effective range will

d = 2Rh T + 2Rh R

Note:- The variation in the strength of a signal at receiver due to interference of waves is called fading.
■ Microwave propagation- Microwave communication is used in radar to locate the flying objects in space.
These waves can be transmitted as beam signals in a particular direction, much better than radio wave. There is
no diffraction of micro wave around corners of an obstacle which happens to lies along its passage.
■ Satellite Communication:-
• It is carried out between a transmitter and a receiver through a satellite. A geostationary satellite is utilised for
this purpose, whose time period is 24 hours.
• A communication satellite is a space craft, provided with microwave receiver and transmitter. It is placed in an
orbit around the Earth.
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 • The India remote sensing satellite are IRS-IA, IRS-IB and IRS-IC.
• The line of sight microwave communication through satellite is possible. The communication satellite is always
at a fixed location with respect to the Earth e.g. the satellite which is acting as a repeater must be at rest with
respect to the Earth. The satellite communication can be used for establishing mobile communication with great
use. The communication satellites are now being used in Global positioning system (GPS).
• The ordinary users are finding their positions within accuracy of 100 m. There are two types of satellites used
for long distance transmission.
(i) Passive satellite:- It acts as reflector only for the signals transmitted from earth, moon the natural satellite of
earth is a passive satellite.
(ii) Active satellite:- It carries all the equipment used for receiving signals sent from the Earth, processing them
and then re-transmitting them to the Earth. Now-a-days active satellite are in use.
Merits of Satellites Communications:-
(i) Covers wide area for broadcasting as compared to other communication systems i.e. it has wide coverage
range.
(ii) Found to be much economical as compared to other communication systems on Earth. In fact the cost
involved in satellite communication is independent of the distance.
(iii) Used effectively in mobile communication.
(iv) Most cost effective in remote and hilly areas such as Ladakh, Himachal Pradesh etc.
(v) Permits transmission of data at high rate.

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(vi) Very accurate for search, rescue and navigation purposes.
Demerits of satellite communication-
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(i) If a system on the satellite goes out of order due to environmental stresses it is at most impossible to repair it.
(ii) In satellite communication, there is a time delay between transmission and reception due to extremely large
communication path length greater than (2×36000 Km) this delay causes a time gap while communicating.
■ Optical Communication:-
(i) The use of optical carrier waves for transmission of information from one place to another is called optical
m
communication.
(ii) The useful optical frequency range is 1012Hz to 1016Hz which is very high as compared to radio and
microwave frequencies (106Hz to 1011Hz).
a

(iii) The information carrying capacity ∝ bandwidth ∝ frequency of carrier wave. So optical communication is
better than others because of high frequency.
iv) Light emitting diodes (LED) and diode lasers are preferred for optical source LED's are used for small distance
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transmission while diode laser is used for very large distance transmission.
(v) In order to transmit information signal via an optical communication system, it is necessary to modulate light
with the information signal.
■ Optical Fibre:-
The optical fibre are used to transmit light signals from one place to another without any practical loss in the
intensity of light signal.
Types of optical Fibre-
(i) Monomode Optical Fibre
(ii) Multimode Optical Fibre
(iii) Graded Index Multimode Fibre
Applications of Optical Fibres:-
(i) A bundle of optical fibres is called light pipe this pipe can transmit an image since the pipe is flexible. It can be
twisted in any desired manner. Hence it is used medical and optical examination of even the inaccessible parts
of human body e.g in endoscopy.
(ii) Optical fibres are used in transmission and reception of electrical signals by converting them first into light
signals.
(iii) Optical fibers are used in telephone and other transmitting cables each fiber can carry upto 2000 telephone
messages without much loss of intensity.
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LED and Diode laser in communication-
Light emitting Diode (LED) and diode laser are preferred sources for optical communication links to the
following features-
(i) Each produces light of suitable power required in optical communication diode laser provides light which is
monochromatic and coherent. This light is obtained as a parallel beam it is used in very long distance
transmission.
(ii) LED provides almost monochromatic light. This is suitable for small distance transmission. It is in fact, a low
cost device as compared to diode lasers.
■ Internet Telephony:-
Modem- The term modem is contraction of the term modulator and demodulator. Modem is a device which can
modulate as well as demodulate the signal. It connects one computer to another through ordinary telephone lines.
The internet:-
Internet permits communication and sharing of all types of information between any two or more computers
connected through a large and complex network. The exchange of information on internet is very fast as electronic
signals of computers are communicated through electromagnetic waves.
Application of internet include internet surfing, E-mails, File transfer, E-banking, E- commerce, E-booking and
social networking.
FAX (Facsimile Telegraphy)
Mobile Phone can wirelessly send and receive radio frequency signals. The central concept of this system is to
divide the service area into a suitable number of cells centered an office called MTSO (Mobile Telephone

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Switching Office). Mobile phones operate typically in UHF of frequencies (about 800 - 950 MHz).
■ Global positioning System (GPS)
• GPS is a space based satellite navigation system that provides accurate information about time and location
anywhere on or near the earth.
SP
• GPS uses 24 satellites which are continuously orbiting, monitoring and mapping the earth surface.
• Every such satellite orbits around the earth twice a day at a distance of about 20,000 Km from it.
• The orbits of these satellites are aligned in such a way that at least four of them always keep looking any given
point on the earth surface.
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■ Key Points:-
(i) MASER is a Microwave Amplification by Stimulated Emission of Radiation. It is used as a microwave
amplifier to oscillator. The principle of MASER is identical to that of LASER only frequency range is ≤ 1011 Hz
in MASERS.
(ii) In frequency modulation Mf (frequency modulation index) is inversely proportional to modulating frequency
Fm while in PM it does not vary with modulating frequency more over. FM is more noise immune.
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(iii) Parallel wire lines are never used for transmission of microwaves. This is because at the frequency of
λ
microwaves separation between the two wires approaches half a wavelength   . Therefore radiation loss of
2
energy becomes maximum.
Total band width of channel
Number of channel accommodated for Transmission =
band width needed perchannel
Bit rate = Sampling rate × no. of bits per sample.
(iv) Modulation factor determines the strength and quality of the transmitted signal.
λ
(v) In Hertz antenna conductor length, ℓ =
2
λ
and in Macroni Antenna conductor length, ℓ =
4
(vi) In a digital signal, information is carried by the pattern of pulses and not by the shape of pulses.
(vii) Sampling converts an analog signal into digital for example when an analog signal is sampled at interval of
1
125µ. The number of samples taken per second = = 8000
125 ×10−6
(viii) AGC stands for Automatic Gain Control.
(ix) Sputnik-I launched by Russia in 1957 was the first active satellite.
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 Exemplar Problems
(b) Effective power radiated by a long wavelength
Communications & Communications baseband signal would be high.
System (c) We want to avoid mixing up signals
1. A baseband signal of 3.5 MHz frequency is transmitted by different transmitter
modulated with a carrier signal of 3.5 GHz simultaneously.
frequency using amplitude modulation method. (d) Low frequency signal can be sent to long
What should be the minimum size of antenna distances by superimposing with a high
required to transmit the modulated signal ? frequency wave as well.
(a) 42.8 m (b) 42.8 mm Therefore, the most suitable options will be :
(c) 21.4 mm (d) 21.4 m (a) All statements are true
JEE MAIN 2022 (b) (a), (b) and (c) are true only
2. Amplitude modulated wave is represented by . (c) (a), (c) and (d) are true only
(d) (b), (c) and (d) are true only
VAM = 10 1 + 0.4cos ( 2π ×104 t ) cos ( 2π ×107 t ) . JEE MAIN 2022
The total bandwidth of the amplitude 7. Match List I with List II
modulated wave is : List -I List-II

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(a) 10 kHz (b) 20 MHz A Facsimile I. Static Document
(c) 20 kHz (d) 10 MHz
SP Image
JEE MAIN 2022 B. Guided media II. Local Broadcast
Channel Radio
3. A sinusoidal wave y(t) = 40sin(10 x 106 πt) is
C. Frequency III. Rectangular
amplitude modulated by another sinusoidal
Modulation wave
wave x(t) = 20sin (1000πt). The amplitude of
D. Digital Signal IV. Optical Fiber
minimum frequency component of modulated
Choose the correct answer from the following
m
signal is :
options :
(a) 0.5 (b) 0.25
(a) A –IV, B-III, C-II, D-I
(c) 20 (d) 10
(b) A-I, B-IV, C-II, D-III
a

JEE MAIN 2022 (c) A –IV, B-II, C-III, D-I

4. Only 2% of the optical source frequency is the (d) A-I, B-II, C-III, D-IV
available channel bandwidth for an optical
JEE MAIN 2022
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communicating system operating at 1000 nm. If

an audio signal requires a bandwidth of 8 kHz, 8. Match List–I with List–II.
how many channels can be accommodated for List-i List-ii
transmission : (a) 10 km height (i) Thermosphere
(a) 375 × 107 (b) 75 × 107 over earth's
8 surface
(c) 375 × 10 (d) 75 × 109
(b) 70 km height (ii) Mesosphere
JEE MAIN 2022 over earth's
5. The TV transmission tower at a particular surface
station has a height of 125 m. For doubling the (c) 180 km height (iii) Stratosphere
coverage of its range, the height of the tower over earth's
should be increased by : surface
(a) 125 m (b) 250 m (d) 270 km height (iv) Troposphere
(c) 375 (d) 500 m over earth's
JEE MAIN 2022 surface
(a) (a)–(iv), (b)–(iii), (c)–(ii), (d)–(i)
6. We do not transmit low frequency signal to
long distances because (b) (a)–(i), (b)–(iv), (c)–(iii), (d)–(ii)
(a) The size of the antenna should be comparable (c) (a)–(iii), (b)–(ii), (c)–(i), (d)–(iv)
to signal wavelength which is unreal solution (d) (a)–(ii), (b)–(i), (c)–(iv), (d)–(iii)
for a signal of longer wavelength. JEE MAIN 2021
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9. Two identical antennas mounted on identical (a) 100%
towers are separated from each other by a (b) 75%
distance of 45 km. What should nearly be the (c) 50%
minimum height of receiving antenna to receive
the signals in line of sight ? (d) 25%
UKPSC Lecturer (Mains) 2020
(Assume radius of earth is 6400 km)
15. Which device provide logical regeneration of a
(a) 19.77 m
LAN ?
(b) 39.45 m (a) Router (b) Bridge
(c) 79.1 m (c) Switch (d) Hub
(d) 158.2 m UKPSC Lecturer (Mains) 2020
JEE MAIN 2021 16. The internet is a system of :
10. The process of changing a weak signal without (a) Software bundles
altering its shape into a strong one is known as (b) Web page
(a) Biasing
(c) Website
(b) Rectification
(d) Interconnected networks
(c) Modulation
UKPSC Lecturer (Mains) 2020
(d) Amplification 17. Which of the following is used to produce radio
UP PGT - 2021 waves of constant amplitude?
11. The function of a detector is to demodulate the (a) Rectifier
modulated carrier wave and the steps for the

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process are (b) Amplifier
(a) Demodulation and filtering (c) Oscillator
(b) Demodulation and rectification
(c) Rectification and filtering
(d) Generation and filtering
SP 18.
(d) FET
UKPSC Lecturer (Mains) 2020
For an amplitude modulated wave, the
UP PGT - 2021 maximum amplitude in found to be 8 V while
12. The total power content of an Amplitude the minimum amplitude is found to be 2 V. The
Modulated (AM) wave is 1500 W. For 100% modulation index is
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modulation, the power transmitted by carrier
(a) 0.1
wave will be :
(a) 250 W (b) 0.4
(b) 500 W (c) 0.6
(c) 750 W (d) 0.707
(d) 1000 W RPSC School Lect. 26.07.2016
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UKPSC Lecturer (Mains) 2020 19. The thermionic current in vacuum tubes is given
13. If the highest modulating frequency of the by :
wave is 6 kHz, the number of stations that can (a) Child equation
be accommodated in a 180 kHz, bandwidth is: (b) Richardson-Dushman equation
(a) 5 (c) Max well's equations
(b) 10 (d) Photoelectric equation
(UPPGT 2005)
(c) 12
20. Semiconductor Lasers are formed by using:
(d) 15 (a) combination of semiconductor and insulator
UKPSC Lecturer (Mains) 2020 (b) amorphous semiconductors
14. A modulated carrier wave has maximum and (c) non–degenerate semiconductors
minimum amplitudes of 750 mV and 250 mV (d) degenerate semiconductors
respectively. What will be the value of
UPPCS (Pre) 2004
percentage modulation ?

Answer Key
1. (c) 2. (c) 3. (d) 4. (b) 5. (c) 6. (c) 7. (b) 8. (a) 9. (b) 10. (d)
11. (c) 12. (d) 13. (d) 14. (c) 15. (a) 16. (d) 17. (c) 18. (c) 19. (b) 20. (d)

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