MODULE 9

THEORIES RELEVANT TO
NURSING PRACTICE
This module presents selected theorists who made impact, not just in their
respective fields, but ultimately in the nursing profession.

These theories serve as guide for nursing theorists in formulating

their own theories.

KARLO GIL D. CONCEPCION, RN, MN

 Abraham Maslow
1908 – 1970

Hierarchy of
Needs

Abraham Harold Maslow was an American psychologist who was best known for
creating Maslow's hierarchy of needs, a theory of psychological health predicated on
fulfilling innate human needs in priority, culminating in self-actualization. Maslow was
a psychology professor at Alliant International University, Brandeis University, Brooklyn
College, New School for Social Research, and Columbia University. He stressed the
importance of focusing on the positive qualities in people, as opposed to treating them
as a "bag of symptoms". A Review of General Psychology survey, published in 2002,
ranked Maslow as the tenth most cited psychologist of the 20th century.
Maslow attended the City College of New York after high school. In 1926 he
began taking legal studies classes at night in addition to his undergraduate course load.
He hated it and almost immediately dropped out. In 1927 he transferred to Cornell, but
he left after just one semester due to poor grades and high costs. He later graduated
from City College and went to graduate school at the University of Wisconsin to study
psychology. In 1928, he married his first cousin Bertha, who was still in high school at
the time. The pair had met in Brooklyn years earlier. Maslow's psychology training at
UW was decidedly experimental-behaviorist. At Wisconsin he pursued a line of research
which included investigating primate dominance behavior and sexuality. Maslow's early
experience with behaviorism would leave him with a strong positivist mindset. Upon the
recommendation of Professor Hulsey Cason, Maslow wrote his master's thesis on
"learning, retention, and reproduction of verbal material". Maslow regarded the research
as embarrassingly trivial, but he completed his thesis the summer of 1931 and was
awarded his master's degree in psychology. He was so ashamed of the thesis that he
removed it from the psychology library and tore out its catalog listing. However,
Professor Cason admired the research enough to urge Maslow to submit it for
publication. Maslow's thesis was published as two articles in 1934. While jogging,
Maslow suffered a severe heart attack and died on June 8, 1970, at the age of 62.
MASLOW’S HIERARCHY OF NEEDS
Maslow's hierarchy of needs is a theory in psychology proposed by Abraham
Maslow in his 1943 paper "A Theory of Human Motivation" in Psychological Review.
Maslow subsequently extended the idea to include his observations of humans' innate
curiosity. His theories parallel many other theories of human developmental psychology,
some of which focus on describing the stages of growth in humans. He then created a
classification system which reflected the universal needs of society as its base and then
proceeding to more acquired emotions. Maslow's hierarchy of needs is used to study
how humans intrinsically partake in behavioral motivation. Maslow used the terms
"physiological", "safety", "belonging and love", "social needs" or "esteem", and "self-
actualization" to describe the pattern through which human motivations generally move.
This means that in order for motivation to arise at the next stage, each stage must be
satisfied within the individual themselves. Additionally, this theory is a main base in
knowing how effort and motivation are correlated when discussing human behavior.
Each of these individual levels contains a certain amount of internal sensation that must
be met in order for an individual to complete their hierarchy. The goal in Maslow's theory
is to attain the fifth level or stage: self-actualization.
Maslow's theory was fully expressed in his 1954 book Motivation and Personality.
The hierarchy remains a very popular framework in sociology research, management
training and secondary and higher psychology instruction. Maslow's classification
hierarchy has been revised over time. The original hierarchy states that a lower level
must be completely satisfied and fulfilled before moving onto a higher pursuit. However,
today scholars prefer to think of these levels as continuously overlapping each other.
This means that the lower levels may take precedence back over the other levels at any
point in time. Maslow's hierarchy of needs is often portrayed in the shape of a pyramid
with the largest, most fundamental needs at the bottom and the need for self-
actualization and transcendence at the top. In other words, the theory is that individuals'
most basic needs must be met before they become motivated to achieve higher level
needs. However, it has been pointed out that, although the ideas behind the hierarchy
are Maslow's, the pyramid itself does not exist anywhere in Maslow's original work.
The human brain is a complex system and has parallel processes running at the
same time, thus many different motivations from various levels of Maslow's hierarchy
can occur at the same time. Maslow spoke clearly about these levels and their
satisfaction in terms such as "relative", "general", and "primarily". Instead of stating that
the individual focuses on a certain need at any given time, Maslow stated that a certain
need "dominates" the human organism. Thus, Maslow acknowledged the likelihood that
the different levels of motivation could occur at any time in the human mind, but he
focused on identifying the basic types of motivation and the order in which they would
tend to be met.
Physiological Needs
Physiological need is a concept that was derived to explain and cultivate the
foundation for motivation. This concept is the main physical requirement for human
survival. This means that physiological needs are universal human needs. Physiological
needs are considered in internal motivation according to Maslow's hierarchy of needs.
This theory states that humans are compelled to fulfill these physiological needs first in
order to pursue intrinsic satisfaction on a higher level. If these needs are not achieved, it
leads to an increase in displeasure within an individual. In return, when individuals feel
this increase in displeasure, the motivation to decrease these discrepancies increases.
Physiological needs can be defined as both traits and a state. Physiological needs as
traits allude to long-term, unchanging demands that are required of basic human life.
Physiological needs as a state allude to the unpleasant decrease in pleasure and the
increase for an incentive to fulfill a necessity. In order to pursue intrinsic motivation
higher up Maslow's hierarchy, Physiological needs must be met first. This means that if
a human is struggling to meet their physiological needs, then they are unlikely to
intrinsically pursue safety, belongingness, esteem, and self-actualization.
Physiological needs include: Homeostasis, Health, Food and water, Sleep,
Clothes and Shelter.

Safety Needs
Once a person's physiological needs are relatively satisfied, their safety needs
take precedence and dominate behavior. In the absence of physical safety – due to war,
natural disaster, family violence, childhood abuse, institutional racism etc. – people may
(re-)experience post-traumatic stress disorder or transgenerational trauma. In the
absence of economic safety – due to an economic crisis and lack of work opportunities
– these safety needs manifest themselves in ways such as a preference for job security,
grievance procedures for protecting the individual from unilateral authority, savings
accounts, insurance policies, disability accommodations, etc. This level is more likely to
predominate in children as they generally have a greater need to feel safe. Safety and
security needs are about keeping us safe from harm. These include shelter, job
security, health, and safe environments. If a person does not feel safe in an
environment, they will seek to find safety before they attempt to meet any higher level of
survival, but the need for safety is not as important as basic physiological needs.
Safety and Security needs include: Personal security, Emotional security,
Financial security, Health and well-being and Safety needs against accidents/illness and
their adverse impacts.
Social Belonging
After physiological and safety needs are fulfilled, the third level of human needs
are seen to be interpersonal and involves feelings of belongingness. According to
Maslow, humans possess an affective need for a sense of belonging and acceptance
among social groups, regardless of whether these groups are large or small. For
example, some large social groups may include clubs, co-workers, religious groups,
professional organizations, sports teams, gangs, and online communities. Some
examples of small social connections include family members, intimate partners,
mentors, colleagues, and confidants. Humans need to love and be loved – both sexually
and non-sexually – by others. Many people become susceptible to loneliness, social
anxiety, and clinical depression in the absence of this love or belonging element. This
need is especially strong in childhood and it can override the need for safety as
witnessed in children who cling to abusive parents. Deficiencies within this level of
Maslow's hierarchy – due to hospitalism, neglect, shunning, ostracism, etc. – can
adversely affect the individual's ability to form and maintain emotionally significant
relationships in general. Social Belonging needs include: Friendships, Intimacy and
Family. This need for belonging may overcome the physiological and security needs,
depending on the strength of the peer pressure.

Self-Esteem
Esteem needs are ego needs or status needs. People develop a concern with
getting recognition, status, importance, and respect from others. Most humans have a
need to feel respected; this includes the need to have self-esteem and self-respect.
Esteem presents the typical human desire to be accepted and valued by others. People
often engage in a profession or hobby to gain recognition. These activities give the
person a sense of contribution or value. Low self-esteem or an inferiority complex may
result from imbalances during this level in the hierarchy. People with low self-esteem
often need respect from others; they may feel the need to seek fame or glory. However,
fame or glory will not help the person to build their self-esteem until they accept who
they are internally. Psychological imbalances such as depression can distract the
person from obtaining a higher level of self-esteem.
Most people have a need for stable self-respect and self-esteem. Maslow noted
two versions of esteem needs: a "lower" version and a "higher" version. The "lower"
version of esteem is the need for respect from others, and may include a need for
status, recognition, fame, prestige, and attention. The "higher" version manifests itself
as the need for self-respect, and can include a need for strength, competence, mastery,
self-confidence, independence, and freedom. This "higher" version takes guidelines, the
"hierarchies are interrelated rather than sharply separated".
Self-Actualization
"What a man can be, he must be." This quotation forms the basis of the
perceived need for self-actualization. This level of need refers to the realization of one's
full potential. Maslow describes this as the desire to accomplish everything that one
can, to become the most that one can be. Individuals perceive or focus on this need
very specifically. People may have a strong, particular desire to become an ideal parent,
succeed athletically, or create paintings, pictures, or inventions. Maslow believed that to
understand this level of need, the person must not only succeed in the previous needs
but master them. Self-actualization can be described as a value-based system when
discussing its role in motivation; self-actualization is understood as the goal - or explicit
motive, and the previous stages in Maslow's Hierarchy fall in line to become the step-
by-step process by which self-actualization is achievable; an explicit motive is the
objective of a reward-based system that is used to intrinsically drive completion of
certain values or goals. Individuals who are motivated to pursue this goal seek and
understand how their needs, relationships, and sense of self are expressed through
their behavior. Self-actualization can include: Partner Acquisition, Parenting, Utilizing
and Developing Talents and Abilities and Pursuing goals.
 Henry Sullivan
1892 – 1949

Transactional Analysis
(Interpersonal Theory)

Henry Stack-Sullivan, often known as Harry Stack-Sullivan, was born on

February 21, 1892, in Norwich, New York, to Irish immigrant parents. His childhood
experiences of social isolation likely fueled his interest in psychiatry.
After graduating from the Smyrna Union School, he attended Cornell University
for two years, starting in 1909. He earned his medical degree from the Chicago College
of Medicine and Surgery in 1917.
From 1925 to 1929, Stack-Sullivan worked at Sheppard Pratt Hospital, where he
treated schizophrenic patients with innovative and experimental methods. He was a co-
founder of the William Alanson White Institute and established the journal Psychiatry in
1937. He also served as the head of the Washington School of Psychiatry from 1936 to
1947. In 1940, he collaborated with Winifred Overholser to develop psychological
screening guidelines for U.S. military inductees.
Stack-Sullivan's influential writings include The Interpersonal Theory of
Psychiatry (1953), Conceptions of Modern Psychiatry (1947/1966), Schizophrenia as a
Human Process (1962), and Personal Pathology (1933/1972). Stack-Sullivan died on
January 14, 1949 in Paris, France.

INTERPERSONAL THEORY
Harry Stack-Sullivan is renowned for his Interpersonal Theory, which positions
him as the father of interpersonal psychiatry or interpersonal psychoanalysis. He
proposed that interpersonal relationships and social experiences are crucial in shaping
personality and that current life events significantly influence psychopathology.
According to this theory, the primary purpose of behavior is to meet needs through
interpersonal interactions and to reduce or avoid anxiety.
 Sullivan identified six developmental stages, referred to as ―epochs‖ or ―heuristic
stages‖ in development:

Sullivan also described three types of self: the ―good me,‖ the ―bad me,‖ and the
―not me.‖ The ―good me‖ and ―bad me‖ are shaped by social feedback, with anxiety
arising from negative evaluations. The ―not me‖ represents the unknown or repressed
aspects of the self.
In addressing anxiety, the self-system consists of the security operations
individuals use to manage anxiety and maintain self-esteem. These security operations
are strategies that help reduce anxiety and enhance a sense of security.
Sullivan's theory lays the groundwork for interpersonal psychotherapy,
particularly for treating depression and schizophrenia. It suggests that depression often
arises from adverse interpersonal events, especially experiences of loss. The theory
also provides insights into effective techniques for psychiatric interviews.

CONCLUSION
Harry Stack-Sullivan's Interpersonal Theory enhances nursing by emphasizing
the role of interpersonal relationships in patient care. It encourages nurses to consider
patients' backgrounds and current experiences, fostering trust and effective therapeutic
communication that allows patients to express their feelings.
Sullivan's developmental stages also guide nurses in tailoring care to meet
patients' specific needs. His concepts on managing anxiety and creating supportive
environments enhance patient security, while providing a foundation for interpersonal
psychotherapy to address mental health issues. Overall, the theory promotes a holistic
approach that improves patient outcomes.
 Ludwig
Von Bertalanffy
1901 – 1972

General Systems Theory

Ludwig von Bertalanffy, born in 1901 near Vienna, emerged as a prominent
figure in biology and philosophy. He was educated at home until age ten and later
attended grammar school, where he developed a strong foundation in self-directed
learning. Influenced by his neighbor, biologist Paul Kammerer, Bertalanffy initially
studied philosophy and art history before choosing biology, earning his PhD in 1926. He
focused on theoretical biology and received his habilitation in 1934, becoming a
Privatdozent at the University of Vienna.
Bertalanffy's career included various academic positions across Europe and
North America, marked by financial challenges and the need to navigate political
landscapes, particularly during the rise of Nazism. After the war, he left Vienna in 1948,
taking roles at several universities and institutions until his death in 1972. His work laid
the groundwork for the development of General Systems Theory, emphasizing the
interconnectedness of biological and social systems.

DEFINITION
A theory is a collection of related concepts that propose actions to guide practice.
General System Theory, developed by Ludwig Von Bertalanffy, provides a framework
for breaking down complex wholes into their constituent parts to understand how these
elements work together. This theory is also known by various names, including systems
theory, theory of open systems, systems model, and family systems theory.
 Emerging in the early 1930s, General System Theory attracted attention from
scholars across diverse disciplines, including chemistry, physics, and social sciences,
who found its concepts applicable to their fields. In psychiatry, it proved particularly
useful for conceptualizing personality development. Von Bertalanffy positioned General
System Theory as a universal approach that facilitates the examination of
interrelationships and the derivation of principles. It emphasizes the connections
between parts and describes how these components behave within a system.

GENERAL SYSTEMS THEORY

General Systems Theory encompasses purpose, content, and process, focusing
on breaking down a "whole" to analyze its individual components. It examines the
relationships between these parts to understand how they work together. A system
consists of distinct components that are interrelated, rely on one another, and share a
common purpose, collectively forming a cohesive whole.
Within this framework, "input" refers to the information that enters the system,
while "output" signifies the end products produced by the system. Additionally,
"feedback" is the process through which the output is returned to the system, enabling it
to adjust and improve based on the results generated. This cyclical interaction is crucial
for maintaining the system's function and coherence.

ASSUMPTIONS
1. All systems must be goal directed.
2. A system is more than the sum of its parts.
3. A system is ever changing and any change in one part affects the whole.
4. Boundaries are implicit and human systems are open and dynamic.

PRINCIPLES OF SYSTEMS APPROACH

1. A system is greater than the sum of its parts. Requires investigation of the
whole situation rather than one or two aspects of a problem. Mistakes
can’t be blamed on one person, rather a system analyst would investigate
how the mistake occurred within a subsystem and look for opportunities to
make corrections in the processes used.
 2. The portion of the world studied (system) must exhibit some predictability.
3. Though each sub-system is a self-contained unit, it is part of a wider and
higher order.
4. The central objective of a system can be identified by the fact that other
objectives will be sacrificed in order to attain the central objective.
5. Every system, living or mechanical, is an information system. Must
analyze how suitable the symbols used are for information transmission.
6. An open system and its environment are highly interrelated.
7. A highly complex system may have to be broken into subsystems so each
can be analyzed and understood before being reassembled into a whole.
8. A system consists of a set of objectives and their relationships.
9. A system is a dynamic network of interconnecting elements. A change in
only one of the elements must produce change in all the others.
10. When subsystems are arranged in a series, the output of one is the input
for another; therefore, process alterations in one require alterations in
other subsystems.
11. All systems tend toward equilibrium, which is a balance of various forces
within and outside of a system.
12. The boundary of a system can be redrawn at will by a system analyst.
13. To be viable, a system must be strongly goal-directed, governed by
feedback, and have the ability to adapt to changing circumstances.

Nursing Process as a System

 Kurt Lewin
1890 – 1947

Change Theory

Kurt Lewin was born on September 9, 1890. He joined the German army in 1914
and earned his PhD from the University of Berlin in 1916, completing his requirements
two years earlier. By 1921, he was a lecturer at the Psychological Institute at the
University of Berlin. In 1933, Lewin emigrated to the United States and became a
professor at the University of Iowa in 1935, where he published A Dynamic Theory of
Personality. In 1944, he established a research center at MIT. Lewin passed away at
the age of 56 from a heart attack on February 12, 1947.
Lewin's career was marked by his exploration of group dynamics and the
processes of social change. He is best known for developing the three-step change
model: unfreezing, change, and refreezing. This model emphasizes the importance of
preparing individuals for change, implementing new practices, and ensuring that these
changes are sustained over time. Throughout his career, Lewin held positions at several
prestigious institutions, including Cornell University, MIT, and Stanford University. His
contributions to action research and applied psychology have made him one of the most
influential psychologists of the 20th century, earning him recognition as a key figure in
understanding social behavior and organizational effectiveness.

CHANGE THEORY
The Change Theory of Nursing was developed by Kurt Lewin, who is considered
the father of social psychology. This theory is his most influential theory. He theorized a
three-stage model of change known as unfreezing-change-refreeze model that requires
prior learning to be rejected and replaced.
 Lewin’s definition of behavior in this model is ―a dynamic balance of forces
working in opposing directions.‖ The Change Theory has three major concepts: driving
forces, restraining forces, and equilibrium. Driving forces are those that push in a
direction that causes change to occur. They facilitate change because they push the
patient in a desired direction. They cause a shift in the equilibrium towards change.
Restraining forces are those forces that counter the driving forces. They hinder change
because they push the patient in the opposite direction. They cause a shift in the
equilibrium that opposes change. Equilibrium is a state of being where driving forces
equal restraining forces, and no change occurs. It can be raised or lowered by changes
that occur between the driving and restraining forces.

THREE STAGES
The three stages — Unfreezing, Change, and Refreezing — provide a structured
approach to facilitate successful transitions, ensuring that new behaviors and practices
are adopted and sustained.

1. Unfreezing
Unfreezing is the process which involves finding a method of making it possible for
people to let go of an old pattern that was somehow counterproductive. It is necessary
to overcome the strains of individual resistance and group conformity. There are three
methods that can lead to the achievement of unfreezing. The first is to increase the
driving forces that direct behavior away from the existing situation or status quo.
Second, decrease the restraining forces that negatively affect the movement from the
existing equilibrium. Thirdly, finding a combination of the first two methods.

2. Change
The change stage, which is also called ―moving to a new level‖ or ―movement,‖ involves
a process of change in thoughts, feeling, behavior, or all three, that is in some way more
liberating or more productive.

3. Refreezing
The refreezing stage is establishing the change as the new habit, so that it now
becomes the ―standard operating procedure.‖ Without this final stage, it can be easy for
the patient to go back to old habits.
MAJOR ASSUMPTIONS
1. People grow and change throughout their lives. This growth and change are
evident in the dynamic nature of basic human needs and how they are met.
2. Change happens daily. It is subtle, continuous and manifested in both everyday
occurrences and more disruptive life events.
3. Reactions to change are grounded in the basic human needs for self-esteem,
safety and security.
4. Change involves modification or alteration. It may be planned or unplanned.

SIX COMPONENTS
1. Recognition of the area where change is needed.
2. Analysis of a situation to determine what forces exist to maintain the situation
and what forces are working to change it.
3. Identification of methods by which change can occur.
4. Recognition of the influence of group mores aor customs on change.
5. Identification of the methods that the reference group uses to bring about
change.
6. The actual process of change.
 Erik Erikson
1902 – 1994

Psychosocial
Development

Erik Homburger Erikson (born Erik Salomonsen) was a German-American

developmental psychologist and psychoanalyst known for his theory on psychological
development of human beings. He may be most famous for coining the phrase identity
crisis. His son, Kai T. Erikson, is a noted American sociologist. Despite lacking a
bachelor's degree, Erikson served as a professor at prominent institutions, including
Harvard, University of California, Berkeley, and Yale. A Review of General Psychology
survey, published in 2002, ranked Erikson as the 12th most cited psychologist of the
20th century.
The development of identity seems to have been one of Erikson's greatest
concerns in his own life as well as being central to his theoretical work. As an older
adult, he wrote about his adolescent "identity confusion" in his European days. "My
identity confusion", he wrote "[was at times on] the borderline between neurosis and
adolescent psychosis." Erikson's daughter writes that her father's "real psychoanalytic
identity" was not established until he "replaced his stepfather's surname [Homburger]
with a name of his own invention [Erikson]." The change in last name occurred as he
started his job at Yale, and the "Erikson" name was accepted by Erik's family when they
became American citizens. It is said his children enjoyed the fact they would not be
called "Hamburger" any longer.
Erikson married Canadian-born American psychologist Joan in 1930 and they
remained together until his death. The Eriksons had four children, the eldest of whom is
the sociologist Kai T. Erikson. Jon Erikson. Their daughter, Sue Erikson Bloland, "an
integrative psychotherapist and psychoanalyst", described her father as plagued by
"lifelong feelings of personal inadequacy". He thought that by combining resources with
his wife, he could "achieve the recognition" that might produce a feeling of adequacy.
Their youngest son is Neil Erikson. Erikson died on 12 May 1994 in Harwich,
Massachusetts. He is buried in the First Congregational Church Cemetery in Harwich.
ERIKSON’S PSYCHOSOCIAL DEVELOPMENT
Much like Sigmund Freud, Erikson believed that personality developed in a
series of stages. Unlike Freud's theory of psychosexual stages, however, Erikson's
theory described the impact of social experience across the whole lifespan. Erikson was
interested in how social interaction and relationships played a role in the development
and growth of human beings.
Each stage in Erikson's theory builds on the preceding stages and paves the way
for following periods of development. In each stage, Erikson believed people experience
a conflict that serves as a turning point in development. In Erikson's view, these conflicts
are centered on either developing a psychological quality or failing to develop that
quality. During these times, the potential for personal growth is high but so is the
potential for failure. If people successfully deal with the conflict, they emerge from the
stage with psychological strengths that will serve them well for the rest of their lives.3 If
they fail to deal effectively with these conflicts, they may not develop the essential skills
needed for a strong sense of self.
Erikson also believed that a sense of competence motivates behaviors and
actions. Each stage in Erikson's theory is concerned with becoming competent in an
area of life. If the stage is handled well, the person will feel a sense of mastery, which is
sometimes referred to as ego strength or ego quality. If the stage is managed poorly,
the person will emerge with a sense of inadequacy in that aspect of development.

Stages of Psychosocial Development

Stage 1: Trust vs. Mistrust

The first stage of Erikson's theory of psychosocial development occurs between
birth and 1 year of age and is the most fundamental stage in life. Because an infant is
utterly dependent, developing trust is based on the dependability and quality of the
child's caregivers. At this point in development, the child is utterly dependent upon adult
caregivers for everything they need to survive including food, love, warmth, safety, and
nurturing. If a caregiver fails to provide adequate care and love, the child will come to
feel that they cannot trust or depend upon the adults in their life.

Outcomes
If a child successfully develops trust, the child will feel safe and secure in the
world.2 Caregivers who are inconsistent, emotionally unavailable, or rejecting contribute
to feelings of mistrust in the children under their care. Failure to develop trust will result
in fear and a belief that the world is inconsistent and unpredictable.
 During the first stage of psychosocial development, children develop a sense of
trust when caregivers provide reliability, care, and affection. A lack of this will lead to
mistrust. No child is going to develop a sense of 100% trust or 100% doubt. Erikson
believed that successful development was all about striking a balance between the two
opposing sides. When this happens, children acquire hope, which Erikson described as
an openness to experience tempered by some wariness that danger may be present.

Stage 2: Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt

The second stage of Erikson's theory of psychosocial development takes place
during early childhood and is focused on children developing a greater sense of
personal control. At this point in development, children are just starting to gain a little
independence. They are starting to perform basic actions on their own and making
simple decisions about what they prefer. By allowing kids to make choices and gain
control, parents and caregivers can help children develop a sense of autonomy.
Children need to develop a sense of personal control over physical skills and a
sense of independence. Potty training plays an important role in helping children
develop this sense of autonomy. Like Freud, Erikson believed that toilet training was a
vital part of this process. However, Erikson's reasoning was quite different than that of
Freud's. Erikson believed that learning to control one's bodily functions leads to a
feeling of control and a sense of independence. Other important events include gaining
more control over food choices, toy preferences, and clothing selection.

Outcomes
Children who struggle and who are shamed for their accidents may be left
without a sense of personal control. Success during this stage of psychosocial
development leads to feelings of autonomy; failure results in feelings of shame and
doubt. Children who successfully complete this stage feel secure and confident, while
those who do not are left with a sense of inadequacy and self-doubt. Erikson believed
that achieving a balance between autonomy and shame and doubt would lead to will,
which is the belief that children can act with intention, within reason and limits.

Stage 3: Initiative vs. Guilt

The third stage of psychosocial development takes place during the preschool
years. At this point in psychosocial development, children begin to assert their power
and control over the world through directing play and other social interactions. Children
who are successful at this stage feel capable and able to lead others. Those who fail to
acquire these skills are left with a sense of guilt, self-doubt, and lack of initiative.
Outcomes
The major theme of the third stage of psychosocial development is that children
need to begin asserting control and power over the environment. Success in this stage
leads to a sense of purpose. Children who try to exert too much power experience
disapproval, resulting in a sense of guilt. When an ideal balance of individual initiative
and a willingness to work with others is achieved, the ego quality known
as purpose emerges.

Stage 4: Industry vs. Inferiority

The fourth psychosocial stage takes place during the early school years from
approximately ages 5 to 11. Through social interactions, children begin to develop a
sense of pride in their accomplishments and abilities. Children need to cope with new
social and academic demands. Success leads to a sense of competence, while failure
results in feelings of inferiority.

Outcomes
Children who are encouraged and commended by parents and teachers develop
a feeling of competence and belief in their skills. Those who receive little or no
encouragement from parents, teachers, or peers will doubt their abilities to be
successful. Successfully finding a balance at this stage of psychosocial development
leads to the strength known as competence, in which children develop a belief in their
abilities to handle the tasks set before them.

Stage 5: Identity vs. Confusion

The fifth psychosocial stage takes place during the often-turbulent teenage
years. This stage plays an essential role in developing a sense of personal identity
which will continue to influence behavior and development for the rest of a person's life.
Teens need to develop a sense of self and personal identity. Success leads to an ability
to stay true to yourself, while failure leads to role confusion and a weak sense of self.
During adolescence, children explore their independence and develop a sense of
self.2 Those who receive proper encouragement and reinforcement through personal
exploration will emerge from this stage with a strong sense of self and feelings of
independence and control. Those who remain unsure of their beliefs and desires will
feel insecure and confused about themselves and the future.
When psychologists talk about identity, they are referring to all of the beliefs,
ideals, and values that help shape and guide a person's behavior. Completing this stage
successfully leads to fidelity, which Erikson described as an ability to live by society's
standards and expectations. While Erikson believed that each stage of psychosocial
development was important, he placed a particular emphasis on the development of
ego identity. Ego identity is the conscious sense of self that we develop through social
interaction and becomes a central focus during the identity versus confusion stage of
psychosocial development.
According to Erikson, our ego identity constantly changes due to new
experiences and information we acquire in our daily interactions with others. As we
have new experiences, we also take on challenges that can help or hinder the
development of identity.
Our personal identity gives each of us an integrated and cohesive sense of self
that endures through our lives. Our sense of personal identity is shaped by our
experiences and interactions with others, and it is this identity that helps guide our
actions, beliefs, and behaviors as we age.

Stage 6: Intimacy vs. Isolation

Young adults need to form intimate, loving relationships with other people.
Success leads to strong relationships, while failure results in loneliness and isolation.
This stage covers the period of early adulthood when people are exploring personal
relationships. Erikson believed it was vital that people develop close, committed
relationships with other people. Those who are successful at this step will form
relationships that are enduring and secure.
Remember that each step builds on skills learned in previous steps. Erikson
believed that a strong sense of personal identity was important for developing intimate
relationships. Studies have demonstrated that those with a poor sense of self tend to
have less committed relationships and are more likely to struggler with emotional
isolation, loneliness, and depression. Successful resolution of this stage results in the
virtue known as love. It is marked by the ability to form lasting, meaningful relationships
with other people.

Stage 7: Generativity vs. Stagnation

Adults need to create or nurture things that will outlast them, often by having
children or creating a positive change that benefits other people. Success leads to
feelings of usefulness and accomplishment, while failure results in shallow involvement
in the world. During adulthood, we continue to build our lives, focusing on our career
and family. Those who are successful during this phase will feel that they are
contributing to the world by being active in their home and community.2 Those who fail
to attain this skill will feel unproductive and uninvolved in the world.
 Care is the virtue achieved when this stage is handled successfully. Being proud
of your accomplishments, watching your children grow into adults, and developing a
sense of unity with your life partner are important accomplishments of this stage.

Stage 8: Integrity vs. Despair

The final psychosocial stage occurs during old age and is focused on reflecting
back on life. At this point in development, people look back on the events of their lives
and determine if they are happy with the life that they lived or if they regret the things
they did or didn't do. Erikson's theory differed from many others because it addressed
development throughout the entire lifespan, including old age. Older adults need to look
back on life and feel a sense of fulfillment. Success at this stage leads to feelings of
wisdom, while failure results in regret, bitterness, and despair.
At this stage, people reflect back on the events of their lives and take stock.
Those who look back on a life they feel was well-lived will feel satisfied and ready to
face the end of their lives with a sense of peace. Those who look back and only feel
regret will instead feel fearful that their lives will end without accomplishing the things
they feel they should have.

Outcomes
Those who are unsuccessful during this stage will feel that their life has been
wasted and may experience many regrets. The person will be left with feelings of
bitterness and despair. Those who feel proud of their accomplishments will feel a sense
of integrity. Successfully completing this phase means looking back with few regrets
and a general feeling of satisfaction. These individuals will attain wisdom, even when
confronting death.

STRENGTHS AND WEAKNESSES

Erikson's theory also has its limitations and attracts valid criticisms. What kinds of
experiences are necessary to successfully complete each stage? How does a person
move from one stage to the next?

Criticism
One major weakness of psychosocial theory is that the exact mechanisms for
resolving conflicts and moving from one stage to the next are not well described or
developed. The theory fails to detail exactly what type of experiences are necessary at
each stage in order to successfully resolve the conflicts and move to the next stage.
Support
One of the strengths of psychosocial theory is that it provides a broad framework
from which to view development throughout the entire lifespan. It also allows us to
emphasize the social nature of human beings and the important influence that social
relationships have on development. Researchers have found evidence supporting
Erikson's ideas about identity and have further identified different sub-stages of identity
formation.
 Jean Piaget
1896 – 1980

Cognitive
Development

Jean Piaget was a Swiss psychologist known for his work on child development.
Piaget's theory of cognitive development and epistemological view are together called
"genetic epistemology." Piaget placed great importance on the education of children. As
the Director of the International Bureau of Education, he declared in 1934 that "only
education is capable of saving our societies from possible collapse, whether violent, or
gradual." His theory of child development is studied in pre-service education programs.
Educators continue to incorporate constructivist-based strategies.
Piaget created the International Center for Genetic Epistemology in Geneva in
1955 while on the faculty of the University of Geneva and directed the Center until his
death in 1980. The number of collaborations that its founding made possible, and their
impact, ultimately led to the Center being referred to in the scholarly literature as
"Piaget's factory."
According to Ernst von Glasersfeld, Jean Piaget was "the great pioneer of the
constructivist theory of knowing." However, his ideas did not become widely popularized
until the 1960s. This then led to the emergence of the study of development as a major
sub-discipline in psychology. By the end of the 20th century, Piaget was second only to
B. F. Skinner as the most cited psychologist of that era.
Jean Piaget's theory of cognitive development suggests that children move
through four different stages of mental development. His theory focuses not only on
understanding how children acquire knowledge, but also on understanding the nature of
intelligence.
Piaget's stages are:
1. Sensorimotor stage: birth to 2 years
2. Preoperational stage: ages 2 to 7
3. Concrete operational stage: ages 7 to 11
4. Formal operational stage: ages 12 and up
 Piaget believed that children take an active role in the learning process, acting
much like little scientists as they perform experiments, make observations, and learn
about the world. As kids interact with the world around them, they continually add new
knowledge, build upon existing knowledge, and adapt previously held ideas to
accommodate new information.
Piaget was born in Switzerland in the late 1800s and was a precocious student,
publishing his first scientific paper when he was just 11 years old. His early exposure to
the intellectual development of children came when he worked as an assistant to Alfred
Binet and Theodore Simon as they worked to standardize their famous IQ test.
Much of Piaget's interest in the cognitive development of children was inspired by
his observations of his own nephew and daughter. These observations reinforced his
budding hypothesis that children's minds were not merely smaller versions of adult
minds. Up until this point in history, children were largely treated simply as smaller
versions of adults. Piaget was one of the first to identify that the way that children think
is different from the way adults think.
Instead, he proposed, intelligence is something that grows and develops through
a series of stages. Older children do not just think more quickly than younger children,
he suggested. Instead, there are both qualitative and quantitative differences between
the thinking of young children versus older children. Based on his observations, he
concluded that children were not less intelligent than adults, they simply think differently.
Albert Einstein called Piaget's discovery "so simple only a genius could have thought of
it." Piaget's stage theory describes the cognitive development of children. Cognitive
development involves changes in cognitive process and abilities. In Piaget's view, early
cognitive development involves processes based upon actions and later progresses to
changes in mental operations.

THE STAGES
The Sensorimotor Stage
Ages: Birth to 2 Years
Major Characteristics and Developmental Changes:
 The infant knows the world through their movements and sensations
 Children learn about the world through basic actions such as sucking,
grasping, looking, and listening
 Infants learn that things continue to exist even though they cannot be seen
(object permanence)
 They are separate beings from the people and objects around them
 They realize that their actions can cause things to happen in the world
around them
 During this earliest stage of cognitive development, infants and toddlers acquire
knowledge through sensory experiences and manipulating objects. A child's entire
experience at the earliest period of this stage occurs through basic reflexes, senses,
and motor responses. It is during the sensorimotor stage that children go through a
period of dramatic growth and learning. As kids interact with their environment, they are
continually making new discoveries about how the world works.
The cognitive development that occurs during this period takes place over a
relatively short period of time and involves a great deal of growth. Children not only
learn how to perform physical actions such as crawling and walking; they also learn a
great deal about language from the people with whom they interact. Piaget also broke
this stage down into a number of different substages. It is during the final part of the
sensorimotor stage that early representational thought emerges.
By learning that objects are separate and distinct entities and that they have an
existence of their own outside of individual perception, children are then able to begin to
attach names and words to objects.

The Preoperational Stage

Ages: 2 to 7 Years
Major Characteristics and Developmental Changes:
 Children begin to think symbolically and learn to use words and pictures to
represent objects.
 Children at this stage tend to be egocentric and struggle to see things from
the perspective of others.
 While they are getting better with language and thinking, they still tend to
think about things in very concrete terms.

The foundations of language development may have been laid during the
previous stage, but it is the emergence of language that is one of the major hallmarks of
the preoperational stage of development. Children become much more skilled at
pretend play during this stage of development, yet continue to think very concretely
about the world around them. At this stage, kids learn through pretend play but still
struggle with logic and taking the point of view of other people. They also often struggle
with understanding the idea of constancy. For example, a researcher might take a lump
of clay, divide it into two equal pieces, and then give a child the choice between two
pieces of clay to play with. One piece of clay is rolled into a compact ball while the other
is smashed into a flat pancake shape. Since the flat shape looks larger, the
preoperational child will likely choose that piece even though the two pieces are exactly
the same size.
The Concrete Operational Stage
Ages: 7 to 11 Years
Major Characteristics and Developmental Changes:
 During this stage, children begin to thinking logically about concrete events
 They begin to understand the concept of conservation; that the amount of
liquid in a short, wide cup is equal to that in a tall, skinny glass, for example
 Their thinking becomes more logical and organized, but still very concrete
 Children begin using inductive logic, or reasoning from specific information
to a general principle

While children are still very concrete and literal in their thinking at this point in
development, they become much more adept at using logic.2 The egocentrism of the
previous stage begins to disappear as kids become better at thinking about how other
people might view a situation. While thinking becomes much more logical during the
concrete operational state, it can also be very rigid. Kids at this point in development
tend to struggle with abstract and hypothetical concepts.
During this stage, children also become less egocentric and begin to think about
how other people might think and feel. Kids in the concrete operational stage also begin
to understand that their thoughts are unique to them and that not everyone else
necessarily shares their thoughts, feelings, and opinions.

The Formal Operational Stage

Ages: 12 and Up
Major Characteristics and Developmental Changes:
 At this stage, the adolescent or young adult begins to think abstractly and
reason about hypothetical problems
 Abstract thought emerges
 Teens begin to think more about moral, philosophical, ethical, social, and
political issues that require theoretical and abstract reasoning
 Begin to use deductive logic, or reasoning from a general principle to
specific information

The final stage of Piaget's theory involves an increase in logic, the ability to use
deductive reasoning, and an understanding of abstract ideas.3 At this point, people
become capable of seeing multiple potential solutions to problems and think more
scientifically about the world around them. The ability to thinking about abstract ideas
and situations is the key hallmark of the formal operational stage of cognitive
development.
 The ability to systematically plan for the future and reason about hypothetical
situations are also critical abilities that emerge during this stage. It is important to note
that Piaget did not view children's intellectual development as a quantitative process;
that is, kids do not just add more information and knowledge to their existing knowledge
as they get older. Instead, Piaget suggested that there is a qualitative change in how
children think as they gradually process through these four stages.4 A child at age 7
doesn't just have more information about the world than he did at age 2; there is a
fundamental change in how he thinks about the world.

CONCLUSION
One of the most important elements to remember of Piaget's theory is that it
takes the view that creating knowledge and intelligence is an inherently active process.
"I find myself opposed to the view of knowledge as a passive copy of reality," Piaget
explained. "I believe that knowing an object means acting upon it, constructing systems
of transformations that can be carried out on or with this object. Knowing reality means
constructing systems of transformations that correspond, more or less adequately, to
reality." Piaget's theory of cognitive development helped add to our understanding of
children's intellectual growth. It also stressed that children were not merely passive
recipients of knowledge. Instead, kids are constantly investigating and experimenting as
they build their understanding of how the world works.
 Lawrence Kohlberg
1927 – 1987

Moral Development

Lawrence Kohlberg was an American psychologist best known for his theory of
stages of moral development. He served as a professor in the Psychology Department
at the University of Chicago and at the Graduate School of Education at Harvard
University. Even though it was considered unusual in his era, he decided to study the
topic of moral judgment, extending Jean Piaget's account of children's moral
development from twenty-five years earlier. In fact, it took Kohlberg five years before he
was able to publish an article based on his views. Kohlberg's work reflected and
extended not only Piaget's findings but also the theories of philosophers George Herbert
Mead and James Mark Baldwin. At the same time he was creating a new field within
psychology: "moral development". In an empirical study using six criteria, such as
citations and recognition, Kohlberg was found to be the 30th most eminent psychologist
of the 20th century.
Lawrence Kohlberg was born in Bronxville, New York. He was the youngest of
four children of Alfred Kohlberg, a Jewish German entrepreneur, and of his second wife,
Charlotte Albrecht, a Christian German chemist. His parents separated when he was
four years old and divorced finally when he was fourteen. From 1933 to 1938, Lawrence
and his three other siblings rotated between their mother and father for six months at a
time. In 1938 this rotating custody of the Kohlberg children was ended, allowing the
children to choose the parent with whom they wanted to live. He enrolled at the
University of Chicago. At this time at Chicago it was possible to gain credit for courses
by examination, and Kohlberg earned his bachelor's degree in one year, 1948. He then
began study for his doctoral degree in psychology, which he completed at Chicago in
1958. Kohlberg found a scholarly approach that gave a central place to the individual's
reasoning in moral decision making. He held a visiting appointment at the Harvard
Graduate School of Education, and then was appointed Professor of Education and
Social Psychology there, beginning 1968, where he remained until his death.
Kohlberg’s Stages of Moral Development
Lawrence Kohlberg (1958) agreed with Piaget's (1932) theory of moral
development in principle but wanted to develop his ideas further. He used
Piaget’s storytelling technique to tell people stories involving moral dilemmas. In
each case, he presented a choice to be considered, for example, between the
rights of some authority and the needs of some deserving individual who is being
unfairly treated. One of the best known of Kohlberg’s (1958) stories concerns a
man called Heinz who lived somewhere in Europe.
“Heinz’s wife was dying from a particular type of cancer. Doctors said a
new drug might save her. The drug had been discovered by a local chemist, and
the Heinz tried desperately to buy some, but the chemist was charging ten times
the money it cost to make the drug, and this was much more than the Heinz
could afford. Heinz could only raise half the money, even after help from family
and friends. He explained to the chemist that his wife was dying and asked if he
could have the drug cheaper or pay the rest of the money later. The chemist
refused, saying that he had discovered the drug and was going to make money
from it. The husband was desperate to save his wife, so later that night he broke
into the chemist’s and stole the drug.”
Kohlberg asked a series of questions such as:
1. Should Heinz have stolen the drug?
2. Would it change anything if Heinz did not love his wife?
3. What if the person dying was a stranger, would it make any
difference?
4. Should the police arrest the chemist for murder if the woman died?

By studying the answers from children of different ages to these questions,

Kohlberg hoped to discover how moral reasoning changed as people grew older.
The sample comprised 72 Chicago boys aged 10–16 years, 58 of whom were
followed up at three-yearly intervals for 20 years (Kohlberg, 1984).
Each boy was given a 2-hour interview based on the ten dilemmas. What
Kohlberg was mainly interested in was not whether the boys judged the action
right or wrong, but the reasons given for the decision. He found that these
reasons tended to change as the children got older. He identified three distinct
levels of moral reasoning each with two sub-stages. People can only pass
through these levels in the order listed. Each new stage replaces the reasoning
typical of the earlier stage. Not everyone achieves all the stages.
Level 1 - Pre-conventional Morality
At the pre-conventional level (most nine-year-olds and younger, some over
nine), we don’t have a personal code of morality. Instead, our moral code is
shaped by the standards of adults and the consequences of following or breaking
their rules. Authority is outside the individual and reasoning is based on the
physical consequences of actions.
 Stage 1. Obedience and Punishment Orientation
The child/individual is good in order to avoid being punished. If a
person is punished, they must have done wrong.
 Stage 2. Individualism and Exchange
At this stage, children recognize that there is not just one right
view that is handed down by the authorities. Different individuals
have different viewpoints.

Level 2 - Conventional Morality

At the conventional level (most adolescents and adults), we begin to
internalize the moral standards of valued adult role models. Authority is
internalized but not questioned, and reasoning is based on the norms of the
group to which the person belongs.
 Stage 3. Good Interpersonal Relationships
The individual is good in order to be seen as being a good person
by others. Therefore, answers relate to the approval of others.
 Stage 4. Maintaining the Social Order
The child/individual becomes aware of the wider rules of society,
so judgments concern obeying the rules in order to uphold the
law and to avoid guilt.

Level 3 - Post-Conventional Morality

Individual judgment is based on self-chosen principles, and moral
reasoning is based on individual rights and justice. According to Kohlberg this
level of moral reasoning is as far as most people get. Only 10-15% is capable of
the kind of abstract thinking necessary for stage 5 or 6. That is to say, most
people take their moral views from those around them and only a minority thinks
through ethical principles for themselves.
 Stage 5. Social Contract and Individual Rights
The child/individual becomes aware that while rules/laws might
exist for the good of the greatest number, there are times when
they will work against the interest of particular individuals. The
issues are not always clear-cut. For example, in Heinz’s dilemma,
the protection of life is more important than breaking the law
against stealing.
 Stage 6. Universal Principles
People at this stage have developed their own set of moral
guidelines which may or may not fit the law. The principles apply
to everyone. E.g., human rights, justice, and equality. The person
will be prepared to act to defend these principles even if it means
going against the rest of society in the process and having to pay
the consequences of disapproval and or imprisonment. Kohlberg
doubted few people reached this stage.
 Sigmund Freud
1856 – 1939

Psychosexual
Development

Sigmund Freud was an Austrian neurologist and the founder of psychoanalysis, a

clinical method for treating psychopathology through dialogue between a patient and a
psychoanalyst. Freud was born to Galician Jewish parents in the Moravian town of
Freiberg, in the Austrian Empire. He qualified as a doctor of medicine in 1881 at the
University of Vienna. Upon completing his habilitation in 1885, he was appointed a
docent in neuropathology and became an affiliated professor in 1902. Freud lived and
worked in Vienna, having set up his clinical practice there in 1886. In 1938, Freud left
Austria to escape Nazi persecution. He died in exile in the United Kingdom in 1939.
In founding psychoanalysis, Freud developed therapeutic techniques such as the
use of free association and discovered transference, establishing its central role in the
analytic process. Freud's redefinition of sexuality to include its infantile forms led him to
formulate the Oedipus complex as the central tenet of psychoanalytical theory. His
analysis of dreams as wish-fulfillments provided him with models for the clinical analysis
of symptom formation and the underlying mechanisms of repression. On this basis
Freud elaborated his theory of the unconscious and went on to develop a model of
psychic structure comprising id, ego and super-ego. Freud postulated the existence
of libido, a sexualized energy with which mental processes and structures are invested
and which generates erotic attachments, and a death drive, the source of compulsive
repetition, hate, aggression and neurotic guilt.
Though in overall decline as a diagnostic and clinical practice, psychoanalysis
remains influential within psychology, psychiatry, and psychotherapy, and across
the humanities. It thus continues to generate extensive and highly contested debate
with regard to its therapeutic efficacy, its scientific status, and whether it advances or is
detrimental to the feminist cause. Freud's work has suffused contemporary Western
thought and popular culture. W. H. Auden's tribute to Freud describes him as having
created "a whole climate of opinion / under whom we conduct our different lives."
Psychosexual Development
In Freudian psychology, psychosexual development is a central element of the
psychoanalytic sexual drive theory. Freud believed that personality developed through a
series of childhood stages in which pleasure seeking energies from the id became
focused on certain erogenous areas. An erogenous zone is characterized as an area of
the body that is particularly sensitive to stimulation. The five psychosexual stages are
the oral, the anal, the phallic, the latent and the genital. The erogenous zone associated
with each stage serves as a source of pleasure. Being unsatisfied at any particular
stage can result in fixation. On the other hand, being satisfied can result in a healthy
personality. Sigmund Freud proposed that if the child experienced frustration at any of
the psychosexual developmental stages, they would experience anxiety that would
persist into adulthood as a neurosis, a functional mental disorder.
Sexual infantilism: in pursuing and satisfying their libido (sexual drive), the child
might experience failure (parental and societal disapproval) and thus might associate
anxiety with the given erogenous zone. To avoid anxiety, the child becomes fixated,
preoccupied with the psychologic themes related to the erogenous zone in question.
The fixation persists into adulthood and underlies the personality and psychopathology
of the individual. It may manifest as mental ailments such as neurosis, hysteria, female
hysteria, or personality disorder.

Oral Stage
Oral needs may be satisfied by thumb-sucking. The first stage of psychosexual
development is the oral stage, spanning from birth until the age of one year, wherein the
infant's mouth is the focus of libidinal gratification derived from the pleasure of feeding
at the mother's breast, and from the oral exploration of their environment, i.e. the
tendency to place objects in the mouth. The id dominates, because neither the ego nor
the super ego is yet fully developed, and, since the infant has no personality (identity),
every action is based upon the pleasure principle.
Nonetheless, the infantile ego is forming during the oral stage; two factors
contribute to its formation: (i) in developing a body image, they are discrete from the
external world, e.g. the child understands pain when it is applied to their body, thus
identifying the physical boundaries between body and environment; (ii) experiencing
delayed gratification leads to understanding that specific behaviors satisfy some needs,
e.g. crying gratifies certain needs.
Weaning is the key experience in the infant's oral stage of psychosexual
development, their first feeling of loss consequent to losing the physical intimacy of
feeding at mother's breast. Yet, weaning increases the infant's self-awareness that they
do not control the environment, and thus learns of delayed gratification, which leads to
the formation of the capacities for independence (awareness of the limits of the self)
and trust (behaviors leading to gratification). Yet, thwarting of the oral-stage — too
much or too little gratification of desire — might lead to an oral-stage fixation,
characterized by passivity, gullibility, immaturity, unrealistic optimism, which is
manifested in a manipulative personality consequent to ego malformation. In the case of
too much gratification, the child does not learn that they do not control the environment,
and that gratification is not always immediate, thereby forming an immature personality.
In the case of too little gratification, the infant might become passive upon learning that
gratification is not forthcoming, despite having produced the gratifying behavior.

Anal Stage
A boy with open-crotch pants and diaper. The second stage of psychosexual
development is the anal stage, spanning from the age of eighteen months to three years
wherein the infant's erogenous zone changes from the mouth (the upper digestive tract)
to the anus (the lower digestive tract), while the ego formation continues. Toilet training
is the child's key anal-stage experience, occurring at about the age of two years, and
results in conflict between the id (demanding immediate gratification) and the ego
(demanding delayed gratification) in eliminating bodily wastes, and handling related
activities (e.g. manipulating excrement, coping with parental demands). The style of
parenting influences the resolution of the id–ego conflict, which can be either gradual
and psychologically uneventful, or which can be sudden and psychologically traumatic.
The ideal resolution of the id–ego conflict is in the child's adjusting to moderate parental
demands that teach the value and importance of physical cleanliness and
environmental order, thus producing a self-controlled adult. Yet, if the parents make
immoderate demands of the child, by over-emphasizing toilet training, it might lead to
the development of a compulsive personality, a person too concerned with neatness
and order. If the child obeys the id, and the parents yield, they might develop a self-
indulgent personality characterized by personal slovenliness and environmental
disorder. If the parents respond to that, the child must comply, but might develop a
weak sense of self, because it was the parents' will, and not the child's ego, which
controlled the toilet training.

Phallic Stage
The third stage of psychosexual development is the phallic stage, spanning the
ages of three to six years, wherein the child's genitalia are his or her primary erogenous
zone. It is in this third infantile development stage that children become aware of their
bodies, the bodies of other children, and the bodies of their parents; they gratify physical
curiosity by undressing and exploring each other and their genitals, and so learn the
physical (sexual) differences between "male" and "female" and the gender differences
between "boy" and "girl". In the phallic stage, a boy's decisive psychosexual experience
is the Oedipus complex, his son–father competition for possession of mother. This
psychological complex derives from the 5th-century BC Greek mythologic character
Oedipus, who unwittingly killed his father, Laius, and sexually possessed his mother,
Jocasta. Analogously, in the phallic stage, a girl's decisive psychosexual experience is
the Electra complex, her daughter–mother competition for psychosexual possession of
father. This psychological complex derives from the 5th-century BC Greek mythologic
character Electra, who plotted matricidal revenge with Orestes, her brother, against
Clytemnestra, their mother, and Aegisthus, their stepfather, for their murder of
Agamemnon, their father, (cf. Electra, by Sophocles).
Initially, Freud equally applied the Oedipus complex to the psychosexual
development of boys and girls, but later developed the female aspects of the theory as
the feminine Oedipus attitude and the negative Oedipus complex; yet, it was his
student–collaborator, Carl Jung, who coined the term Electra complex in 1913.
Nonetheless, Freud rejected Jung's term as psychoanalytically inaccurate: "that what
we have said about the Oedipus complex applies with complete strictness to the male
child only, and that we are right in rejecting the term 'Electra complex', which seeks to
emphasize the analogy between the attitude of the two sexes."
Oedipus: Despite mother being the parent who primarily gratifies the child's
desires, the child begins forming a discrete sexual identity — "boy", "girl" — that alters
the dynamics of the parent and child relationship; the parents become the focus of
infantile libidinal energy. The boy focuses his libido (sexual desire) upon his mother, and
focuses jealousy and emotional rivalry against his father — because it is he who sleeps
with mother. To facilitate uniting him with his mother, the boy's id wants to kill father (as
did Oedipus), but the ego, pragmatically based upon the reality principle, knows that the
father is the stronger of the two males competing to possess the one female.
Nevertheless, the boy remains ambivalent about his father's place in the family, which is
manifested as fear of castration by the physically greater father; the fear is an irrational,
subconscious manifestation of the infantile Id.
Electra: Whereas boys develop castration anxiety, girls develop penis envy that
is rooted in anatomic fact: without a penis, she cannot sexually possess mother, as the
infantile id demands. As a result, the girl redirects her desire for sexual union upon
father; thus, she progresses towards heterosexual femininity that culminates in bearing
a child who replaces the absent penis. The girl's psychosexual development includes
transferring her primary erogenous zone from the infantile clitoris to the adult vagina.
Freud thus considered a girl's Oedipal conflict to be more emotionally intense than that
of a boy, potentially resulting in a submissive woman of insecure personality.
Latency Stage
The fourth stage of psychosexual development is the latency stage that spans
from the age of six years until puberty, wherein the child consolidates the character
habits they developed in the three, earlier stages of psychologic and sexual
development. Whether or not the child has successfully resolved the Oedipal conflict,
the instinctual drives of the id are inaccessible to the Ego, because their defense
mechanisms repressed them during the phallic stage. Hence, because said drives are
latent (hidden) and gratification is delayed — unlike during the preceding oral, anal, and
phallic stages — the child must derive the pleasure of gratification from secondary
process-thinking that directs the libidinal drives towards external activities, such as
schooling, friendships, hobbies, etc. Any neuroses established during the fourth, latent
stage, of psychosexual development might derive from the inadequate resolution either
of the Oedipus conflict or of the Ego's failure to direct his or her energies towards
socially acceptable activities.

Genital Stage
The fifth stage of psychosexual development is the genital stage that
spans puberty through adult life, and thus represents most of a person's life; its purpose
is the psychological detachment and independence from the parents. The genital stage
affords the person the ability to confront and resolve their remaining psychosexual
childhood conflicts. As in the phallic stage, the genital stage is centered upon the
genitalia, but the sexuality is consensual and adult, rather than solitary and infantile.
The psychological difference between the phallic and genital stages is that the ego is
established in the latter; the person's concern shifts from primary-drive gratification
(instinct) to applying secondary process-thinking to gratify desire symbolically and
intellectually by means of friendships, a love relationship, family and adult
responsibilities.

CONCLUSION
Sigmund Freud has greatly changed the perception of sex by incorporating the
psychological aspect into the sexuality. Psychosexual development theory elucidates
what really constitutes sexually right from when the child is born up to the puberty point
of maturity. This theory gives five sequential phases that a human being undergoes in
the course of sexual development. These phases are closely linked and dependent on
one another in the cumulative building up of the sexual and psychological development
and eventually the overall character of an individual. Psychosexual theory has
significantly changed the perception and the definition of sexuality in the modern world.