Special Senses

1. Vision
2. Hearing
3. Equilibrium
4. Olfaction
5. Taste
 The Ear: Hearing and Equilibrium
▪ Three parts - the inner, outer, and middle ear
o Outer & middle ear - involved with hearing
o Inner ear - both hearing and equilibrium
o Respond to separate stimuli
o Are activated independently

2
The Outer Ear

▪ A funnel for conducting vibrations to the tympanic membrane (eardrum)

▪ Auricle (pinna)

▪ Directs sound down the auditory canal

▪ Sound localization

▪ External auditory canal

▪ Directs sound to tympanic membrane

▪ Filled with cerumen (ear wax)

3
Middle Ear (Tympanic Cavity)
▪ Air-filled, mucosa-lined cavity in the mastoid region of the
temporal bone
o Volume = 2 ml
o Flanked laterally by the eardrum
o Flanked medially by the oval and
round windows
▪ Contain
o Tympanic membrane -Transfers sound energy to middle ear ossicles
o Pharyngotympanic tube/Eustachian tube
o Equalizes pressure in the middle ear with the external pressure
o Auditory ossicles (malleus, incus & stapes)
o Stapedius (smallest muscle) and
tensor tympani muscles
4
 Sound Amplification by Ossicles and TM
– Impedance (inertia) matching
Sound energy into mechanical vibration in fluid (acoustic resistance) by matching the
impedance/perilymph
1. Ossicles act as levers (increases pressure at stapes)
• Lever ratio (M vs. I) ~ 1.3:1 → a slight gain in force (1.3x)
2. The surface area of the oval window/stapes (3.2 mm2) smaller than TM (55 mm2)
• ~ 17:1 ratio
• The sound pressure at the oval window about 20 times greater than the pressure at the
tympanic membrane = sufficient to move the fluid in the inner ear.
Total an amplification of 1.3 x 17 = 22 db

5
Transmission of Sound to the Inner Ear

Figure 15.31 6
The middle ear muscles

Tensor tympani muscle is attached

to the malleus and is innervated by
the trigeminal nerve (V).
~ keep tympanic membrane tense

The stapedius muscle is attached to

the stapes and is supplied by the
facial nerve (VII).
7
The middle ear muscles - The Attenuation Reflex
• When the two muscles contract
in response to a moderate or loud
sound, the chain of ossicles
becomes much more rigid and
sound conduction to the inner ear
is greatly diminished

• Reduce the transmission of

sound to the inner ear and →
protect its delicate structures

•Cannot provide protection from sharp or sudden bursts of sound.

• Has latent period (40 – 80 ms)
8
•Adaptable (can’t work > 10 min)
Bone conduction

▪ Sound transmission can bypass the ossicular chain .

Ex. If a vibrating object, (tuning fork ) is placed against
a bone of the skull (the mastoid), the vibrations are
transmitted mechanically to the fluid of the inner ear –
normal hearing process occurs.
▪ Used as a means of diagnosing hearing disorders.
ex . Due to lesions in the ossicular chain.

9
 Inner Ear = labyrinth

▪ Fluid-filled cavity within the temporal bone

▪ Energy transduction by the mechanoreceptors takes place here
Bony labyrinth: vestibule, semicircular
canals and the cochlea.

Membranous labyrinth: filled

with endolymph surrounded by
perilymph

▪ Components :
▪ Vestibular apparatus = SCC, U , S
▪ has vestibular sensory receptors
▪ Auditory apparatus = Cochlea
10
▪ Contain sound sensory receptors
The Cochlea

▪ A spiral, conical, bony

chamber
▪ 35 mm long and 2 mm in
diameter.
▪ Contains the hearing
receptors - organ of Corti

The cochlea is divided into three

▪ At the base are two membrane-
chambers:
covered holes
Scala vestibuli
(oval & round windows) Scala media (Cochlear Duct)
Scala tympani
 The Cochlea – coiled bony tube
▪ Scala tympani
▪ Terminates at the round window/relieve pressure/.
• Scala vestibuli uncoiled cochlea

• The chamber that meets the oval window At the base of Apex
the cochlea Base
Oval window
• Scala media is closed off at the apex of the cochlea (= Stapes Helicotrema
Scala vestibuli
cochlear duct) round window
Basilar membrane
Scala tympani

The scalas tympani and vestibuli:

Are continuous with each other via the helicotrema
Are filled with perilymph w/c baths bottom of hair cells (ECF)

Scala media ~ filled with endolymph (ICF) and baths tops of hair
cells/organ of corti/BM
12
The Cochlea - membranes separate chamber
▪ Basilar membrane
▪ contain the organ of Corti/ auditory
receptor neurons = hair cells
▪ Tectorial membrane
▪ hanging over the organ of corti
▪ Stria vascularis
▪ vascular tissue /along the outer wall
of the scala media
▪ Secretes the endolymph (high K+)

Function of cochlea:
▪ Change mechanical vibrations in fluid into action potentials in the CN VIII.
▪ Sound vibrations created in the fluid cause movement of the basilar membrane = displacement of
hair cells

13
 Cochlear Fluid
K+ = 7mM; Na+ = 140mM~ CSF

• K+ = 150mM; Na+ = 1mM

Endocochlear/Endolymphatic Cochlear microphonic potential
▪ the endolymph - about 80mV more positive than the perilymph due to active
pump of K+ into endolymph (~ ICF) by straie vascularis = reabsorbs sodium
and secrets potassium against their concentration gradients
• RMP of hair cells ~ - 70 mv

• At the upper end of hair cell, potential difference b/n ICF and endolymph is 150 mV (70 + 80) [Enhances
cellular sensitive ~ slightest movement stimulates cell]
14
• ECP is resistant to ischemia or anesthesia than AP in auditory nerve.
Basilar membrane

▪ The stiffness & width of the membrane vary with its length
• Wider at the apex than at the base
• The stiffness decreases from the base to the apex
• The base is stiffer (~ high frequency).

15
 The Organ of Corti

▪ Is composed of
▪ supporting cells
▪ outer hair cells
▪ inner hair cells
▪ Contains the cell bodies CN VIII
▪ The stereocilia (hairs):
▪ strands link the free ends of the stereocilia together → the
bundle tends to move as a unit

16
Hair cells
▪ Inner hair cells Outer hair cells

− one row/about 3,000 Inner hair cell

− receive 95% of the afferent fibers

− Site of fine auditory transduction
▪ Outer hair cells Spiral ganglia cells

− three or four rows Auditory nerve

− about 15,000 – 20,000
− detecting the presence of sound.
− Receives 5% of the afferent fibers
− mainly receive efferent innervation from the olivary complex and are
concerned with modulating the function of inner hair cells.

The majority of information leaving the cochlea comes from the

inner hair cells. 17
Efferent innervations of the cochlea

Cochlear Tuning (Cochlear amplification)

Increases ability of cochlea to receive some sound frequencies
18
 Mechanical Transduction in the hair cells of the ear

▪ Sound causes hair cells to bounce and touch

tectorial membrane causing bending of the
steriocillia
▪ Bending cilia: to kinocilium
▪ Opens mechanically gated ion channels Mechanically Gated K+ Channel
▪ Causes a graded potential and the release
of a neurotransmitter (glutamate)
▪ The neurotransmitter causes cochlear fibers
to transmit impulses to the brain, where
sound is perceived

19
• When stereocilla bend in the direction of the tallest one, the increased tension on
stereocilla open the K+ channel more, more Ca2+ in, more neurotransmitter release,
increase the frequency of AP.
o The greater the intensity of sound, the greater the bending of the stereocilia.
• When stereocilia bend away from the tallest one, K+ channels close and the results are
opposite.
20
 Properties of Sound

Pitch
▪ Depend on perception of different
frequencies/Hz
▪ Sense of a sound as “high” or “low”
▪ We hear from 20–20,000 Hz (↓with age)
Loudness ~ intensity
▪ Amplitude [log of intensity]
▪ Subjective interpretation of sound intensity
(amplitude in decible/dB)

21
Properties of Sound

▪ 60 dB- normal conversation

▪ 130 dB- threshold of
discomfort
▪ 140 -160 dB- threshold of
pain

22
Tonotopic organization of Basilar membrane

▪ High frequency sounds cause maximal stimulation of basilar

membrane near base of cochlear/OW

Tonotopic organization of Basilar membrane

▪ Mapping of specific tones (pitches) to specific areas
▪ The response of the basilar membrane establishes a place
code/theory

▪ different locations of the membrane are maximally deformed at

different sound frequencies

▪ responsible for the neural coding of pitch 23

 Determination of loudness of sounds

Three ways
▪ Amplitude of vibrations of BM increases & hair cells produce impulses at rapid rate.

▪ Rise of quantity of excited hair cells. Loud sound stimulates also special high-threshold
hair cells.

▪ Outer hair cells become recruited at a significant rate (for very loud sound).
=========================
Cerebral cortex and MGB are responsible for localization of sound.

24
25
 Auditory Pathway to the Brain

▪ Impulses from the cochlea pass via the spiral ganglion to the
cochlear nuclei of upper medulla
▪ From there, impulses are sent to the:
o Superior olivary nucleus , trapezoid nucleus and via lateral
lemniscus to
o Inferior colliculus (auditory reflex center in the midbrain)
▪ From there, impulses pass to the auditory cortex via MGB
▪ Auditory pathways decussate (cross over) so that both cortices
(temporal lobe) receive input from both ears

26
Simplified Auditory Pathways: 4-6 order of neurons
First-order neurons
are the bipolar cells

commissure
Cochlear nuclei.
of Probst Second-order
neurons

Third-order neurons
superior olivary complex
lateral lemniscus
Fourth-order neurons
inferior colliculus,

Fifth-order neurons MGB

acoustic radiation,

27
29
 Binaural hearing ~ time/frequency/intensity

▪ It allows us to
(a) ‘map’ the sound in space,
(b) pick out soft sounds,
(c) pick out distant sound or speech and
(d) separate a single voice from surrounding background noise
▪ superior olivary nucleus/cortex

Removing the primary auditory cortex only on one side has little effect
on hearing because there are many cross-connections.
30
…Tonotopy
▪ Most neurons are frequency sensitive/characteristic frequency

▪ a spatial correlation between cells in the sensory organ and specific

locations in the primary auditory cortex: tonotopic organization
high frequency sounds – posterior ; low frequency sounds -
anterior
Auditory cortex: Perception of sound frequency (pitch discrimination), Judging the
intensity of the sound, Analysis of different properties of sound. 31
 Air vs. Bone conduction

▪ Air conduction pathway involves external ear canal,

middle ear, and inner ear
▪ Bone conduction pathway involves direct stimulation of
cochlea via vibration of the skull (cochlea is imbedded
in temporal bone)
▪ Reduced hearing may involve:
▪ Ossicles (air conduction loss)
▪ Cochlea or associated neural pathway (sensory neural loss)
Deafness: hearing loss

Conduction deafness
▪ Deafness due to conditions that interfere with
transmission of vibrations to inner ear
o impacted earwax
o perforated eardrum
o osteosclerosis of the ossicles
o fluid accumulation from ear infections
o oval window damage
▪ Hearing aids may be useful

33
Sensorineural deafness (“nerve deafness”)

▪ Caused by damage to the neural structures at any

point from the cochlear hair cells to the auditory
cortical cells
▪ Prolonged exposure to high amplitude sound.
▪ Hearing aids of little value

34
 Hearing Test: Rinne’s, Weber’s test, Audiometry.

Used together, these tests can

distinguish between the two
types of hearing loss.

A tuning fork with a frequency of

256 or 128 Hz is used.

35
Weber Test
Ring tuning fork (256 Hz) and place on center of
head. Ask subject where they hear the sound.

▪ Determines if hearing loss is only in one ear

Interpreting the test

Normally, the sound is heard in the center of the head or
equally in both ears. Which means equal hearing or equal
loss of hearing in both ears.

36
▪ If sensorineural loss is present in one ear
▪ the tone will be heard in the unaffected ear
▪ No tone in the ear with the sensorineural loss.

▪ If is conductive loss present

▪ the sound will be heard more strongly in
the ear in which there is hearing loss
(because there is no masking of air-conducted sounds in
the affected ear).

37
 Vestibular system: Sense of equilibrium
▪ Mechanisms of Equilibrium and Orientation
▪ Maintains our orientation and balance in space
▪ Provides information about position and movement of head & eye.
▪ Involves
o Vestibular apparatus
o Vestibular nuclei
o 2 sacs/otolith organ/vestibule
(utricle and saccule) and
the 3 semicircular canals

39
Vestibular apparatus/labyrinth
Superior

Posterior

Lateral

▪ The sense organs present in vestibular apparatus

▪ semicircular canal = crista
▪ utricle and saccule = macula
Gravitational pull and rotational movements are stimuli for
40
vestibular apparatus.
 The Vestibule/ otolith organ
▪ Central cavity of the bony labyrinth
suspended in perilymph
▪ Saccule and Utricle

▪ Respond to

▪ static equilibrium
▪ linear acceleration - change in velocity in a straight
line/vert/hori

▪ gravity and changes in the position of the head

Eg. elevator or tilting of the head.

41
Macula (proprioceptors)
▪ The sensory receptors for static equilibrium
(head position/tilting and linear acceleration)
and initiate postural reflexes.
▪ Each hair cell (also in cristae) has 50-70
moveable cillia(stereocilia) and one large
stiff cillia (kinocilium) embedded in the
otolithic membrane
o Otolithic membrane: jellylike mass studded
with tiny CaCO3 stones = otoliths (ear
stones/dust/otoconia/statoconia) = like crista
ampullaris (but not dome shaped.

Detect (1) Position of head with respect to gravity

and (2) linear acceleration 42
 Effect of Gravity on Utricular Receptor Cells

▪ Otolithic movement in the direction of the

kinocilia
o Depolarizes vestibular nerve fibers
o Increases the number of action
potentials generated

▪ Movement in the opposite direction:

oHyperpolarizes vestibular nerve fibers
oReduces the rate of impulse propagation

From this information, the brain is informed of the changing

position of the head - reticular, vestibular and cerebellar motor
systems excite the appropriate muscles to maintain proper
43
static equilibrium.
Maculae/otolith organ of Saccule and Utricle

oMacula of utricle lies in the horizontal plane/cillia are vertical.

oUtricular hairs respond to linear acc. On horizontal movement
and forward-backward tilt

… some hair cells are maximally stimulated while others maximally inhibited.
44
o Macula of saccule lies in the vertical plane/cilia are in horizontal.
oSaccular hairs respond to LA in vertical movement
o while climbing up, cilia downward/stimulate the hair cells.

45
 The Semicircular Cs: lateral/H, superior/A, posterior
▪ Sense head rotation (Flocculonodular~ also predictive).
▪ Three canals lie in three planes of space/90 degree /XYZ
▪ Membranous semicircular ducts line each canal and communicate with the utricle
by means of five openings (NB:Utricle opens into saccule).

▪ Each SCC works in concert with partner on other side where hair cells aligned
oppositely/respond in opposite direction (= 2HoSCCs, Sup SCCs with Pos SCCs)
The movement of two canals within a plane results in
information about the direction in which the head is
moving,

anterior canal of each side is in plane parallel to that of

the posterior canal of the opposite side, whereas horizontal
ampulla canals of both sides are in the same plane

and activation of all six canals can give a very precise

indication of head movement in three dimensions. 46
Ampulla
o the swollen end of each canal
o houses equilibrium receptors in a region/crista ampullaris.
o Cupula - gelatinous mass on top of crista enclosing hair cells.
o Inertia moves cupula away from direction of head movement.
o receptors respond to angular acceleration of the head

47
 Activating Crista Ampullaris Receptors

▪ Cristae respond to changes in velocity of rotatory movements of the head

(stimulated only at the start & end).
▪ When head rotates to the left, in the left Horizontal canal
▪ Cupula moves towards the right, hair cells
depolarize/endolymph/cupula to ampulla/ and rapid impulses reach the
brain at a faster rate.
▪ Cupula on the right Ho canal pushed away from kinocilium/utricle =
hyperpolarize.

▪ When head stops rotating, the fluid continues to move (in the direction of rotation) causing exactly the
opposite events, i.e. left horizontal canal to hyperpolarize and those in the right to depolarize.
▪ The result is that the brain is informed of rotational movements of the head.
= canal which increases its activity is on the side towards which the head is turning.
Semicircular Canals

▪ SCCs are insensitive to angular movement of constant velocity/only

detect changes in motion
▪ Generates a receptor potential which alters the firing rate in VIII CN
which projects to the vestibular nuclei
▪ Stimulation of semicircular canals/rotation is associated with
▪ Increased extensor tone
▪ Nystagmus = jerky to—fro/oscillatory movement of eyes
▪ Vestibulo-ocular reflex for visual fixation
 Balance and Orientation Pathways

▪ Three modes of input for balance and

orientation
o Vestibular receptors
o Visual receptors
o Somatic receptors
▪ These receptors allow our body to
respond reflexively.
▪ Anticipitory corrections
▪ works in close concert with
cerebellum flocculonodular lobe
50
Figure 15.38
Vestibular Projection Pathways: Five targets
1. Cerebellum – head and eye movements, muscle
tone, and posture

2. Nuclei of oculomotor, trochlear, and abducens

nerves (CN III, IV, and VI) to produce vestibulo-
ocular reflex – fixation

3. Reticular formation – adjust blood circulation &

breathing to postural changes

4. Spinal cord – descend through two

vestibulospinal tracts of spinal cord and innervate
extensor (antigravity) muscles

5. Thalamus - thalamic relay to cerebral cortex for

awareness of position

51
Vertigo

▪ Disorders of vestibular function/Illusion of motion occurs.

▪ It is either an exaggerated sense of motion when there is no
motion or motion in response to a given bodily movement.
▪ Persons with vertigo frequently describe a sensation of spinning or
tumbling, a “to-and-fro” motion, or falling forward or backward.

Otitis media
▪ Inflammation of middle ear segment.
▪ Buildup of fluid and frequently causes an earache. The fluid may or
may not be infected.
Motion Sickness

▪ The endolymph in the SCC becomes 'stirred up', causing

confusion between the difference between apparent
perceived movement (none or very little), and actual
movement
▪ A form of normal physiologic vertigo.
▪ Caused by repeated rhythmic stimulation of vestibular system
▪ E.g. in car, air, or boat travel.
▪ The principal symptoms - Vertigo, malaise, nausea, and vomiting.
Autonomic signs
▪ Lowered blood pressure, tachycardia, and excessive sweating
▪ Usually resolves after the vestibular system becomes accustomed
to the stationary influence of being back on land.
53
 Special Senses

1. Vision
2. Hearing
3. Equilibrium
4. Olfaction
CHEMORECEPTION
5. Taste
Chemical Senses

▪ Chemical senses/Exteroceptive
o Gustation (taste) and Olfaction (smell)
▪ Chemoreceptors respond to chemicals in aqueous solution
o Taste – to substances dissolved in saliva
o Smell – to substances dissolved in fluids of the nasal cavity

55
Taste – Gustation

▪ Physiological Significance
o Selection of food and mates
▪ Organs of taste - Taste Buds
o > 10,000 (50 – 70 micron) [each receive ~ 50 nerves and each
nerve receives signal ~ 5 taste buds]

o Most are on papilla of the tongue(lingual papillae )

o Also inside cheeks, palate, pharynx, and epiglottis
▪ Replaced every 7 - 10 days
[Contact with the afferent neuron converts an epithelial cell into a taste
cell. Conversely, nerve transection causes disappearance of taste cells]56
 Taste Buds

▪ Filiform papillae/mechanical
▪ No taste buds
▪ food texture/for chewing
▪ Foliate papillae
▪ Lateral side/numerous taste
buds/children
▪ weakly developed in humans
▪ Fungiform papillae (8-10 taste buds)
▪ at tips and sides of tongue
▪ Vallate (circumvallate, 200)
▪ at rear of tongue (V shaped)
▪ contains 1/2 of all taste buds
================ 57
Children > Adults (in number)
Anatomy of a Taste Bud

Is cluster of 40 – 60 taste cells+others

▪ Supporting cells (type )
− insulate the receptor
▪ Basal cells
− stem cells that
divide and differentiate
into new gustatory cells
(every 7 to 10 days )
▪ Gustatory cells /hair cells
▪ taste cells (type III)
− have tuft of apical microvilli (taste hairs)
• receptor surface for taste molecules –
− taste pores – pit in which the taste hairs project

58
Taste Sensations
▪ Five basic/primary taste Modalities [all taste sensations are assumed to result
from various combinations of these four primaries].
1. Sweet – organic (sugars, saccharin, alcohol, some aminoacids, lead)
2. Salty – metal ions/ionized salts eg. Mainly Na+
3. Sour – hydrogen ions/acids
4. Bitter – alkaloids (quinine, caffeine, morphine, bile salts,
salts of Ca, Mg, NH4) - lowest threshold/protective.
5. Umami – “beef taste”/delicious ~ Asian food
− elicited by glutamate, monosodium glutamate.
Other modalities that affect taste ~ we can perceive 100 variants
• Temperature (flavor)
• texture
• Pain (ginger)
59
Thresholds: highly individual and concentration dependent (e.g. taste blind).
Taste Sensations

▪ Regional differences in taste

sensations on tongue
− tip is most sensitive to sweet,
− Edges/front half to salt
− Edge/posterior half to sour
− rear to bitter

60
 Physiology of Taste

▪ In order to be tasted, a chemical:

▪ Must be dissolved in saliva
▪ Must contact gustatory cells
▪ Binding of the food chemical:
▪ Depolarizes the taste cell membrane, releasing
neurotransmitter
▪ Initiates a generator potential that elicits an AP

If I have a cold, food may not taste as good to me because

Papilla become blocked by mucus and are unable to function
 Taste Transduction

Two mechanisms of action

1. Activate 2nd messenger systems
▪ Sweet, bitter and Umami tastes
▪ sugars, alkaloids, and glutamate bind to receptors
which activates G proteins (gustducin) and second-
messenger
2. Depolarize cells directly
▪ Na+ influx in salty tastes
▪ H+ in sour tastes
62
Taste cells release ATP and serotonin to activate Nerves VII, IX and X
63
1. Directly pass through ion channels - salt and sour

64
2. Bind to and block ion channels - bitter

65
3. Bind to and open ion channels - some aa

66
4. Bind to membrane receptors that activate second
messenger systems - sweet

67
Encoding

▪ Each nerve fibre in the gustatory nerves responds to more

than one taste stimulus.

▪ However, each fibre responds best to one of the four primary

taste qualities.

= the coding of a gustatory sensation is not a simple, labeled-

line/ depends on the pattern of the nerves activated by a
particular stimulus.

68
 Gustatory Pathway

▪ First order neurons

• Facial nerves (VII/tensor tympani br.)
o anterior two-thirds of tongue
• Glossopharyngeal nerve (IX)
o posterior 1/3rd of tongue
• vagus nerve (X)
o epiglottis and the lower pharynx
▪ All fibers reach tractus solitary nucleus (NTS)

▪ Thalamus (VPM)

▪ Postcentral gyrus of parietal cortex

69
Gustatory Pathway

▪ Thalamus

▪ Gustatory cortex
−parietal lobes (conscious sense)
−orbitofrontal cortex to be
integrated with signals from
nose and eyes - form
impression of flavor and
palatability of food
▪ Hypothalamus and limbic system
−control autonomic reflexes

70
Tactile/temperature receptors of the mouth/tongue/pharynx are innervated by CN III.
 Olfaction –The sense of smell

▪ Significances
▪ Contributes to our emotional life/mating
▪ Call up memories.
▪ Helps us avoid consuming spoiled food
▪ Lets us detect dangerous situations

71
 Olfaction –The sense of smell

▪ Olfactory chemoreceptors
− located in the olfactory mucosa / olfactory epithelium
osuperior concha, nasal septum, roof of nasal cavity
−Area -2.5 - 5 cm2 (miscrosomatic)
−Contains 10 to 20 million cells
−Short life span – 40 days
oOlfactory neurons
oSupporting cells
oBasal stem cells
Primary smell sensations ?:~50 Camphoraceous, Musky,
Floral, Pepperminty, Ethereal, Pungent, Putrid…
72
 Olfaction –The sense of smell

1. Olfactory receptor neurons

▪ Site of Olfactory transduction
▪ Replaced every 4 -8 wks by basal cells
▪ The only? neuron that can be replaced in adult.
▪ Head bears 10 – 20 non motile cilia = olfactory hairs
▪ No rhythmic ciliary beating
▪ Yellowish brown pigment
▪ Have binding sites for odorant molecules
2. Basal cells – source of new receptor neurons
3. Supporting cells - similar to glia and produce mucus

73
Figure 15.3
Physiology of Smell
▪ Olfactory mucosa is not directly exposed to the flow inspired air
▪ Odorant molecules come in contact with the olfacory mucosa by diffusion or
sniffing/EDDY CURRENT (Lipid soluble/volatile).
▪ 2000 to 4000 odors distinguished
▪ Some odorants act on nociceptors (irritants) - General sensory nerves/trigeminal
nerve (e.g. ammonia).
▪ Odorants bind with receptor proteins on the hair cells of olfactory neurons
/Bipolar cell - Special sensory nerves

Receptors present in the vomeronasal organ are concerned with the perception of
odor that emanates from the pheromones and foodstuffs and are thus related to
food and sex behavior of the animals.
74
Activation of G protein mechanism - uses cAMP
cAMP acts directly on PM/ Na+, K+ & Ca2+ channels
Ca++ influx causes Ca++-activated Cl- channels/efflux
Depolarization of the receptor membrane that then triggers an action potential (RMP ~ -55 mv to
-30 mv) ~ electro-olfactogram

75
Olfactory Transduction Process

▪ An individual receptor responds to many odors.

▪ No two receptor cells have identical responses.
= discrimination is based on the pattern of receptors activated.

Olfactory cells adapt to 50% in one second after stimulation 76

 Olfactory Pathway: ORC –ON-OB-OT-OAreas

▪ Axons of each olfactory cell collect into small fascicles and

leave cranial cavity through the cribriform foramina in the
ethmoid bone.
▪ Olfactory receptor cells synapse with 2nd order (25 mitral and
60 Tufted cells) in the Glomeruli – CN I
( in the olfactory bulb)
o Mitral cells process odor signals
o Each glomeruli dedicated to single odor periglomerular
cells- lateral inhibition
▪ Impulses pass through olfactory tracts in to the brain –
NB: Newer pathways- passes through the thalamus/DMNT(conscious analysis)

Irritative character of some odorants results from stimulation of 77

the free nerve endings of the trigeminal nerve.
Olfactory Pathway
▪ Olfactory tract reach directly
primary olfactory cortex
▪ inferior surface of the
temporal lobe (limbic part)
▪ Secondary destinations
▪ hippocampus, amygdala,
hypothalamus, insula, and
(via thalamus)orbitofrontal
cortex (more on right
cortex– asymmetry)
o Conscious discrimination
orbitofrontal c., better @right cortex)
o integrate smell with taste
o perceive flavor
o evoke memories and emotional
responses (amygdala)
o visceral reactions
o Olfactory memories (via entorhinal c.) 78
 (very old olfactory area)
feeding responses caused by
smell of food.

limbic system

learning of likes and dislikes of certain

(old olfactory area) foods 79
80
Sense of Smell

▪ Anosmias - the absence of the sense of smell

▪ Causes
▪ head injuries/tumors that tear the olfactory nerves,
▪ inflammation of nasal cavity
▪ aging.
▪ Hyperosmia - increased sense of smell.
One-third of all cases of chemical olfactory sense loss
is due to a deficiency of the mineral zinc. 81
The Integumentary System
 Functions of the Integumentary System

▪ Protection (Primary role!)

▪ Physical barrier/ waterproof (loosely placed =resist mechanical blow)
▪ Chemical barrier/ UV/melanin, cold, bacteria/lysozyme
▪ Biological (immune, wound healing)
▪ Metabolic/synthetic (Vit D).
▪ Storage (fat, water, sugar, blood)
o Venous plexuses beneath the skin store blood.
▪ Thermoregulation (wet and dry methods).
o Arteriovenous anastomosis (shunt or thoroughfare vessels), low-resistance connections
between the arterioles and veins, bypassing the capillaries.
▪ Sensory (the largest sense organ)
o Touch, pain, temperature, pressure
▪ Secretory (sweat and sebum)
▪ Absorption (certain fat soluble
substances and some ointments).
▪ Excretion (little urea, salt, fatty substance)
o regulates water & electrolyte balance
• The Integument
Wrinkling of skin in aging due to decreased elasticity,
• 16% of body weight increased thinning of epidermis and dermis and decreased
subcutaneous fat is the hallmark of ageing.
• 1.5 to 2 m2 in area

• Thickness: Average ~ 1-2 mm;

Palm, foot, interscapular region ~ 5 mm;

Eyelid and penis ~ 0.5mm

• The integument is made up of

1. Cutaneous membrane (skin):

2. Accessory structures
• A fatty layer (hypodermis) lies deep to the two distinct regions

Epidermis and Dermis

• Two Components of the Cutaneous Membrane
1. Outer epidermis
▪ Avascular/Nutrients and oxygen
diffuse from capillaries in the dermis
2. Inner dermis

The skin is anchored to the underlying tissue (muscle or bone) by the hypodermis or
subcutaneous tissue, a loose layer of connective tissue. Most fat cells (lipocytes) are housed
within the hypodermis. These fat deposits throughout the body are collectively referred to as
adipose tissue ~ endocrine organ/leptin, buoyancy, energy storehouse
The Hypodermis (Subcutaneous Layer or “superficial fascia”)

▪ Lies below the integument

▪ Stabilizes the skin
▪ Made of elastic areolar and adipose tissues
▪ Connected to the reticular layer
by connective tissue fibers
▪ Few capillaries and no vital organs
▪ The site of subcutaneous injections using hypodermic needles
▪ Deposits of Subcutaneous Fat
o Distribution patterns determined by hormones (male vs. female)
1. Epidermis (outer) - Keratinized stratified squamous epithelium
(a) Stratum corneum (Outermost – cornified/horny layer) ~ UV light
▪ ~ dead cells (corneocytes)//lose their nuclei due to pressure and dead.
▪ Cytoplasm contains keratin, phospholipids and glycogen.
(b) Stratum lucidum.
▪ Have flat shiny epithelial cells, some without nucleus.
(c) Stratum granulosum.
▪ ~2 to 5 layers of flattened rhomboid cells/granular.
▪ Contains keratohyalin granules (precursor of keratin).

Stratum germinativum/basal.
▪ Thick layer consisting of polygonal cells superficially and cuboidal or columnar cells in
deeper parts (mitosis - newly formed cells move towards stratum corneum).
▪ Provide anchoring and nutrition and contain melanin ~ color of the skin.
(e) Stratum spinosum (squamous, prickle cell layer).
▪ Possess spine-like projections by which they are connected to each other.
 Cells of the Epidermis
• Keratinocytes (80%, the most abundant) Newly formed cells in the stratum basale
• Large amounts of keratin/defensin undergo keratinazation as they are pushed to
(waterproof); filaments/desmosomes
the surface/slough off (4 weeks/< in injury).
• Generate hair and nails
maturation resulting in cell death is known
• Secrete interleukin 1 (maturation of T cells)
as terminal differentiation
• Specialized Cells of Stratum Basale
Langerhans cells – macrophage-likec
dendritic cells (APC)
Merkel cells: Found in hairless skin
(sensory, respond to touch)
Melanocytes: Contain the pigment melanin (scattered throughout stratum basale)
Granstein cells: seem to act as a “brake” on skinactivated immune responses [plus
transient T lymphocytes].
Function of Melanocytes Activation of Vitamin D

• Melanin protects skin from sun damage

• Ultraviolet (UV) radiation - burns that lead to Vitamin D3
cancer and wrinkles (Vit D???)
• Epidermal cells produce
• Skin color depends on melanin production, not
number of melanocytes cholecalciferol

• Capillaries and Skin Color • In the presence of UV

radiation
• Oxygenated red blood contributes to skin color
• Liver and kidneys
• Blood vessels dilate from heat, skin reddens convert vitamin D into
• Blood flow decreases, skin pales calcitriol
• Cyanosis • Aids absorption of
• Bluish skin /severe reduction in blood flow or calcium and
oxygenation phosphorus
2. Inner dermis - [collagen fibers, fibroblasts, histiocytes]

a. Superficial papillary layer.

▪ Projects into the epidermis.
▪ Blood vessels, lymphatic vessels and nerve fibers.
▪ Chromatophores which are pigment containing cells.
b. Deeper reticular layer.
▪ Made up of reticular and elastic fibers which are found around hair bulbs,
sweat glands, sebaceous glands.
▪ Hair bulbs are present in dermis; from here, hair come out which partly
remains in epidermis and rest shoots out from the skin.
Q. What must be the case for a drug to be administered transdermally?
Epidermal Growth Factor (EGF)
o Powerful peptide growth factor
o Produced by glands (salivary and duodenum)
• Functions of EGF

o Promotes division of germinative cells

o Accelerates keratin production
o Stimulates epidermal repair
o Stimulates glandular secretion
Dermis
▪ Rich supply of nerves and vessels

▪ Critical role in thermoregulation (vessels)

▪ Strong, flexible connective tissue:

Cells: fibroblasts, macrophages, mast

cells, WBCs

▪ Fiber types: collagen, elastic, reticular

▪ Two layers

o Papillary (fingerprint, footprint)

o Reticular
Mast cells
▪ Derived from bone marrow and distributed in connective tissues throughout the body.
o Type I or connective tissue mast cells are located in the dermis and submucosa.
(abnormal proliferation migration and failure of apoptosis)
o Type II or mucosal mast cells are located in the mucosa of respiratory tract and GIT.

▪ Numerous around blood vessels, especially postcapillary venules containing histamine,

heparin, serine proteinases, and certain cytokines
o Upon binding IgE, produces an inflammatory response
o allergy, parasitic diseases, atherosclerosis, athma, pulmonary fibrosis, and arthritis
Dermal Strength and Elasticity: 2 factors
Stretch marks
• Thickened tissue resulting
1. Collagen fibers from excessive stretching of
▪ ~ 70 % skin’s dry weight skin due to: Pregnancy/
▪ Very strong, resist stretching but bend easily Weight gain

▪ Provide flexibility (constant flux/collagenases) Sagging and wrinkles

▪ Reduced skin elasticity
2. Elastic fibers caused by:
• Dehydration
▪ Permit stretching and then recoil to original length
▪ Limit the flexibility of collagen fibers to • Age, hormonal changes
prevent damage to tissue • UV exposure
Skin Appendages/accessory structures
Hair, Hair Follicles, Sebaceous Glands, Sweat Glands, and Nails

• Derived from embryonic epidermis - Located in dermis -Project through the skin surface

Hair - The human body is covered with hair, except palms, soles, lips
• Portions of external genitalia • Protects and insulates (eyes,nostril,scalp)
• Is sensitive to very light touch
• Color ~ amount of melanosomes/melanin (genes, Africans>>, aging/graying<<)
• Growth (2mm/week, programmed & multifactorial; vellus vs. terminal)
• White hair results from the accumulation of air bubbles

Abnormal thyroid hormone can lead to hair loss and abnormal nail formation.
 Hair growth cell cycle: Composed of three stages:
a. Anagen ~ Active growing stage (~ 0.33 mm/day)
▪ Lasts 3 – 5 years but decreases with aging and alopecia

b. Catagen ~ Club hair (Apoptosis-driven regression/transition)

▪ Lasts about 2 weeks

c. Telogen ~ Pushed by growing anagen hair shaft/dormant follicle

▪ Resting phase (~ 3 – 5 months on scalp)
▪ Prolonged during pregnancy and increased scalp hair in analgen phase
▪ After delivery, telogen hairs lost within 5 -6 months. And Analgen hairs changed to
telogen hairs – Telogen affluvium
▪ Later, re-growth follows

Requirements:
▪ GH, T3/T4, glucocorticoids, IGF1, FGF7,Estrogen, prolactin, retinoids.
▪ T/DHT: beard (miniaturization of follicles later = androgenetic alopecia/male pattern baldness)
Accessory Structures of Hair

1. Hair Follicle (~ 5 mill)

▪ Located deep in dermis
▪ Produces nonliving hairs
▪ Base is surrounded by sensory
nerves (root hair plexus)

2. Arrector pilli
▪ Involuntary smooth muscle
▪ Causes hair to stand up/erect
▪ Produce ‘goose bumps’.
 3. Exocrine glands
3a. Sebaceous glands (holocrine; ~ 2 million)
• Open into hair follicle or directly to exterior (glans penis, labia minora, face, lips, nipple)
• Secretes sebum (oily – wax, paraffin, FFA)
• Scalp - lubricate the hair; smooth skin (no dryness; less friction e.g.. During birth)
• Anti-bacteria/fungi (FFAs)
• Prevent heat loss
• Inactive but activated suddenly at puberty due to the increased secretion of sex hormones
(dehydroepiandrosterone)
• Overactivity– acne vulgaris/pimples on face, chest and back (disappear later).
 3b. Sweat Glands (~ 4 mill)
▪ Apocrine glands and Merocrine (eccrine) glands = Watery secretions

Apocrine Sweat Glands Merocrine (Eccrine, Sudiferouse) Sweat Gl.

▪ Found in armpits, around nipples, ▪ Widely distributed on body surface
umbilicus and pubic region. ▪ Especially on palms and soles (thick skin)
▪ Start at puberty ▪ Coiled, tubular glands
▪ Secrete products into hair follicles ▪ Discharge directly onto skin surface
▪ Produce thick, sticky, cloudy=cold sweat) ▪ Sensible perspiration
▪ No role in thermoregulation (rich in oily substances that prevents evaporation
▪ Microbial break down causes odors of water from the skin).
(axillary hyperhidrosis) • Activated by sympathetic postganglionic
▪ Surrounded by myoepithelial cells cholinergic nerve fibers [works with CVS]
o Squeeze gland secretions onto skin • Water (98%), salts, lactate, urea/organic comp.
o Less role in human beings o Cools skin
o Emotions (sympathetic adrenergic+ o Excretes water and electrolytes
adrenomedullary hormones) o Flushes microbs, chemicals from skin
 Other Integumentary Glands
Nails
Mammary glands
• Protect fingers and toes, grasping
▪ Produce milk
• Made of dead cells packed with keratin
Ceruminous glands • Nail production occurs in a deep epidermal
▪ Produce cerumen
fold near the bone called the nail root
(cerumen+sebum=earwax)
• As the cells comes out, are dead
▪ Protect the eardrum
• Fingernails grow ~ 0.1 mm per day (2-3x faster
than toenail).

• Metabolic disorders can change nail structure

 Cutaneous Innervation
• Nerve fibers in skin control blood flow, gland
secretions

• Sensory receptors
• Light touch—tactile/Meissner
corpuscles, located in dermal papillae
• Deep pressure and vibration—
lamellated/Pacinian corpuscles, in the
reticular layer
• Also pain and thermoreceptors
▪ Vasoconstriction is regulated by the postganglionic adrenergic fibers that regulates the
apocrine gland secretions and the contraction of AP muscles of hair follicles.
▪ Eccrine sweat secretions are mediated by cholinergic fibers
 Cutaneous Musculature
▪ Smooth muscle
o AP, tunica dartos of the external genitals, and the areolas around the nipples.
o AP are located in the upper dermis and attached to the hair follicle below the
sebaceous glands.
o when contracted, the hair follicle is pulled into a vertical position, deforming the skin
(gooseflesh).
o Glomus bodies are specialized aggregates of smooth muscle found between the arterioles
and venules
✓ Exist on the digits and lateral aspects of the palms and soles (thermoregulation and
shunt blood).

▪ Skeletal muscle
o Neck as platysma and also face as
muscle of expression - superficial
muscular aponeurotic system
Cutaneous/Dermal Circulation: Superficial & lower plexus

• Cutaneous plexus: network of arteries in the

reticular layer
• Papillary plexus: Capillary network from small
arteries/papillary layer
• Venous plexus: Capillary return deep to the
papillary plexus
Contusion
• Damage to blood vessels resulting
in “black-and-blue” bruising
 Cutaneous Circulation…
Purpose: thermoregulation but has little O2 consumption, i.e. only 0.3 ml/min/100 g and is
predominantly regulated by the nervous control (pre-optic anterior hypothalamus)
instead of metabolic control.
o Vasodilation and increased skin blood flow, with sweating to heat dissipation during heat
exposure and exercise.
o During exposure to cold, vasoconstriction in the skin decreases heat loss from the body to
prevent hypothermia.
o Impairments in cutaneous vascular control
o Heat stroke in Type II DM patients
o Hot flushes in menopausal women
Triple response: local normal reaction to injury
▪ Is a three-part response, consisting of the red reaction, wheal and flare, when the skin is
stroked more firmly with a pointed instrument.
The red reaction (vs. white reaction if stroke lightly/contraction of precapillary sphenic.)
o ~ 10 sec; histamine/bradykinin from damaged tissue(local anesthesia can not stop it).

The flare
o diffusely spreading and irregularly outlined redness of skin surrounding the red line.
o due to the dilation of the arteriole and precapillary sphincter (axonal reflex)

Wheal
o the swelling or localized oedema that develops within the area of flare when the
stroke stimulus is strong enough.
o increased capillary permeability with consequent extravasation of fluid.
o Mediators – histamine(H1 receptor), Sub P
Axonal Reflex

Sub P
CGRP

Vasodilation
Skin Color {Carotene, melanin , + [hemoglobin]}.
Carotene
▪ Orange-yellow pigment/ found in orange vegetables
▪ Accumulates in epidermal cells and fatty dermis + Can be converted to vitamin A
Melanin ~ yellow-brown or black pigment [tyrosine derivative].
▪ Produced by melanocytes in stratum Basale [spinosum, germinativum].
▪ Transferred to keratinocytes
o Albinos - a congenital inability to synthesize melanin.
o Vitiligo - patchy loss of melanin, but the loss develops progressively after birth
secondary to autoimmune destruction of melanocytes.
Hemoglobin in Blood- Pale, pink (blushing), bluish (desaturation)
Blanching of skin during situations of fear (pale with fear) occurs due to vasoconstriction
mediated through cortical mechanism

Compensatory cutaneous vasoconstriction participate in baroreceptor-mediated reflexes

during circulatory stress such as exercise and hemorrhage and cold stress.

Blushing, i.e. emotional embarrassment, occurs due to vasodilation of vessels. It is supposed

to be the result of bradykinin (a potent vasodilator) release, secondary to a brief
corticohypothalamically controlled discharge of sympathetic cholinergic fibres to the sweat
glands.
 Effect of Estrogen and Progesterone

▪ Maintain healthy smooth skin with normal epidermal and dermal thickness.
▪ Increase collagen synthesis (dermis) and inhibit breakdown of collagen by suppressing
matrix metalloproteinases.

▪ Estrogen stimulates proliferation and inhibits apoptosis of keratinocytes.

▪ Estrogen also increases glycosaminoglycan production and deposition in the dermis and
promotes wound healing.
▪ Increase in facial hair growth in aging may occur in females due to unopposed action of the
residual adrenal androgens in the absence of estrogens.
 Illness and Skin Color
• Jaundice (yellowish)
o Buildup of bile produced by liver
• Pituitary tumor
o Excess MSH
• Addison’s disease
o A disease of the pituitary gland
o Skin darkening
• Vitiligo (colorless)
o Loss of melanocytes
• Albino
o Inherited trait
o Can’t produce melanin