LESSON-10

ENVIRONMENTAL POLLUTION
(Air, Noise and Nuclear Pollution)
Dr. Pallavi Saxena
Assistant Professor,
Hindu College,
University of Delhi
INTRODUCTION
E.P. Odum (1971) defined pollution as an alteration in the physico-chemical and biological
nature of air, water and soil that ultimately affects the whole environment. It also specifies its
hazardous impacts on living organisms (both flora and fauna), other environmental systems
and non-living material.
Pollution is caused by anthropogenic (man-made) or natural activities. Examples of natural
pollutions are volcanic eruptions, forest fires, floods caused etc. Incomplete technology
lacking close integrated systems is the main cause of man-made pollution.
Today, the problem of pollution has become a major challenge to scientists,
environmentalists and humanists as the pollution of various components has gone to such an
extent that we are unable to breath fresh air, drink fresh water and eat pure food. If man has
to survive, he has to fight and overcome this gigantic problem before it swallows him and his
very existence.
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
After going through the Unit, you will be able to understand
 The sources, causes and impacts of Air, water, noise and soil and Nuclear pollution.
 How various kind of pollutants impact the ecosystem and human health.
 Various measures and steps that can be employed for reducing pollution.
 Government initiatives and programs as mitigating measures for Pollution across
India.
 Definition, types, sources of solid waste, the impact of landfills and importance of an
integrated Solid waste management plan.
 Critically assess the various issues discussed above with respect to relevant case
studies.
1. Sources of Pollution
Pollution may be caused by several sources depending upon the nature of pollutants:
1. Solid Wastes as a Source of Pollution: Solid Wastes may be domestic or industrial
in nature. Various solid wastes can be categorised as follows:
(i) Industrial wastes, e.g. particulate wastes from various industries such as glass
fragments, leather pieces, rubber pieces etc.

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 (ii) Domestic Wastes, e.g. garbage of kitchen, slaughter houses etc. These may be
combustible (such as leaves, twigs, papers etc.) or non-combustible (such as
crockery, plastics, glass etc.) in nature.
(iii) Sewage, e.g. human and animal excreta, domestic effluents, detergents etc.
(solid faecal is called sludge)
(iv) Agricultural Wastes, e.g. plant and animal residues, broken twigs, wood
fractions, fruits, pesticides, fertilizers etc.
2. Liquid Wastes as a Source of Pollution: Industrial effluents and domestic wastes in
the form of liquid are the major sources of water and soil pollution. Industrial
pollution may leach the lethal magnitude. Liquid discharges from chemical factories,
refineries, breweries, tanneries etc. contain acids, alkalies, oil and dissolved heavy
metals which enter the river water and adversely affect the aquatic life and impair its
self-purification system.
Liquid wastes from domestic sources may be of inorganic or organic nature. Inorganic
liquid wastes include soap water and detergent water from bathing and washing
clothes whereas organic wastes include kitchen garbage, faecal water, urine etc.
Run off from agricultural fields carry residual fertilizers, pesticides, biocides etc.
which enter the water streams and harm the aquatic life.
3. Gaseous Wastes as a Source of Pollution: The common gaseous pollutants like
carbon monoxide, sulphur oxides, nitrogen oxides, hydrogen sulphide etc. are
frequently released from various industries and automobile exhausts. Pollution
resulting from gaseous wastes is the one of the most dangerous and lethal type. Life
on earth is dependent upon the air we breathe and if this source of life is contaminated
and polluted by lethal gaseous discharges, the very existence of all living organisms is
threatened.
4. Energy Wastes as a Source of Pollution: A significant addition to the sources of
pollution are the invisible pollutants i.e. pollutants without mass or weight and
invisible to the eyes. Examples of such pollutants are heat and radioactive emissions.
Radioactive emissions are most hazardous, and their cumulative effects are far
reaching and damaging to the genetic makeup of living organisms.
5. Noise as a Source of Pollution: Unwanted sound or noise above the particular level
in the atmosphere is an important pollutant. Indiscriminate and continuous use of
radios, traffic horns, public broadcasting systems etc. are common sources of noise
pollution. Aeroplanes and supersonic jets also produce noise of high intensity which
may sometimes rupture the ear drum and cause irreparable damage to the brain.
2. Kinds of Pollution
Pollution has been classified in various ways based on different factors such as on the basis
of:

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 1. Nature of Pollutants
Two categories are recognised on the basis of degradability of pollutants:
(i) Biodegradable: These are those substances which can be decomposed
naturally in the presence of microorganisms. For example, any organic waste,
leaf litter etc.
(ii) Non-biodegradable: These are those substances which cannot be decomposed
or break down into simpler substances by any natural process. For example,
plastic waste, metallurgical waste etc.
2. Components of Environment
Pollution has been classified on the basis of particular component of the environment
being polluted, such as:
- Air Pollution
- Water Pollution
- Soil Pollution
- Radioactive Pollution
- Noise Pollution
- Thermal Pollution
3. Management of Environmental Pollution
At present what is required is not so much the ability of human beings to conquer the nature,
rather there is a need of a balanced and harmonious collaboration with its forces. The ultimate
goal of environmentalists should be to manage the environment in such a way that it can
contribute to man’s happiness, health and enjoyment and to improve the quality of human
life.
The various activities of civilisation invariably interact with the environment predicting
various forms of environmental problems. These problems may be local, national or
international in nature and must be managed accordingly. Following are few suggestions to
combat pollution:
1. Environmental education must be made compulsory in all education systems, from
primary to university levels.
2. Awareness about general environmental issues should be circulated at large scale
through media services.
3. Formulation of quality standards should be implemented and breaking of these
standards should be a punishable offence.
4. Sustainable approach towards environment should be made through community
participation.

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 5. Relocation of industrial units, airports etc at the countryside to reduce the risk of air
pollution.
6. Private and public enterprises should adopt pollution mitigation plans through laws
and policies.
7. Nuclear testing should restricted to the minimum by international agreements.
The entire world is now involved in combating environmental problems in various ways.
National and International efforts, Important Environment Dates, Indian Centres for
Environmental Studies, Centres for Excellence, Important National Awards etc. are also the
important pillars of environmental studies.
I. Air Pollution
It is defined as the pollution caused by anthropogenic and natural agents that degrades the
quality of air and having impact on living and non-living systems. The essential component
of our life, “air”, resides in one of the spheres of the environment, called as “Atmosphere”.
The envelope of air surrounds the earth’s surface is called as “atmosphere”. It consists of both
major and minor components which includes gases, particles, water vapour and biological
particles. It makes up nearly 80% of man’s daily intake by weight. Humans breathe almost
22,000 times per day, taking in almost 16kg of air. So, quality of air that we breathe is very
important for our sustenance of life, otherwise it leads to loss of lives and produce
disturbance in ecological systems. The atmosphere has two natural detergents that have the
capacity to remove the pollutants from an air parcel: high mixing height plus high wind speed
which favours high dispersion and high precipitation in the form of rainfall. Rainfall act as
the best scavenging agent for removal of air pollutants.
1. Categorization of Air Pollutants
Agents or carriers which cause air pollution are known as air pollutants. Air Pollutants are
divided on the basis of their origin, composition and kind of matter.
A. Origin:
i. Primary air pollutants are those which have their own origin and have direct
emission into the atmosphere. For example, oxides of nitrogen, oxides of
sulphur, oxides of carbon, volatile organic compounds and particulate matter
(dust particles).
ii. Secondary air pollutants are those which are derived from primary air
pollutants. For example, O3, PAN etc.
B. Chemical Composition:
i. Organic compounds: These are those which contain carbon and hydrogen
units. For example, aldehyde (formaldehyde) and ketone (acetone).
ii. Inorganic compounds: These are those which are having mixed formation of
compounds and doesn’t contain carbon and hydrogen units. For example,
carbonates, nitrogen oxide etc.

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 C. Kind of Matter:
i. Size-segregated particles in micrometre size ranging from 10µm to less than 1
µm. For example, dust, aerosol, total suspended particulate.
ii. Gaseous air pollutants. For example, oxides of nitrogen, oxides of sulphur,
oxides of carbon and volatile organic compounds.
2. Types of Air Pollution
Indoor air pollution: This type of air pollution has mainly the anthropogenic source. Domestic
activities like cooking fuel burning, coal burning, crop residue burning etc. Mostly household
women are severely affected due to emissions of indoor air pollutants. Approximately 2.5
Billion people, mostly in developing nations are exposed to high levels of indoor air pollution
and consequently suffer.
Outdoor air pollution: Vehicular and industrial emissions are major sources of outdoor air
pollution. Overpopulation growth and industrialization are also the major indirect
contributors. Outdoor air pollution affects over 1,100 million people, predominantly in cities.
3. Sources of Air Pollution
A. Natural Sources:
The natural sources can be thunderstorms, emissions of gases and particulates from
forest fires, methane emissions from marshy lands, bioaerosols from pollen grains,
volatile organic compounds emissions from trees and plant species, volcanic eruptions
generates sulphur dioxides emissions and decomposition of organic matter emits
carbon dioxide and methane.
B. Anthropogenic Sources:
Along with natural pollutants, there are pollutants of anthropogenic origin too. The
main anthropogenic sources are gasoline exhaust emissions, industrial emissions,
mining activities, cooking fuels, construction works, fireworks etc. The details of each
emission source categories are as follows:
i. Household works: Coal combustion generates enormous amount of smoke,
soot, dust, CO, SO2, NOx. However, burning of LPG releases fewer amounts
of pollutants comparatively.
ii. Gasoline Exhaust: Different categories of vehicles like 2 wheelers, 4 wheelers,
heavy duty vehicles, etc. release a number of gaseous air pollutants and
particulate matter. They mainly includes NOx, SOx, VOCs, CO, O3, PM10,
PM2.5 and sometimes lead. Vehicles contribute approximately 70% of air
pollution as they are major source of primary and secondary air pollutants.
iii. Industries:
a. Chemical Industries: They generate SOx, NOx, VOCs and PM.
b. Coal Powered Plants: SO2, CO, NOx and PM.
c. Electroplating and metallurgical Industries: CO, CO2, NOx, PM, cooper,
lead etc.

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 d. Gasoline-fuel industries: They include petroleum, diesel which emits
VOCs, NOx, SOx, CO, PM, O3 etc.
e. Paper manufacturing industries: PM10, PM2.5, SO2 etc.
iv. Agricultural Practices: agriculturally based chemical fertilizers which includes
pesticides and herbicides like chlorinated hydrocarbons, etc.
4. Classes of Main Air Pollutants
The air pollutants are divided into following categories:
a. Aerosols and VOCs
b. Other Hydrocarbons
c. Particulate matter (inorganic and organic)
d. Oxides of carbon
e. Oxides of Sulphur
f. Oxides of Nitrogen
Aerosols: Aerosols are very small particles suspended in the atmosphere and have crucial
role in the formation of cloud condensation nuclei, radiative forcing etc. For example,
pollen grains, haze, smog etc. The main source of aerosols in the atmosphere is from
anthropogenic sources. Most of the percentage of aerosols Most of the aerosols are
concentrated in Northern Hemisphere due to wind patterns and other favourable
meteorological factors. Crop residue burning and construction activities are major sources
of aerosols.
Natural aerosols also contribute in altering the composition of air quality. The natural
sources include, sea salt spray, pollen grains, forest fires, dust storms etc. Aerosols have
the tendency to block the solar radiation and this will result in radiative heating. High
concentration of aerosols also affects the crop species and mainly biochemical and
physiological processes and mechanisms. They are also responsible for the photochemical
smog formation.
Volatile Organic Compounds (VOCs): VOCs refer to those organic compoundswhich
are having vapour pressure 0.1mm Hg and vaporise at or less than 25ºC. There are
different classes of VOCs as non-methane hydrocarbons, aldehydes, ketones, aromatic
compounds, amides, carbonyls etc. They are the only air pollutants whose maximum
source contribution is from natural sources (80%) and rest is from anthropogenic (20%).
Natural sources are trees, plant species and animal breath. Trees have major contribution
of VOCs emissions from leaves, stems, flowers etc. as compared to any other source.
Anthropogenic sources include vehicular emissions from gasoline exhaust, industrial
emissions like paints, mosquito repellents, adhesives, varnishes, cleansers and
disinfectants and mining activities.
POPs: POPs are organic compounds that adversely affect the lives of human beings all
over the world. POPs including some pesticides, heavy metals evaporate from the soil in
the equatorial and tropical countries; travel in the air towards comparatively cooler

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regions, where they condense with the falling of temperature. The processes repeat in
‘hops’ and are thus carried across thousands of kilometres away within few days. The
more the volatility, the far they are carried and retained in the air. Such a mechanism of
long range atmospheric transport and subsequent deposition of POPs is called
‘grasshopper or global distillation process’. The process goes on and on with highest
concentrations in the circumpolar nations. In view of this, the Arctic Council was
constituted by Denmark, Sweden, Iceland, Norway, Russia, Alaska, Greenland, Finland
etc. to monitor and assess the source and pathway of POPs.
The POPs remains in the environment for a long period and can easily transfer from one
stage to another in an ecological chain. In 1992, under United Nations (UN)/ECE
(European Commission of Europe) the Convention of Long-Range Transboundary Air
Pollution (LRTAP) was constituted to identify the chemicals of potential concern.
Particulate Matters: Particulate matter (PM) or dust particlesare those which remain
suspended in the atmosphere and have deleterious impact on human health. Particulate
matter is divided on the basis of their particle size. The finer the particle, the more
dangerous it is for human health. Particles with aerodynamic diameter less than 10 µm are
known as PM10. Particles with aerodynamic diameter less than equal to 2.5 µm are known
are PM2.5. PM10 particles are also called as coarse particles, as they are bigger in size so
they trap inside the nose and doesn’t penetrate inside. Whereas PM2.5 are also called as
fine particles and our nose doesn’t have efficient filters to trap them, therefore, they
penetrate inside the lungs and accumulate in the trachea. The particles having size less
than 2.5 µm are also called as nanoparticles and deep penetrate inside the lungs and settle
inside the alveoli. They are the most dangerous particles for human health. Vehicular
emissions, industrial emissions, construction activities, domestic activities, mining and
religious activities are the main sources of particulate matter in the atmosphere.
The symptoms of particulate matter emissions on human health are nausea, dizziness,
respiratory illness, asthma, inflammation of lung tissue, chest pain and in most severe
case, lung cancer.
CFCs: Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) are those organic compounds which contain groups
of halogen family and produced as an important product of methane and ethane called as
freons. The main sources of CFCs are refrigerators, propellants etc. The examples of
CFCs are hydrochlorofluorocarbons (HCFCs), dichlorodifluoromethane (R-12 or Freon-
12) etc. CFCs.

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 Table 1: Summary of air pollutants, sources and impacts
S.No. Pollutant Source/Cause Effect
1. Carbon monoxide Vehicular emissions, wood Nausea, dizziness, severe
(CO) burning, coal burning, headache, cardiac arrests,
incomplete combustion etc. brain stroke, low blood
pressure and CO poisoning.
After inhalation due to
incomplete combustion,
CO inhales deep into the
lungs and combine with
haemoglobin as it has high
affinity than oxygen. The
resultant is
carboxyhaemoglobin.
When a large number
ofcarboxyhaemoglobin
molecules increases in the
human body then it
decreases the oxygen level.
Due to high decrease in O2
levels, the condition
becomes fatal and leads to
death.
2. Carbon dioxide Biomass burning Global warming,
(CO2), declared as greenhouse effect and
pollutants only at climate change.
elevated levels.
3. Sulphur dioxide Industrial processes, fossil Repiratory ailments,
(SO2) fuel combustion, wild fire, diziness, bronchitis,
thermal power plants, reduced plant production,
smelters and volcanic yellowing, necrosis and
eruptions corrosion to marble,
spoiling of leather,
corrosion.
4. Polynuclear Gasoline exhaust emissions, Nausea, dizziness, lung
Aromatic emissions from garbage cancer, respiratory
Hydrocarbons sites, coal tar lining. disorders, eye irritation etc.
(PAHs)

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 5. Chlorofluorocarbons Refrigerators, ACs, cleaning Ozone layer depletion,
(CFCs) solvents, disinfectants. formation of ozone hole.
6. Nitrogen Oxides Biomass burning, forest Nausea, dizziness,
fires, gasoline exhaust cardiovascular disorders,
emissions, mining etc. photochemical smog, acid
rain etc.
8. Peroxy Acetyl Vehicular emissions, Irritation of eye, throat and
Nitrate (PAN) Chemical industrial trachea, damages clothing,
emissions, domestic paints and rubber etc.
activities etc.
9. Particulate matter Vehicular emissions, Respiratory disorders,
construction based bronchitis, emphysema,
activities, industrial asthma; some are
emissions, wood burning carcinogenic.
etc.

5. Air Pollution Control

A. Source Emissions - Industries
- Low-sulphur fuels should be encouraged to use to reduce the emission of sulphur
dioxide and reduction in benzene in gasoline fuels (petrol) from 10% to 1% is
implemented as per central pollution control board norms.
- Exhaust hoods are the latest modifications in industrial ovens which have good
efficiency to recover the solvents that have the possibility to become air
pollutants.
- Cost effective instruments are implemented to reduce the air pollutant
concentrations.
- Removal of pollutants at source reduction like wet scrubber, cyclone separator,
electrostatic precipitator etc.
B. Source Emissions - Vehicles
- Eradication of Old Vintage Vehicles. The vehicles, particularly cars, which are
older than 15 years, should be discarded due to their low efficiency and
malfunctioning of engines. These vehicles are also one of the main reasons for
emissions of air pollutants in the atmosphere.
- Catalytic converters are efficient devices fitted in engines of different set of
vehicles and plays an important role in converting noxious gases in to less harmful
gases through chemical reaction.
- Improvement in quality of vehicular fuel which will reduce the tail-pipe emissions
and further betters the air quality. For e.g. sulphur content was reduced from 0.5 to
0.2 percent in diesel to reduce the emission of SO2 from tail-pipe. Methyl tert-

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 butyl ether (MTBE) should be added as a gasoline additive for increasing the
octane number and reducing knocking of engine
- Unleaded petrol is recommended to use especially in Delhi to reduce the lead
emissions from gasoline fuels.
- Alternative fuels should be used in place of gasoline fuels like CNG, LPG,
biodiesel, vegetable oils, ethanol etc to curb the emission of air pollutants..
- To promote the use of electric vehicles
C. Legal and Policy Measures
For the control of air pollution, two main acts are implemented, The Air Pollution
prevention and Control Act, 1981 and Environmental Protection Act, 1986.
Implementation of Air Quality Standards (NAAQS)
- The National Ambient Air Quality Standards (NAAQS) were first suggested
under Air Pollution Prevention and Control Act, 1981 for prescribing the stnadrds
of different hazardous air pollutants. In 1984, a statuary body called Central
Pollution Control Board (CPCB), India adopted 12 parameters which are need to
prescribed for air quality standards. The 12 parameters are, particulate matter
(PM10 and PM2.5), sulphur dioxide (SO2), nitrogen dioxide (NO2), carbon
monoxide (CO), ammonia (NH3), ozone (O3), lead (Pb), benzene (C6H6),
benzopyrene, arsenic and nickel. CPCB had initiated this programme and later
called as National Air Monitoring Programme (NAMP).
National Air Quality Monitoring Programme
There are about 610 monitoring stations in 227 cities in India as on 1 January
2019. The air quality monitoring was undertaken under the supervision of CPCB,
SPCB, DPCC, National Environmental Engineering Research Institute (NEERI),
Nagpur and pollution control committees. Meteorological (weather related)
parameters is also carried out along with air quality data.
D. Greenbelt Development/Landscape Green Planning
- To plant tolerant species which are good absorbers of different air pollutants.
These types of plant species are called as sinks and help in purifying the air.
- These tolerant plant species will be screened by a biological method called as Air
Pollution Tolerance Index (APTI) and planted around the periphery of the affected
area.
E. Emission Norms and Emission Standards
Emission norms are the threshold or permissible limit set by nodal agency for a
particular category of vehicle. These limits are for those air pollutants which are
emitted usually from tail-pipe of vehicles like CO, NOx, VOCs, PM etc. If any
vehicle has emission of these air pollutants above the set permissible limit, it is
considered as unfit vehicle. The Automobile Research Institute, Pune is the certifying
authority for the vehicles fulfilling the standards.

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 Euro norms are applied in Europe and also for setting up of permissible limits for
different categories of vehicles. In India, Euro I norms are referred to as INDIA 2000
because they have been effective since 4 January 2000. The regulations corresponding
to Euro II, known as 2005 norms, have not yet been indicated by the Government of
India.
F. Air Pollution Control Equipments
i. Control for Particulate Matter
1. Wet Scrubbers are used to take away the pollutants from furnace flue gas.
They consequently pass through scrubbing liquid and hence, particulate matter
is removed.
2. Electrostatic Precipitator (ESP) is also a fine device for removal of PM which
is based on the principle of opposite charges attract each other. The dust
particles which are having positive charge, they get deposited on negative
charge electrode (cathode) and similarly, negative charge dust particle deposits
on positive charge electrode (anode).
3. Cyclone Separators: Particulate matter is removed by centrifugal force taking
place in a rotator machine. It will remove particles 10 microns or larger.
ii. Control for NOx
1. Exhaust gas recirculation (EGR).
2. Catalytic converter.
iii. Systems to Decrease VOC
1. Gas Flare
2. Biofilters are devices that use living matter to trap biologically degradable
pollutants.
II. Noise Pollution
Noise is an unwanted and unpleasant sound. Noise pollution may be defined as unwanted
sound released into the atmosphere and may create some adverse effects or the unwanted
noise. The high intensity sound may have great physical/physiological damaging effects
which can be extremely damaging.
The sound intensity has been measured in terms of decibel (dB). The various levels of the
sounds with the loudness sensation are given in the Table1.
S. No. Noise levels (dB) Sensation Source

1 0-20 Whisper Rustle of leaves, Soundproof room

2 20-40 Faint Quit home, Private office, Empty

auditorium

3 40-60 Moderate Noisy home, conversation quit radio

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 4 60-80 Loud Average radio, average street noise,
average factory

5 80-100 Very Loud Loud street noise, noisy factory, Police

whistle

6 100-120 Deafening Elevated train, Thunder, Nearby riveter

7 120-140 Physical Pain Jet aircraft, auto horn and Train horn

1. Source of sound pollution

There are number of sources available indoor and outdoor for the sound generation. The most
common source in our houses are gadgets like mixture/grinder, vacuum cleaner, washing
machines, cooler, air conditioner, radio, TV system, whereas the outdoor sources are
factories, vehicles, aeroplane, train, loud speakers and crackers used in the various festivals.
2. Effects of Noise pollution
Noise exposure cause variety of adverse health effects and it depends on its intensity,
frequency and periodicity.
1. Effects of high intensity sound: The sound (80-100dB) of such intensity is emitted by
machineries, motor cycles, high speed music system etc. It may cause the emotional and
behavioural changes by producing nervous tension and cardiovascular problems like heart
disease and blood pressure. Such regular exposure to machineries can cause complete
hearing loss, rise in the blood cholesterol level and body plasma concentration.
2. Effects of Explosive sound: The sound above 110dB referred as the explosive sound
which may be generated by crackers, train, motor cycles etc. Such sound may easily
cause vomiting, sever concussions of internal ear and profound deafness.
3. Effects of loud and sudden noise: A sonic boom produces startle effects and damage
brain. It may also damage the property such as window breaks.
4. Effects of intermittent noise: Such sound is very disturbing and may cause of
psychiatric illness as found in the area having regular sound of aeroplanes.
5. Effects of low noise: This is the common noise produced by crowed, roads, radios and
TVs etc. Interfere with the conversation and causes emotional and behavioural stress.
Such noise increases the consumption of the alcohol, drug tranquilizers and sleeping pills.
6. Effects of absolute silence: Absolute silence is also undesirable for man. An perfect
anechoic room (sound levels 0-5dB), one stay for a few minutes, he will be overcome by
an uncomfortable sensation as pounding of heart will be felt and ringing noises start in the
ears. Mild sound (about 10 dB) found very necessary for the human existence and feel
pleasant in such sound produced by nature like bird songs.

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3. Control of Noise Pollution
Control of noise pollution is basically, reduction of the sound intensity of any available
sources. There can be three ways to reduce such type of the noise pollution:
i. Eliminate the noise at the sources,
ii. Modify the path of the sound transmission
iii. Provide receiver with some forms of protection
Some of the important ways for noise reduction are as follows:
1. Noise pollution reduction in industries: Noise of the industries can be reduces by
replacing old machineries by newer and efficient ones. The noisy generator must be
located far from the work area. Factory workers must wear ear-muffs (for sound above
90dB) or ear plug (for sound bellow 90dB). Apart from this some plants such as Ashok,
Banayan, Neem, Kadamb etc should be grown around factory to minimise noise
pollution.
2. Reduction of community noise: The use of loudspeaker in the marriages or other
occasions should be banned else permitted for a certain period of time. Measures should
be taken to prohibit the manufacture, sale and use of crackers of high sound intensity.
3. Reduction of traffic noise: Old and sound producing motor vehicles should be banned
on roads and denied operating. Hooting and blowing of horns needless should be
restricted legally. All along the highways 50 feet wide plantation strips should be
developed.
4. Reduction of aeroplane and jet noise: Aerodrome should be located very far from the
residential area. The heavy and thick green belts should be developing to reduce the noise
pollution levels around aerodrome.
5. Planning of cities and housing system: Well planned cities should be developing to
reduce the noise pollution created by the industries and highways. There should be
sufficient number of green belts in between residential areas.
6. Legal control of noise pollution: Recently, Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB) and
State Pollution Control Boards (SPCBs) have been given power to the frame certain rule
and regulations to control noise pollution. Certain rule and regulations are:
i. Silence zone should be created near hospitals and educational institute.
ii. Use of sound amplifiers should be strictly restricted.
iii. All the vehicle should have effective silencers and uncontrolled blowing of horn
should be declared illegal.
iv. Mid-night aircraft flight should be restricted/minimised.
v. Restriction on the factory noises should be handled legally and soundless machineries
should be promoted.
vi. Developmental authorities should have a legal procedure and protocol to establish
significant number of green belts in and around cities.

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III. Nuclear Pollution
1. What is nuclear hazard: Introduction
Nuclear hazard can be stated as potential risk arising due to exposure to radiation emanating
from the atomic nuclei. The important process leading to emission of radiation by different
nuclei is known as radioactivity.
The source of radioactivity is emission of energy from radioactive isotopes such as Carbon-
14, Uranium-235, Uranium-238, Uranium-239, Radium-226, etc. The energy from these
sources is released in the form of alpha, beta or gamma radiation. All these radiations have
different impact on tissues. The alpha rays are highly ionizing but have low tissue
penetration. If alpha emitting source is ingested it causes severe problem. Beta rays have
more penetration ability and can cause cell damage and mutagenesis. It is also used in
radiation therapy for cancer patients. Gamma radiations have high penetration value and can
cause severe problems. These sources are also used for sterilization of medical and scientific
equipment and treatment of food. The nuclear power plants using radioactive elements for
energy generation (see Fig 1.1) have been among the cause of disasters affecting millions
with radiation fallout.

Figure 1.1: Nuclear chain reaction occurring in nuclear reactors also known as nuclear
fission reaction.
2. Causes of Radioactive Pollution
1. Nuclear accidents: Nuclear energy is one of the important energy sources discovered
in recent time. The high energy in nuclear substances is due to their high latent power,
also responsible for high level of radiation. Due to the safety issues, the use of nuclear
materials are not promoted much but research is still underway to determine its
environmental safety. Nuclear power plant accidents such as the Fukushima Daiichi
nuclear disaster, Chernobyl disaster, and Three Mile Island accident are very well-
known nuclear disaster that left many dead and many more affected person and
contaminated environment by the radiation released.
2. Weapons of Mass Destruction (WMD): The Second World War was end up with the
use of nuclear missiles and atomic bombs; a form of nuclear energy may easily explain
the damaging nature of radioactive pollution. These two strikes in Hiroshima and
Nagasaki in 1945 after which the children were reported with complications such

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 mental retardation, autism and other disorders. In the present situations, the number of
cancer cases present in the two towns is more than those of the rest of Japan.
3. Use of radio isotopes: These are radioactive isotopes, since they have an unstable
atomic nucleus and emit energy and particles when it changes to a more stable form.
Each radioisotope has a definite half-life period and characteristic disintegration. Such
type of energy liberated mostly in the form of alpha, beta, or gamma rays. Radio
isotopes are used to make detectors and in other industrial activities. Isotopes such as
uranium have high concentrations of radiation. While the common Isotopes such as
carbon containing radioactive material are easily found in water ways through sewage
lines. Since most of the raw sewage is untreated before release, once released, the
isotope combines with other compounds and elements in water. Consumption of this
water through any means is a potential intake of radiation.
4. Mining: Mining basically related to the excavation of the mineral ores. Radium and
Uranium, for instance, are naturally occurring in the environment and are equally
radioactive. Other minerals with a hint of radiation are thorium, plutonium, radon,
potassium, carbon and phosphorus.
5. Tests on radiation: Due to the lots of interesting properties radiation grabs attention of
scientist to carry out research. It plays one of the important roles in the treatment of
cancer. Chemotherapy is now widely used in the treatment of cancer in which radiation
used to prevent further growth of the cancer cells as well as keep the immune system
strong.
6. Cosmic rays: The radioactive pollution also caused by cosmic rays coming from the
outer space to our Earth. Gamma rays, for example, are said to have the highest level of
radiation and yet, depending on their intensity, some are not visible to the human eye.

Figure 1.2: Contribution of harmful radiation from natural and human activities. Nuclear
industry and medicine are the main man- made sources of radiation.

15
3. Impact of nuclear hazards
The nuclear hazard can pose a great threat to the environment according to spread of
radioactive radiations. These are:
 The radioactive substances are known to be hazardous and when released in
environment can disperse or accumulate in living organisms by passing from one
trophic level to another in a food chain.
 One of the radioactive substances known as Strontium-90 has properties similar to
calcium and can be easily deposited in bones replacing calcium. Contaminated milk is
regarded as a source entering human body through ingestion.
 The nuclear power plants use tritium, which has a half-life of 12.3 years, and emit
radioactive Beta particles. These power plants are known to be routinely or
accidentally releasing tritium into air and water. If tritium enters a body by inhaling or
swallowing, the beta particle released by it can bombard cells causing mutation.
 There are certain areas where exposure to nuclear radiation is high and poses threat,
which are uranium mineworkers, radium watch dial painters, technical staff at nuclear
power plants etc. The people working in these areas are exposed to radiations for
longer duration, which can cause cancer, mutations and teratogenesis (prenatal toxicity
characterized by structural or functional defects in the developing embryo or foetus) in
them.
4. Effects of Radioactive Pollution
The effect of radioactive pollutants depends upon:
i. half-life time
ii. energy releasing capacity
iii. rate of diffusion and
iv. rate of deposition of contaminants
Various atmospheric and climatic conditions also determine the pollution effects. Biological
effects of ionising radiations may be:
a. Short range effects
The short-range effects are acute and expressed within few days or weeks after the
exposure to radiation. The effects may be:
i. physical crippling or
ii. immediate death
b. Long range effects
The long-range effects take longer time to express. Such delayed effects of the
radiations are now centres of the World’s interest. These include:
(i) Genetic changes
(ii) point mutation and chromosomal aberration

16
 (iii) increase incidence of tumour and cancer
(iv) Shortening of the life span
(v) Loss of vitality
(vi) Anaemia
(vii) Haemorrhages etc.
5. Mitigation of nuclear hazards
Taking precaution for safe disposal of nuclear waste should be the first priority. The
radioactive nuclear waste can be damaging to the environment and so the best way is
considered to be burial of wastes in deep trenches.
 Delay and decay: The radioactive waste generated from nuclear reactors, industries
should be stored in airtight containers and allowed to decay deep beneath the ground in
pits.
 Concentrate and contain: The small amount of high radioactive waste should be
mixed with other components such as concrete and solidified and dumped deep in ocean
or beneath the earth.
 Dilute and disperse: The moderately or weak radioactive waste should be released in
the environment after diluting it with some inert materials.
Protective Measures
Some of the protective measures are listed as follows:
1. While handling UV lamps, dark glass spectacles or goggles must be worn. UV rays can’t
penetrate dark glasses.
2. Visible light neutralises UV damage considerably. Thus exposure to the sun light to any
individual exposed to UV could be a good remedial measure to treat the expose
individual.
3. Nuclear fallout Hazards must be minimised by adapting certain precautions, e.g.
(i) High level wastes are long-lived and have high radioactivity per unit volume. These must
be contained somewhere as follows:
(a) In underground tanks without treatments
(b) Liquid should be converted into the solid like ceramic and then buried deep
underground
(c) Stored in deep salt mines

LEARNING OUTCOME

 Basic concepts of pollution, components of pollution, related impacts on environment and

its management.
 Introduction of air pollution, causes, impacts and control.
 Brief introduction to air quality standards and policy measures.

17
 Understanding noise pollution, causes, impacts and control.
 Basic concepts of solid waste and its management and introduction of nuclear pollution or
hazards and its control.

STUDY QUESTIONS
Q.1 What is pollution? Describe the different types of pollutants and pollution.
Q.2 What do you understand by air pollution? Describe its various causes.
Q.3 What are various air pollutants? Discuss their effects on vegetation and human beings.
Q.4 Explain the following terms:
i. Air pollution Tolerant trees.
ii. Electrostatic precipitators.
Q.5 Give a brief account of noise pollution.
Q.6 Describe in detail about impacts of noise pollution on human health.
Q.7 What are the causes of nuclear hazards? What is its impact upon the human population?
Multiple-choice questions:
1) Which element among these can cause radioactivity?
(a) Lead
(b) Uranium
(c) Iron
(d) Sulphur
Answer: Uranium
2) Which of the following is the major cause of pollution?
(a) Silk
(b) Clouds
(c) Fungi
(d) Hydrocarbon Gas
Answer: Hydrocarbon Gas
3) What is the unit for measurement of noise?
(a) Hertz
(b) Parts per billion
(c) Centimetre
(d) Kilometre
Answer: Hertz
4) The radioactive decay of elements release which types of radiations?
(a) Alpha

18
 (b) Beta
(c) Gamma
(d) All of these
Answer: All of these
5) The nuclear radiations can cause disease like
(a) Pneumonia
(b) Malaria
(c) Cancer
(d) Hypertension
Answer: Cancer
6) All are primary pollutants except?
(a) Ammonia
(b) PAN
(c) Sulphur dioxide
(d) Hydrogen sulphide
Answer: Sulphur dioxide
7) Which among the following is known as a nuclear disaster?
(a) Three Mile Island, 1979
(b) Chernobyl, 1986
(c) Fukushima, 2011
(d) All of these
Answer: All of these

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 LESSON-11

ENVIRONMENTAL POLLUTION
(WATER, THERMAL, SOIL AND CASE STUDIES)
Dr. Pallavi Saxena
Assistant Professor,
Hindu College,
University of Delhi
INTRODUCTION
Nowadays, the problem of pollution has become a major task in everyday’s human lives. Due
to high concentration of pollutants in any of the environmental system like water, air, soil etc.
poses a higher risk to environmental health.
Apart from air, noise and nuclear pollution, there are other types of pollution too like water,
soil and thermal pollution which also becomes a challenging task in day to day life. These
pollutants are discharged or emitted from various natural as well as anthropogenic sources
which ultimately harm the plant as well as human health.

LEARNING OBJECTIVES
After going through the Unit, you will be able to understand
 the sources, causes and impacts of Water, soil and thermal pollution.
 How various kind of pollutants impact the ecosystem and human health.
 Definition, types, sources of solid waste and Solid waste management plan.
 various measures and steps that can be employed for reducing pollution.
 government initiatives and programs as mitigating measures for Pollution across India.
 Critically assess the various issues discussed above with respect to relevant case studies.
I. Water Pollution
Nearly 50% of all marine pollution is caused by sewage and wastewater discharge. Annually,
about 400 billion tons of industrial sate are produced globally, bulk of which is discharged
untreated into the streams, rivers, seas, oceans and other water bodies. Water pollution means
one or more substances building up in aquatic bodies to a limit that they cause trouble life
forms. Water pollution also deals with the amount of polluting substance released and also
the amount of water it is discharged into.
1. Types of Water Pollution
There are different perspectives of considering pollution.
A. Based on water bodies.

20
 - Surface water pollution – The most evident type of water pollution affects surface
waters like huge oceans, lakes, rivers and streams. For example, an oil slick from
oil tanker can affect a huge area of the marine region.
- Groundwater pollution – All of Earth’s water is not surface water. An immense
amount of water is present in the underground of rock structures or aquifers that
are not visible to one and people hardly ever think of. Water that is stored in
aquifers is groundwater. The rivers and streams are not only nourished by aquifers
but they also supply drinking water. Fertilizers applied in the fields often seep into
the soil and contaminate the waters. Groundwater pollution though less evident
than surface water pollution is also a mounting problem.
B. Based on source.
- Point Source – If pollutants are discharged from one place or spot for e.g. an
effluent pipe of a plant, oil spillage from a tanker, smoke stcak discharge etc. The
pollution from such a source is known as point source pollution.
- Non point source – A prodigious amount of water pollution also happens from
variety of speckled sources. This is called non-point source pollution.
C. Based on Chemical Composition:
- Soft Water – water with little or no dissolved salts of magnesium and calcium.
- Hard water– In contrast to soft water, hardwater has high mineral content. It
primarily consists of calcium and magnesium metal cations, and sometimes other
dissolved compounds such as bicarbonates and sulphates. Such water is unsuitable
for use.
- Sometimes the pollution may enter the environment from one place and extort an
outcome hundred or even thousands of miles away from that place. Such pollution
is known as transboundary pollution. Examples include the persistent organic
pollutants and the radioactive wastes that may travel across the oceans and
national boundaries.
2. Sources of Water Pollution
Approximately 33 percent of water pollution is by domestic sources, followed by agriculture-
livestock with 29 percent, 27 percent by industry and 11 percent from other sources.
A. Domestic: Domestic sewage is wastewater generated from the household activities. It
is 99.9 percent pure ater; remaining 0.1 percent are pollutants which are both organic
and inorganic materials. Organic materials are food and vegetable waste, excreta,
faecal matter whereas inorganic materials such as phosphates and nitrates come from
soaps and detergents.
Sewage is an entirely natural matter that should degrade blandly in the environment.
Sewage also contains a host of chemical substances, from drugs, papers, plastics, their
drainage system. Soaps and detergents used in washing machines and dishwashers are
finally drained into the sewage.

21
B. Agriculture:It is undoubted that extensive use of fertilizers and pesticides,
collectively called as agro-chemicals, increases the agricultural output. These, mostly
artificial chemicals, move into the waterbodies along with rainfall and groundwater by
leaching. Such chemicals are persistent and may get entry into the food chain causing
numerous problems in the animals.
i. Pesticides: Any chemical utilized in controlling pests is a pesticide. The pest can
be insects, microbes, fungus, snails and slugs, worms, weeds etc. Consequently,
pesticide can be in the form of insecticides, fungicides, herbicides etc. Pesticides
can cause a number of diseases like lungs malignancy, chronic liver damage,
cirrhosis and chronic hepatitis, hormonal and gonadal disorders, immune-
suppression, cytogenic effects, breast cancer, non-Hodgkin’s lymphoma,
polyneuritis etc.
Class of pesticides on the basis of their chemical nature are:
a. Organochlorine compounds: This is the most hazardous of all pesticides.
There are three classes of organochlorines:
o Dichlorophenylethanes – DDT, methoxychlor. They are highly penetrable
and soluble in fats.
o Cyclodienes – Aldrin, endosulphan, endrin, heptachlor, toxaphene,
chlordane. The metabolites of these products are more toxic.
o Hexachlorocyclohexanes – Lindane or benzene hexachloride (BHC)
The best known representative of this class is DDT, made by Swiss Scientist Paul
Miller. He received noble prize for Physiology and Medicine in 1948 for his
discovery. DDT was announced on the market in 1944. Upon exposure to high doses
of DDT can produce parathesia, ataxia, dizziness, headache, nausea, restlessness.
Chronic exposure results in anorexia, anaemia, tremor, weakness and anxiety. They
are potent carcinogens and damage the liver and endocrine organs.
b. Organophosphates: They are frequently used in chemical warfare. Examples
are Sarin, Tabun, Soman etc. Their toxic effects are additive; hence the
toxicity amplifies with multiple exposures. The common organophosphates
are malathion., parathion, diazinon and tetra ethyl pyrophosphate (TEPP).
c. Organo carbamates: The mode of actions of this class is quite similar to that
of organophosphates. Their actions last for smaller duration and are thus the
least toxic amongst the three. Examples are Sevin, Baygon etc. Exposure to
such compounds may cause salivation, lacrimation and convulsions.
d. Biological insecticides: The most common is Bacillus thuringiensis. It is used
to kill the larva against a diverse form of caterpillars. BT toxin from Bacillus
thuringiensis could be successfully inoculated into the plants through genetic
engineering.
C. Industries: Most of the industries are situated along the banks of the river for
convenience and disposal of effluents. Often these effluents comprise acids, bases,

22
 dyes, paints, and a range of other chemicals. Detergents form white foam. The
industrial waste can be mercury, lead, cadmium, chlorides, fluorides, ammonia etc.
Such addition alters the pH of water and turns it into a condition that is fatal to aquatic
forms. The industries regularly discharge heavy amount of superheated water used in
the thermal power plants, oil refineries, nuclear power plants, etc. such high
temperature injuries and kills the aquatic flora and fauna. High temperature also
reduces the amount of oxygen dissolved in water that may harm or even kill the
aquatic life, the condition is called as thermal pollution.
i. Mining Industries: The process of extraction of minerals exposes heavy metals
and sulphur that were earlier inaccessible. Rainwater further leaches these
chemicals out of the uncovered portions, causing AMD along with heavy metal
pollution that lasts for a long period of time even after the closure of mining
operations. The act of rainwater on the tailings contaminates the freshwater
bodies. Cyanide is deliberately dispensed on mined piles in the gold mines for the
extraction of gold. Some of cyanides used inevitably contaminate the close by
water. Often, enormous amount of mining waste or ‘slurry’ are stored behind
contaminant dams. In case of any accident or dam leakage or bursting, water
pollution is assured.
ii. Oil Refineries: Oil spill is a leading issue in the aquatic system. Oil seeps from
the oil tankers and offshore oil refineries into the waters. Oil leakage from tanker
accidents accounts to about 12 percent; more than 70 percent of oil pollution is
from the usual shipping as well as from the oil that people drain out into the
drainage system. Oil is lighter than water and thus floats on the surface of the
water. Such a film blocks the aerial oxygen from dissolving in water. Oil can coat
and smother the body of aquatic animals fatally. Oil can also find entry into the
body while drinking. The oily beaches disturb the ecosystem balance and
rigorously affect tourism.
iii. Radioactive Waste: High concentrations can be lethal, whereas low
concentrations of radioactive substances can cause malignancy and various forms
of sickness. Two most important contributors in Europe are Sellafield and Ca La
Hague.
Table 2: Major Types of Water Pollutants
S.No. Substances Sources or applications Impact or effect
1. Antimony – Sb In electrical appliances, In large doses it can cause
semiconductors, in poisoning, stomach ulcers,
expectorants, in heart diseases.
manufacturing ammunitions
2. Mercury – Hg In industrial wastes, dental When ingested, mercury
fillings, fungicides, soldering, damages the Central Nervous
and various scientific System (CNS) leading to a
instruments such as disease called neuropathy.

23
 thermometers and One of the famous cases is the
barometers. Minnimata incident in Japan
in 1953.
3. Arsenic – As As component of animal feed, 70 mg of arsenic compounds
in treated wood, ceramics, is considered lethal if
and medicines, pesticides, paints ingested. Lower doses of
As2O3
trivalent arsenic and fireworks. arsenic can result in
disturbance in peripheral
circulation, black foot disease,
damage to liver, kidney,
various types of cancer, such
as skin cancer, bladder cancer
and lung cancer.
4. Cadimum – Cd In Ni-Cd batteries and part of Often deposited in the hepatic,
various metallic alloys, renal, pancreatic and intestinal
electroplating, pigments, lining. Poisoning with
nuclear reactors, and the cadmium causes headache,
anticorrosion coatings of regurgitation, anaemia,
other metals, tyres. pneumonia, diarrhoea, osseous
deformation and renal
necrosis.
It results in bioaccumulation
to interfere with the body’s
metabolism. It also leads to
cancer, teratogenesis and itai
itai disease.
5. Chromium – Cr Used in tanning leather, Hexavalent chromium is
treating wood, storing data in dangerous, it causes
magnetic tapes, making dermatitis, gastrointestinal
pigments, photography and in ulcers, lung cancer, weak
manufacturing iron-based immune system, liver damage.
alloys. The human body It is also a tertogen.
needs trace amounts of
trivalent chromium
metabolize fats and
carbohydrates.
6. Lead – Pb It is found in plastics, Lead is easily absorbed in the
ceramics, glassware, paints, blood. It affects liver, kidneys,
pigments and batteries. osseous system, central and
Lead is also a crucial peripheral nervous system; red
component in antiknock blood cells leading to

24
 agents. anaemia. This toxic heavy
metal can cause brain damage,
coma and even death.
7. Nickel – Ni Used in the steel industry, in Overexposure may cause
making batteries, welding allergic reactions, asthma-like
rods, wires, adding pigments symptoms, lung embolism and
to paints, desalination plants, various organ problems.
and producing dental and
surgical prostheses.
8. Beryllium – Be Used mainly in defense and Breathing beryllium
aerospace industries, used in particulates is hazardous as it
field of x-ray detection damages the pulmonary tossie
diagnostic and in the causing pneumonia. The most
manufacture of a variety of common effect being
computer equipments. berylliosis. Beryllium is an
allergen to hypersensitive
people, in severe conditions it
causes a person to be seriously
sick, a condition known as
Chronic Beryllium Disease
(CBD). The symptoms are
eakness, fatigue and breathing
problems; people suffering
from CBD sometimes develop
a norexia and blueness of
hands and feet. In extreme
condition CBD can cause
death. Beryellium enhances
the probability of malignancy
and DNA damage.
9. Aluminium – Al Used in aerospace industry Health effects, such as
and very important in damage to CNS, dementia or
transport and construction loss of memory, lethargy,
where light weight, durability rigorous trembling and lung
and strength are desirable. It problems. Inhalation of
forms alloys with many aluminium is reported to cause
elements such as copper, pulmonary damage in the
zinc, magnesium, manganese form of pulmonary fibrosis.
and silicon. All present day This effect, identified as
mirrors and telescopic mirrors Shavers disease, is
are prepared by using a thin complicated by the existence
reflective coating of of inhaled silica and oxides of

25
 aluminium on the back iron. Possibly it also
surface of a sheet of float contributes to Alzheimer’s
glass. Other applications are disease.
electrical transmission lines,
and packaging. Production of
aluminium foam used in
traffic tunnels and in space
shuttles.
10. Manganese – Iron and steel production. Effects occur mainly in the
Mn Manganese dioxide is also respiratory passages and in the
used as a catalyst. Used in brains. Symptoms of
decolourization of glass and manganese poisoning are
craft violet coloured glass. hallucinations, lack of
Potassium permanganate is a memory and neuronal
strong oxidising agent and damage. Excess manganese
used to disinfect water. Used causes Parkinson’s disease,
in making fertilisers and lung embolism and bronchial
ceramics. infection. A syndrome that is
caused by manganese toxicity
exhibits symptoms such as
schizophrenia, dullness, eak
muscles, headaches and
sleeplessness.

3. Global Impacts of Water Pollution

1. Eutrophication: It refers to the enrichment of freshwater bodies by accumulation of
nitrates and phosphates mostly due to the result of anthropogenic activities. It is
predominantly found in sluggish rivers and shallow lakes.
The number of coastal areas affected by eutrophication globally is over 500. High
amounts of nitrates and phosphates are present in sewage, fertilizers and other organic
matters. The waters at depth are usually deficient in oxygen, ranging from hypoxic to
anoxic condition. A number of algal blooms are identified by discolouration of water
bodies often due to the high density of pigmented cells. The water usually becomes
greenish. This is known as ‘algal bloom’. Rapid algal expansion leads to increased
decomposers. All forms of aquatic life such as decomposers, other aquatic vegetation
including the algae, aquatic animals including the fishes, consume the oxygen that is
dissolved in the water for respiration. This in turn seeks a great requirement for oxygen
and leads to oxygen depletion. Some algal blooms are harmful for instance the
dinoflagellates belong to the genus Alexandrium and Karenia. Such bloom often
assumes a red or brown colour and is conventionally known as red tides.

26
2. Bioaccumulation and biomagnification: Bioaccumulation is the accretion of
substances like pesticides, metals and various organic compounds into the body of
living organism over a period of time. This can occur either because the chemical gains
entry faster than it can be utilized, or because the chemical cannot be metabolized by
the organism.
Bioconcentration is a more precise term that refers to uptake and accumulation of a
chemical substance from water alone.
Compounds like DDT and tetra-ethyl lead, being lipids soluble, are stored in the
body’s adipose tissues, which are used for energy production, the compounds on being
released cause acute poisoning.
Biomagnification also known as bioamplification or biological magnification, on the
other hand is the amplification in the concentration of a substance up the trophic level.
Biological magnification is the process by which particular substances such as
pesticides or heavy metals go up the trophic level. Pollutants like DDT may also enter
the body of humans through dietary milk provided the bovine animals get the exposure
of DDT contaminated grass and water. The consequences are severe blood and nervous
system disorders.
3. Biological Pollution of water or Water-Borne Diseases: Water-borne diseases are
caused by pathogens. Microbes can also be the source of food-borne diseases through
consumption of contaminated food. The most common ater-borne diseases are
summarized in the following tables.
Table 3: Few Important Protozoan Infections
Disease Pathogen Common Symptoms
Amoebiasis Entamoeba histolytica Discomfort in the abdomen,
tiredness, loss of eight,
diarrhoea, distension.
Cryptosporidiosis Cryptosporidium parvum Flu-like manifestations,
diarrhoea, loss of hunger,
distension.

Table 4: Few Important Parasitic Infections

Disease Pathogen Common Symptoms
Taeniasis Taenia solium Intestinal disturbance, neurologic
manifestations, loss of weight,
cysticercosis.
Ascariasis Ascaris lumbricoides Inflammation, fever and diarrhoea.
Loffler’s syndrome in lungs
alongwith nausea, vomiting,
malnutrition and underdevelopment.

27
 Table 5: Few Important Bacterial Infections
Botulism Clostridium botulinum Blurred vision, thirsty and dehydrated
mouth, difficulty in swallowing,
slurred speech, vomiting diarrhoea,
difficulty in breathing, death may be
caused by respiratory failure.
Dysentry Shigella dysenteries Passing of faeces with blood and or
mucus, in many a case vomiting
blood.
E.coli infections Escherichia coli Diarrhoea and dehydration
Cholera Vibrio cholera Watery stool, nausea, cramps, nasal
bleeding, rapid pulse, vomiting,
haemorrhagic shock.
Typhoid Salmonella typhi Sustained fever up to 104ºF, profuse
sweating, diarrhoea, rarely rashes, if
untreated leads to splenomegaly and
hepatomegaly, progressive delirium
and sometimes death.

Table 6: Few Important Viral Infections

Disease Pathogen Common Symptoms
Hepatitis A Hepatitis A virus Fatigue, fever, abdominal pain,
(HAV) nausea, diarrhoea, loss of weight,
itching, depression, jaundice
Gastroenteritis Astro virus, Calici Diarrhoea, nausea, vomiting, fever,
virus, Enteric adeno malaise, abdominal pain.
virus, Parvovirus
SARS (Severe Acute Corona virus Pyrexia, myalgia, lethargy, cough,
Respiratory sore throat, gastrointestinal
Syndrome) disturbance
Poliomyelitis Poliovirus Headache, fever, delirium, sporadic
seizures, spastic paralysis, seldom
aseptic meningitis and death.

4. Occupational Health Hazards

a. Itai-Itai Disease: This was the famous case in Toyama Prefecture, Japan that as
characterized by severe pain in joints and vertebral column. It was called as itai-itai
disease by the local inhabitants and found to be produced by cadmium poisoning.

28
 Several mining companies discharged cadmium into the rivers. The consequences are
softening of the bones and kidney failure. It became one of the most prominent
pollution-related diseases of Japan.
b. Chisso-Minamata Disease: Also known as Minamata Disease, the root cause of such
disease is mercury poisoning. Primary symptoms are ataxia (loss of muscular
coordination affecting speech, eyeball movements, swallowing, walking etc.), lack of
sensation in the palms and feet, weakness in the muscles, hearing impairement,
reduced visual field, etc. Such a neurological syndrome, in extreme cases, can lead to
insanity, paralysis, coma and death that might follow within few weeks of inception
of the symptoms. Mercury may cross the placenta and affect the in-utero foetus.
c. Blackfoot Disease (BFD): BFD is an endemic disease confined to the southwestern
coast of Taiwan and is caused due to arsenic toxicity. The disease is initiated with
people complaining about the coldness or numbness in the appendicular extremities,
especially in the feet along with the irregular claudication (cramps and pain in lower
leg while exercising or walking) making progress with course of time. This peripheral
disease with severe systematic arteriosclerosis and gangrene like symptoms, affects
the feet and occasionally the fingers.
d. Methemoglobinemia: Excess release of nitrates from fertilizers enters the human
body through water. Then nitrates are ingested or in taken, they are transformed into
nitrites in the alimentary system. The nitrites reacting with blood haemoglobin forms
methaemoglobin. The haemoglobin molecule being preoccupied by nitrites cannot
bind to the oxygen. The body is thus deprived of oxygen supply. This is fatal
especially in the infants as they have very little amount of methaemoglobin reductase
which could revert such effect. The syndrome is called blue baby syndrome or
methaemoglobinemia. The symptoms are shortness of breath, vomiting and diarrhea.
After confirming the test for the syndrome, an injection of required dose of methylene
blue can help the baby’s blood to return to the normals (www.uniassignment.com).
4. Measurement of water pollution
1. Biological Oxygen Demand: Pollution in ater can usually be measured by estimating
the biological/biochemical oxygen demand (BOD) of water. Lower value of BOD
indicates lesser pollution whereas higher BOD value indicates higher pollution. It is
one of the most useful parameters to indicate the organic strength of wastewater and
can be defined as the amount of oxygen required by the aerobic bacteria to decompose
the biodegradable matter in a given amount of water at 20ºC over a period of five days.
In reality it is an indirect measure to calculate the concentration of degradable matters
present in waste. The BOD value of ra sewage may run to several hundred. Till 1971,
the recommended BOD limit by World Health Organization (WHO) for potable water
was 6 mg/l, there is no prescribed limit at present.
2. Chemical Oxygen Demand: This is the most common method of measuring the
strength of industrial water i.e. the amount of oxygen used for the chemical oxidation

29
 of the pollutants. It is expressed in mg/l and is the total measurement of all the
chemicals in water that can be oxidized. Higher COD values indicate higher values of
pollution in the wastewater sample. COD can be employed for waters too toxic for
BOD test and usually takes fe hours for completion, an added advantage over BOD
test. The decomposition is brought out by adding and boiling with a powerful oxidant,
usually potassium dichromate. COD value is usually higher than the BOD value.
5. Steps to prevent or control water pollution
1. Awareness: Creating mass awareness is the foremost step towards preventing and
controlling water pollution. Many NGOs have campaigned against over harvesting of
fish and pleased for tough penalties against the industries and factories dispensing
effluents in the water bodies.
2. Legislation: The major problem with water pollution is mainly because of the flowing
nature of water that results in trans-boundary pollution. Most of the rivers cross
national boundaries whereas ocean and seas may span continents. The pollutants
released by the factories in one nation with pitiable emission standards cause glitches
in the neighbouring countries. In many a case, the countries that suffer has stringent
environmental legislation and elevated environmental standards. The environmental
laws make a situation difficult for the people to foul, but it is more difficult to make
such laws practically operative as they need to be implemented across national and
international borders. To handle such trans-boundary issues several international
negotiations and laws were negotiated and agreed upon:
o The International Convention for the Prevention of Pollution of the Sea from oil
tankers, London, 1954.
o The International Convention for the Prevention of pollution from Ships, 1973,
(MARPOL 73/78),
o UN Convention on the Law of the Sea, 1982 enforced in 1994.
o London Dumping Convention, 1972.
o Convention on the control of trans-boundary movement of hazardous astes and
their disposal, 1989, Basel.
o 1998 OSPAR Convention for the Protection of the Marine Environment of the
North East Atlantic.
o Nairobi International Convention on the Removal of Wrecks, 2007
The GOI has enacted the following legislations:
o The Water (Prevention and Control of pollution) Act, 1974 further amended in
1988.
o The Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Cess Act, 1977, last amended in
2003.

30
Table 7: Bureau of Indian Standards (BIS) drinking water – specifications for some
of the important parameters IS 10500 – 2012 as per Ministry of Drinking Water and
Sanitation (MDWS), GOI
S.N. Characteristic Unit Requirement Permissible
(Acceptable limit in the
Limit) absence of
alternate source
1. Total Dissolved Solids Milligram/litre 500 2000
(TDS)
2. Colour Hazen Unit 5 15
3. Turbidity Nephelometric 1 5
Turbidity Unit
(NTU)
4. Total Hardness Milligram/litre 200 600
5. Ammonia Milligram/litre 0.5 0.5
6. Free residual Chlorine Milligram/litre 0.2 1.0
7. pH - 6.5-8.5 6.5-8.5
8. Chloride Milligram/litre 250 1000
9. Fluoride Milligram/litre 1.0 1.5
10. Arsenic Milligram/litre 0.01 0.05
11. Iron Milligram/litre 0.3 0.3
12. Nitrate Milligram/litre 45 45
13. Sulphate Milligram/litre 200 400
14. Selenium Milligram/litre 0.01 0.01
15. Zinc Milligram/litre 5.0 15.0
16. Mercury Milligram/litre 0.001 0.001
17. Lead Milligram/litre 0.01 0.01
18. Cyanide Milligram/litre 0.05 0.05
19. Copper Milligram/litre 0.05 1.5
20. Chromium Milligram/litre 0.05 0.05
21. Nickel Milligram/litre 0.02 0.02
22. Cadmium Milligram/litre 0.003 0.003
23. E.coli or Thermotolerant Number/100 ml NIL NIL
coliforms

31
II. Thermal Pollution
The water pollution due to the heat is popularly known as thermal pollution. Hot water from
different sources when enters into the water bodies affects the water bodies adversely. Both
plant and animals get affected by such type of the pollution.
1. Sources of thermal pollution: Several industries, thermal power plants, and nuclear
power stations use large quantity of water as a cooling agent, resulting heating of water
after the absorption of excess of heat from these processes. In the thermal power plants
about 70% of the heat is lost as waste which is absorbed by the cooling water. The water
becomes hot and then released into the reservoirs. Such types of water often raise the
temperature upto 10-15 degree centigrade and became dangerous for the aquatic
ecosystem. Sewage and industrial waste also rise of temperature of water bodies by 4-6
degree centigrade.
2. Effect of warm water on aquatic life: Some of the major adverse effects on aquatic life
are as follows:
i. Small animals, phytoplankton, zooplankton, small fishes get affected and killed by the
hot water.
ii. Cell walls of such type of animals and plants severely damage due to the hot water.
iii. Hot water may adversely affect the enzyme and metabolic activities of the plants and
animals.
iv. The quantity of the dissolve oxygen also get effected by the presence of the hot water
as the oxygen present into the water body bobbles out from the water body. It is also
called as the gas bobble diseases of water. This results increase in the BOD levels of
the water and causes suffocation of aquatic animals.
v. The hot water makes the aquatic organism susceptible towards toxic chemical and
bacterial/viral/fungal infections.
vi. Thermal pollution adversely affects the overall ecological balance of the aquatic
ecosystem, e.g. it affects the hatching of the eggs of some fishes, while other insects
begin hatching with slight rise in the water temperature.
3. Control of Thermal Pollution: It is very hard to control thermal pollution because it is
the results of actions of many people. But in case of already known source location, the
water should be allow to cool down before discharged. The cooling towers and fountains
can be used for the rapid cooling. Large tank and reservoir should be constructed to retain
the water for a little longer time. It is also suggested to discharge such type of the hot
water system into the running water bodies instead of stagnant water bodies.

III. Soil Pollution

Soil is a natural medium of inorganic and organic nutrients and has an inbuilt system of
spontaneous recycling of matter. It is affected by changes in the atmospheric conditions as
well as water contents and microbial population.

32
Soil pollution is defined as an undesirable change in the natural, physical, chemical or
biological components of the soil.
1. Sources of Soil Pollution: The various sources of soil pollution may be categorized into
two groups:
1. Natural Sources: They are as follows:
i. Plant Residues: Normally plants, on death and decay, contribute organic matter
to the soil and thereby increase soil fertility. Sometimes residues from crops,
fields and orchards carry plant pathogens and pests. Burning of crops yields
residues with CO (8.3%), NO (1.5%), hydrocarbons (5,3%) and particulate matter
(8.5%).
ii. Animal Residues: Animal wastes, such as faecal matter, urnine, blood, slaughter
house waste in the form of liquid or particulate matter, bodies of dead animals etc.
are all indiscriminately dumped into the soil. Excessive organic contents are
harmful for healthy growth of roots as they create hypertonic conditions in the soil
causing wilting or stunted growth of the plants.
2. Anthropogenic Sources
i. Domestic: Domestic sewage is wastewater generated from the household
activities. It is 99.9 percent pure ater; remaining 0.1 percent are pollutants which
are both organic and inorganic materials. Organic materials are food and
vegetable waste, excreta, faecal matter whereas inorganic materials such as
phosphates and nitrates come from soaps and detergents.
ii. Agriculture: It is undoubted that extensive use of fertilizers and pesticides,
collectively called as agro-chemicals, increases the agricultural output. These,
mostly artificial chemicals, move into the waterbodies alongwith rainfall and
groundwater by leaching. Such chemicals are persistent and may after gain entry
into the food chain causing numerous problems in the animals.
iii. Industries: Most of the industries are situated along the banks of the river for
convenience and disposal of effluents. Often these effluents comprise acids,
bases, dyes, paints, and a range of other chemicals. Detergents form white foam.
The industrial waste can be mercury, lead, cadmium, chlorides, fluorides,
ammonia etc. Such addition alters the pH of water and turns it into a condition
that is fatal to aquatic forms. The industries regularly discharge heavy amount of
superheated water used in the thermal power plants, oil refineries, nuclear power
plants, etc. such high temperature injuries and kills the aquatic flora and fauna.
High temperature also reduces the amount of oxygen dissolved in water that may
harm or even kill the aquatic life, the condition is called as thermal pollution.
iv. Radioactive Waste: High concentrations can be lethal, whereas low
concentrations of radioactive substances can cause malignancy and various forms
of sickness. Two most important contributors in Europe are Sellafield and Ca La
Hague.

33
2. Impacts of Soil pollution
i. Soil pollution decreases soil fertility. Loss of soil fertility makes the soil inhabitable for
plants and other organisms.
ii. Soil pollution has adverse effects on soil microbial population that plays important role
in soil formation and keeping it fertile.
iii. Indiscriminate use of agro-chemicals destroys the soil flora and fauna and soil
properties.
iv. SO2, SO3 and oxides of nitrogen of the atmosphere are washed down by rain in the
form of H2SO4, HNO2 and HNO3 which reach the soil and increase the acidity.
Increased acidity develops unhealthy conditions for plant growth.
v. Dumping of radioactive wastes onto the soil is lethal to plants and microbial life. Such
pollution has far reaching effects and even human beings are not spared.
3. Control measures for Soil pollution
1. Control of pesticide pollution can be carried out by:
i. Lowering its use in agriculture.
ii. Use of degradable insecticides like organic phosphates.
iii. Use of short-lived chemical pesticides.
iv. Adopting biological control
v. Releasing sterile males into the natural population of insects.
vi. Rotation and diversification of crops etc.
2. Control of fertilizer pollution
3. Control of pollution due to garbage
4. Control of acid rains
5. Control of radioactive based soil pollution
6. Discharge of hot liquids and oil leakage in the soil should be avoided.
7. Sewage should be biologically treated and converted into manure instead of its
uncontrolled release into the soil.

POLLUTION CASE STUDIES

The London Smog, 1952: In the winters of UK in the late nineteenth and twentieth
centuries, on considerable occasions, in early December of 1952, the wind speed had fallen
and temperature inversions were formed as stationary high pressure systems developed over
western Europe. With increase in the concentration of pollutants, fogs became widespread.
The condition was commonly referred to as smog. Initially the term smog was coined by
Harold Des Voeux, the treasurer of Coal Smoke Abatement Society in 1905 to refer an odd
combination of smoke plus fog.

34
Smog was formed from particulate emissions from the combustion of coal in the industrial
furnaces, kilns and boilers, domestic grates and steam locomotives, canal ships. The visibility
dropped, transport could not move, railways and air flights had to be closed and shops, stores
and institutions were shut down completely paralyzing the city. PM went up by 56 times the
normal level and SO2 level went up by seven times.
Some 8,000 young and old people were hit by bronchitis and heart disease. The number of
deaths rose so high from this Sulphur laden sooty condition that it was popularly known as
Great Smog. These profound events led to the enactment of Clean Air Act of 1956.
The Los Angeles Smog Episode:This event was occurred in Los Angeles city in 1943. The
Sulphur-laden sooty smog in time, however, eventually gave rise to the photochemical smog
with the development of internal combustion engine as a prime source of transportation. Such
smog are initiated by nitrogen dioxides, In the Presence of sunlight the free oxygen atoms
react to form ozone. This was first evidenced in Los Angeles region of USA. It irritated the
eyes, damaged the plants, for example tobacco. The major sources of nitrogen dioxides were
vehicular emission, emissions from aircrafts, ships, trains, industries and houses. The
symptoms are aching lungs, wheezing, coughing and headache. ‘Smog complex’ involves
irritation of eyes and respiratory passages, chest pains, shortness of breath, nausea and
headache. Lung’s are ozone’s primary target causing damages to cells in the airways,
inflammation and swelling. It also reduces immunity. It poses a health risk to those people
who already suffer from emphysema and chronic bronchitis.
The Bhopal Gas Disaster Episode:Commonly known as Bhopal Gas Tragedy, it is till date
the ghastliest industrial disaster of the world. The incident took place on 2-3 December night,
1984 at the Union Carbide Industrial Plant in Bhopal, Madhya Pradesh, meant for the
production ofSevin - a pesticide.
Over 40 tons of methyl isocyanate (MIC) gas escaped out from the Union Carbide Pesticide
Plant, which instantaneously killed nearly 3,800 inhabitants and accused considerable
despondency and early death for several thousands. Estimates from various sources vary on
death toll. Another agency claimed over 15,000 deaths. As per government sources in 2006,
the leak caused 5.58.125 injuries with disabling injuries. The vent gas crubber, a safety
device had been turned off three weeks prior. It becomes apparent that a defective valve
permitted a load of water that was meant for clean-up of the internal pipelines, got mixed
with 40 tons of MIC. When MIC is exposed to 200ºC heat, it formed more deadly hydrogen
cyanide (HCN) gas. The evidence gathered does reveal the temperature of the storage tank to
reach that disastrous level.
The effects from this tragedy were: Ophthalmic (chemosis, redness, watering, ulcers,
photophobia); respiratory (distress, pulmonary edema, pneumonitis, pneumothorax),
psychological (neuroses, anxiety states, adjustment reactions); neurobehavioral (impaired
audio-visual memory, impaired alertness and reaction time, impaired analysis, interpretation
and spatial ability, dysfunctional psychomotor coordination), Visual (constant watering,

35
corneal opacities, chronic conjunctivitis), respiratory (obstructive and restrictive airay
disease, decreased lung function) etc.
Taj Mahal Issue:Taj Mahal, being one of the seven wonders and one of the most beautiful
monuments of the world, attracts international tourists throughout the year. It was built along
the bank of river Yamuna by Mughal Emperor Shahajahan in memory of his beloved wife
Mumtaz more than 350 years back in Agra. It is now included in the list of World Heritage
due to its archaeological importance. In 1972, Government of India established Mathura Oil
Refinery in Mathura. This step was most resented by various environmentalists of the country
and protested that its air pollutants were harmful to Taj Mahal. During the oil refining
process, Sulphur dioxide (SO2) is released in a large quantity along with the smoke. Air
containing SO2 blow all round and reacts with water during rains. SO2 combines with water
to form Sulphur us acid (H2SO3) and sulphuric acid (H2SO4) and produces acid rains.
Environmentalists protested that acid rain causes damage to the marbles of Taj Mahal. The
white marble has yellowed and blackened in places. Government constituted a committee in
1974 to find out the fact and authorized Italian Company Technico to evaluate the changes
occurring in the air due to Mathura Oil Refinery of Indian Oil Corporation. According to the
report of the committee and determinations carried out by Italian company, it was concluded
that in Agra the quantity of SO2 would increase up to 1-3 microgram which is negligible and
harmless to the Taj Mahal. However, WHO (1982) has recognized ‘Taj Trapezium Zone’
(TTZ) (50 km radius area) to protect the monument from pollution hazards. Burning of coal
and wood fuel has been banned in TTZ. Supreme Court has ordered to set up a solar power
plant for energy requirement of TTZ.
The Ganga Pollution:River Ganga is so important and closely associated with Indian culture
and civilization that it is often designated as ‘Maa-the mother’ and is worshipped in India and
now the National River of India (2008).
The Ganga is the ninth largest river in the world and second largest in India with a length of
2,525 km. from Gangotri to Ganga Sagar. It constitutes about 25.2% water source of India.
Several Himalayan rivers including Madakini, Alaknanda, Yamuna, Ghagra, Gandak, Koshi
etc join it during its course. About 692 cities/towns are located along its bank of which 27
cities have population more than 1 lakh. More than 600 km part of the river, particularly
between Kanpur and Patna is highly polluted. Every day it receives about 1300 million liters
sewage and 250 million liters chemical effluents. The main causes of pollution of Ganges
water are the mixing of the industrial effluents (20%) and domestic and municipal effluents
(80%) into it.
Following are main causes of Ganga Pollution:
1. Sediments load of the Ganga River and other associated rivers.
2. Sewage disposal of villages, towns and cities.
3. Discharge of industrial effluents.
4. Release of dead bodies of animal and human beings.

36
5. Cremation along the bank of river and disposal of cremation material and burnt and half
burnt dead bodies of human beings.
6. Surface run off of toxic chemicals, agro-chemicals, pesticides etc.
GAP helped in estimating the magnitude of Ganga Pollution. In an estimate, it was calculated
that about 10,90,000 kg toxic effluents and 13,00,000 kg domestic and municipal effluents
are discharged every year from the cities of UP only. The first step of GAP started in 1985
and second in 1995 to complete the plan by the end of 1999. Despite, 20,000 crore has been
spent to clean the water, the results achieved remain insignificant. Various other projects
have also been subsidized by the Government of Netherlands and Japan to clean the water of
the Holy Ganges. Now Project of GAP includes cleaning of Yamuna and Gomti rivers.
NGPRA has granted rupees 100 million to clean them.
Technical experts (2014) have recommended 5 programmes for cleaning National River of
India, the Ganga, as follows:
- Formation of microdams
- Planning for floating population
- Reduction in number of riverside industries
- Limited storage of waters in barrages and
- Development of organic farming
The present Prime Minister, Shri Narendra Modi has launched a new scheme called Namami
Gange to clean holy river Ganga (2015). Government has sanctioned rupees 20,000 crore for
this project.
The Yamuna Pollution: River Yamuna after being originated for Yamunotri covers a
passage of 1376 km before joining the river Ganga at Allahabad. The river has been divided
into five segments from the point of view of pollution level.
1. Himalayan Segment from Yamunotri to Tajewala, 172 km, nonpolluted zone.
2. Upper segment from Tajewala to Wazirabad, 224 km polluted by agrochemicals used in
Haryana.
3. Delhi segment from Wazirabad barrage to Okhla barrage, 22 km, highly polluted zone
due to Delhi effluent discharges.
4. Eutrophicated segment from Okhla barrage to join place with river Chambal, 490 km,
highly polluted with microbes and with highest BOD, Mathura and Agra covered in the
segment.
5. Mixed segment from Chambal Sangam to Allahabad 468 km, pollution level decreases.
The pollution problem in Delhi segment is acute and highly dangerous. About 1900 million
liter sewage is discharged every day in this segment of 22 km. The total treatment capacity of
Delhi plants is about 1270 ml/day i.e. about 630 ml//day of it is still discharged directly to
river Yamuna without any treatment. Moreover, the treated water is also not pure. It remains
partially untreated. Further 2800 ml effluents day are discharged into the river by eleven main

37
nullahs which result in an increase of 200 BOD and 160 tones suspended solids. Najafgarh
and Shahdara nullahs are most problematic.
In 1993, in the second step of Ganga Action Plan (GAP) of Government of India, Yamuna
Action Plan (YAP) was also taken up. It included 127 working projects of which 48 are in
UP, 76 in Haryana and 3 in Delhi. After 13 years of works on these projects, the pollution
problem still remains serious. Pollution is further nurtured due to barrages built in Delhi,
Mathura and Agra for civic water supply and number of canals made for irrigation. All this
has made river Yamuna as sewage vahine.
Minamata Tragedy: Already discussed above.

LEARNING OUTCOME

 Basic concepts of water pollution, causes, impacts and control.

 Brief introduction about water quality standards.
 Understanding the problem of soil pollution, causes, impacts and control.
 Significance of solid waste disposal problem.
 Understanding the problem of thermal pollution and pollution case studies.

STUDY QUESTIONS
Q.1 What is water pollution? Describe various causes and methods of control.
Q.2 Outline the different sources of water pollution.
Q.3 Discuss the nature of pollutants and suggest the remedial measures.
Q.4 Define the following terms:
i. Water pollution
ii. Biomagnification
iii. Algal blooms
iv. Black foot disease
Q.5 Write short notes on:
i. Bhopal Gas Tragedy
ii. London Smog Disaster
iii. Minmata Episode
iv. Ganga Pollution
Q.6 Write a brief account of soil pollution.
Q.7 What is soil pollution? Describe their causes, effects and remedies.

38
Multiple-choice questions:
1) BOD stands for?
a) Biotic oxygenation demand
b) Biological Oxygen Demand
c) Biological Oxidation demand
d) Biochemical Oxygen Demand
Answer: Biological Oxygen Demand
2) The occurrence of pesticides in DDT in higher trophic levels is termed as?
a) Bioremediation
b) Biomagnification
c) Biological Enhancement
d) Biopollution
Answer: Biomagnification
3) Soil Pollution is caused by
a) Natural and manmade source
b) Natural source
c) Manmade source
d) None of the above
Answer: Natural and manmade source
4) What is the main impact of thermal pollution?
a) Soil Pollution
b) Spawning of eggs
c) Air pollution
d) Corrosion
Answer: Spawning of eggs
5) Bhopal Gas Tragedy is caused by
a) MIC
b) Sulphur dioxide
c) CFCs
d) Methane
Answer: MIC

39
 LESSON-12

NUCLEAR HAZARDS AND HUMAN HEALTH RISKS

Dr. Aniket Singh
Assistant Professor,
Dyal Singh College (M),
University of Delhi
INTRODUCTION
Waste is known as a material or substance or it’s by-product that is not found useful after
completion of its process or use. The waste generated can be from residential, industrial,
commercial or agricultural activity. The solid waste can be paper, metal, glass, organic matter
or something else. Based on their hazard potential they are classified as toxic, non-toxic,
flammable, radioactive or infectious.
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
After going through the Unit, you will be able to understand
 the sources, causes and impacts of Nuclear pollution.
 How various kind of pollutants impact the ecosystem and human health.
 various measures and steps that can be employed for reducing pollution.
 Definition, types, sources of solid waste, the impact of landfills and importance of an
integrated Solid waste management plan.
 Critically assess the various issues discussed above with respect to relevant case
studies.
SOLID WASTE MANAGEMENT
In 2018 the per capita waste generation was highest in USA and Canada approx. 2.58 and
2.33 kg per day and in India it was about 0.34kg per day. It is predicted with current rate, the
global waste generation will rise to 2.2 billion tons per year by 2025.The municipal solid
waste (MSW) contains organic waste (51%), recyclables (17%), hazardous (11%) and inert
waste (21%). Waste segregation has been a very basic problem in solid waste management as
about 40% of waste is not collected and litters the town, entering drains and water bodies-
choking and polluting the environment. The unsegregated waste causes nuisance and various
types of pollution and is spread to nearby areas and pollutes our environment. Burning of
these wastes creates air pollution and releases gases that cause global warming.
2. Types of Waste
1. E-waste
E-waste is defined as electronic waste, which has been rendered useless after fulfilling their
use. These wastes consist of televisions, computers, copiers, mobile phones, fax machines,

40
stereos and other equipment. Presently, the e waste generation is increasing at a very rapid
rate throughout the world also supporting recycling, recovery and refurbishment and resale of
this equipment. According to the Global E-Waste Monitor 2017, India generates about 2
million tons (MT) of e-waste annually and ranks fifth among e-waste producing countries
(Global E-Waste Monitor -2017), led by USA and China. In India 95% of the e-waste is
treated in informal sector.
The e waste connected health risks are very high and mainly related to handling and direct
contact with harmful materials such as mercury, chromium, lead, cadmium, flame retardants
and polychlorinated biphenyls present in these wastes. The recovery and extraction of various
elements in these wastes can lead to inhalations of toxic fumes and accumulation of harmful
chemicals in water, soil and food that can directly affect human health.
2. Biomedical Waste
Biomedical waste is classified as waste generated during the diagnosis, treatment, of human
beings or animals, or research activities or as testing subjects.
According to latest Biomedical waste (BMW) Rules, 2016, several changes and additions
have been made in earlier rules to further improve the collection, segregation, processing,
treatment and disposal of the biomedical wastes in an environmentally sound manner. The
waste consists of anatomical waste, soiled waste like plasters and bandages, medicines,
chemical waste, discarded linen, syringes and needles, glassware etc. and they are incinerated
or autoclaved to avoid infection in environment. According to new rules wastes have been
color coded into four colours (yellow, red, white, blue) to address the issue of their handling
and disposal.
3. Plastic Waste and Management
Plastic waste is considered as one the most persistent major waste in environment. According
to the report from central pollution control board (CPCB) in 2017-18, India generated 9.4
million tons plastic waste annually. Only 60% of plastic is being recycled through organized
and unorganized sector. The 50% of plastic waste generated consists of single use plastic like
straws, plates, food packaging etc. The recycle rate is only 10% for single use plastic and
majority ends up in ocean affecting aquatic life and creating pollution. The plastics have been
graded according to their thickness used in different industries (Fig. 1). Management of
plastic waste has become huge task for government resulting in banning of single use plastics
in many states of India. Plastics cannot be decomposed and slowly breaks down into micro-
plastics and remain in environment for thousands of years. A single plastic bottle cans stay in
environment for thousands of year. The plastic waste management rules, 2016 specifies
minimum thickness of 50 micron for plastic use in order to easily reuse and recycle the
product. It also promotes use of plastic for road construction, energy generation and oil
formation. Accordingly, CPCB has been entrusted to set the guidelines for thermoset plastics.
The plastic waste management rules, 2018 by MoEFCC amended rules for phasing out multi

41
layered plastic (MLP), which cannot be recycled, non-energy recoverable, and has no
alternate use.

Figure 1: Different types of plastic used in day today use. (Source: MoHUA-2019).
1 – Polyethylene Terephthalate (PET or PETE), 2 – High-Density Polyethylene (HDPE), 3 –
Polyvinyl Chloride (PVC), 4 – Low-Density Polyethylene (LDPE), 5 – Polypropylene (PP), 6
– Polystyrene (PS), 7 – Other.
WASTE MANAGEMENT 5-R PRINCIPLE
One of the widely used waste reduction strategy can be used by people in towns and cities
and is known as 5-R principle (Fig 2). This strategy can reduce the waste and can also use it
for energy generation.
Reduce: The reduction of waste generation can be started from households by reducing the
packages of commodities, increasing durability, avoiding disposable or single use plastic
items, usage of jute bags or cloth bags for marketing etc. Reducing paperwork in homes and
offices and promoting e- mails or e-bills should be promoted.
Reuse: The habit of re-using the commodities should be promoted. One can donate the
books, old clothes, and electronics by getting in touch with the organizations that can direct
you to the needful people who may find need of these resources.
Recycle: Segregation of waste is paramount for recycling of waste. Segregation of paper,
metals, glasses, and plastics from the organic waste is very important. These wastes than can
be used for recycling and creating a new product that can be used widely. Recycling saves

42
other resources and is good for our environment. A ton of recycled paper can save 25-30
trees, 25000 liters of water and 4000 kWh of energy.
Recover: Recovery is one of the methods where more resources are required i.e mechanical,
technical to convert and reprocess the waste into energy. This means that energy can be
generated in form of heat and can be converted into other forms as per requirement and
resources.
Refuse: It is considered as a last resort to get rid of the waste generated and is dumped
accordingly in landfills and dumpsites. The waste collected from the city or town in these
areas remain for a longer period of time. These landfill sites are major concern for human
population as they are home to feral animals and also making the adjoining areas unfit for
habitation due to foul smell, leachate affecting water table and burning of waste causing air
pollution.

Figure 2: Integrated method of solid waste management. Reduction is the primary concern
and refuse being last.
4. Incineration
Incineration is a waste treatment process where combustion happens at very high temperature
converting them into ashes releasing gases and heat. It is also considered as a waste to energy
processes like pyrolysis, gasification and anaerobic digestion. The biomedical waste and
hazardous waste are treated through incineration process as they cannot be treated with
conventional methods. The disadvantage of incineration process is release of harmful gases
like dioxins and furans that can cause severe health problems in humans.
5. Composting
Composting is a natural process that involves using micro-organisms for decomposition of
biodegradable waste. The organic waste consisting of agricultural or kitchen waste can be
used for composting. This process requires aeration for proper and faster decomposition.
In one of the methods of composting the earthworms are used to increase the rate of
decomposition also known as vermicomposting. Earthworms such as Eisenia fetida are used
which consume biomass and creates vermicasts. The vermicasts are rich in nutrients (N, P, K)
and growth promoting substances required by plants. Vermi-compost is good for soil and

43
does not contain pathogens and weeds. The vermicomposting needs to be promoted as it is
beneficial for the soil and growth of plants and also reduces waste generation.
6. Sanitary Landfill
Sanitary landfill is controlled reduction and disposal of waste away from human habitation in
a designated area, which reduces the contact between waste and environment. In a sanitary
landfill the garbage is compressed to reduce its volume and covered by a thick layer of soil in
order to minimize odors, deter pests, limit rainwater runoff, prevent fire and discourage
scavenging by feral animals. This process is repeated till the landfill is saturated with waste
and covered with soil and plantation is done. At various stages provisions for tapping landfill
gas (methane) is established for using in furnace or generation of electricity. In many parts of
the world the landfill sites have been successfully converted into community parks.
CASE STUDIES
The London Smog, 1952: In the winters of UK in the late nineteenth and twentieth
centuries, on considerable occasions, in early December of 1952, the wind speed had fallen
and temperature inversions were formed as stationary high pressure systems developed over
western Europe. With increase in the concentration of pollutants, fogs became widespread.
The condition was commonly referred to as smog. Initially the term smog was coined by
Harold Des Voeux, the treasurer of Coal Smoke Abatement Society in 1905 to refer an odd
combination of smoke plus fog.
Smog was formed from particulate emissions from the combustion of coal in the industrial
furnaces, kilns and boilers, domestic grates and steam locomotives, canal ships. The visibility
dropped, transport could not move, railways and air flights had to be closed and shops, stores
and institutions were shut down completely paralyzing the city. PM went up by 56 times the
normal level and SO2 level went up by seven times.
Some 8,000 young and old people were hit by bronchitis and heart disease. The number of
deaths rose so high from this sulphur laden sooty condition that it was popularly known as
Great Smog. These profound events led to the enactment of Clean Air Act of 1956.
The Los Angeles Smog Episode: This event was occurred in Los Angeles city in 1943. The
sulphur-laden sooty smog in time, however, eventually gave ay to the photochemical smog
with the development of internal combustion engine as a prime source of transportation. Such
smogs are initiated by nitrogen dioxides, In the Presence of sunlight the free oxygen atoms
react to form ozone. This was first evidenced in Los Angeles region of USA. It irritated the
eyes, damaged the plants, for example tobacco. The major sources of nitrogen dioxides were
vehicular emission, emissions from aircrafts, ships, trains, industries and houses. The
symptoms are aching lungs, wheezing, coughing and headache. ‘Smog complex’ involves
irritation of eyes and respiratory passages, chest pains, shortness of breath, nausea and
headache. Lung’s are ozone’s primary target causing damages to cells in the airways,

44
inflammation and swelling. It also reduces immunity. It poses a health risk to those people
who already suffer from emphysema and chronic bronchitis.
The Bhopal Gas Disaster Episode: Commonly known as Bhopal Gas Tragedy, it is till date
the most ghastly industrial disaster of the world. The incident took place on 2-3 December
night, 1984 at the Union Carbide Industrial Plant in Bhopal, Madhya Pradesh, meant for the
production of Sevin - a pesticide.
Over 40 tons of methyl isocyanate (MIC) gas escaped out from the Union Carbide Pesticide
Plant, which instantaneously killed nearly 3,800 inhabitants and acused considerable
despondency and early death for several thousands. Estimates from various sources vary on
death toll. Another agency claimed over 15,000 deaths. As per government sources in 2006,
the leak caused 5.58.125 injuries with disabling injuries. The vent gas crubber, a safety
device had been turned off three weeks prior. It becomes apparent that a defective valve
permitted a load of water that was meant for clean-up of the internal pipelines, got mixed
with 40 tons of MIC. When MIC is exposed to 200ºC heat, it formed more deadly hydrogen
cyanide (HCN) gas. The evidence gathered does reveal the temperature of the storage tank to
reach that disastrous level.
The early effects (0-6 months) from this tragedy were:
Opthalmic (chemosis, redness, watering, ulcers, photophobia); respiratory (distress,
pulmonary edema, pneumonitis, pneumothorax), gastrointestinal (persistent diarrhoea,
anorexia, persistent abdominal pain); genetic (increased chromosomal abnormalities),
psychological (neuroses, anxiety states, adjustment reactions); neurobehavioural (impaired
audio-visual memory, impaired altertness and reaction time, impaired analysis, interpretation
and spatial ability, dysfunctional psychomotor coordination).
The delayed effects (6 months onwards) from this tragedy were:
Visual (constant watering, corneal opacities, chronic conjunctivitis); respiratory (obstructive
and restrictive airay disease, decreased lung function); reproductive (increased abortion,
increased child mortality, reduced placental/foetal weight); genetic (increasd chromosomal
abnormailities) and neurobehavioural (impaired associate learning, motor speed, precision).
Taj Mahal Issue: Taj Mahal, being one of the seven wonders and one of the most beautiful
monuments of the world, attracts international tourists throughout the year. It was built along
the bank of river Yamuna by Mughal Emperor Shahajahan in memory of his beloved wife
Mumtaz more than 350 years back in Agra. It is now included in the list of World Heritage
due to its archaeological importance.
In 1972, Government of India established Mathura Oil Refinery in Mathura. This step was
most resented by various environmentalists of the country and protested that its air pollutants
were harmful to Taj Mahal.
During the oil refining process, sulphur dioxide (SO2) is released in a large quantity along
with the smoke. Air containing SO2 blow all round and reacts with water during rains. SO2

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combines with water to form sulphurous acid (H2SO3) and sulphuric acid (H2SO4) and
produces acid rains. Environmentalists protested that acid rain causes damage to the marbles
of Taj Mahal. The white marble has yellowed and blackened in places.
Government constituted a committee in 1974 to find out the fact and authorised Italian
Company Technico to evaluate the changes occurring in the air due to Mathura Oil Refinery
of Indian Oil Corporation. According to the report of the committee and determinations
carried out by Italian company, it was concluded that in Agra the quantity of SO2 would
increase upto 1-3 microgram which is negligible and harmless to the Taj Mahal. However,
WHO (1982) has recognized ‘Taj Trapezium Zone’ (TTZ) (50 km radius area) to protect the
monumnent from pollution hazards. Burning of coal and wood fuel has been banned in TTZ.
Supreme Court has ordered to set up a solar power plant for energy requirement of TTZ.
The Ganga Pollution: River Ganga is so important and closely associated with Indian
culture and civilisation that it is often designated as ‘Maa-the mother’ and is worshipped in
India and now the National River of India (2008).
The Ganga is the ninth largest river in the world and second largest in India with a length of
2,525 km. from Gangotri to Ganga Sagar. It constitutes about 25.2% water source of India. A
number of Himalayan rivers including Madakini, Alaknanda, Yamuna, Ghagra, Gandak,
Koshi etc join it during its course. About 692 cities/towns are located along its bank of which
27 cities have population more than 1 lakh. More than 600 km part of the river, particularly
between Kanour and Patna is highly polluted. Every day it receives about 1300 million litres
sewage and 250 million litres chemical effluents. The main causes of pollution of Ganges
water are the mixing of the industrial effluents (20%) and domestic and municipal effluents
(80%) into it.
Following are main causes of Ganga Pollution:
7. Sediments load of the Ganga River and other associated rivers.
8. Sewage disposal of villages, towns and cities.
9. Discharge of industrial effluents.
10. Release of dead bodies of animal and human beings.
11. Cremation along the bank of river and disposal of cremation material and burnt and
half burnt dead bodies of human beings.
12. Surface run off of toxic chemicals, agro-chemicals, pesticides etc.
In 1985, the Ministry of Environment and forests started the Ganga Action Plan (GAP) for
preventing irreversible damage and restoring the water quality of Ganga. GAP has following
objectives:
1. All round environmental improvements.
2. Installation of sewage treatment units and their proper operation and maintenance.
3. The basic facilities of sewage treatment to be coupled with production of energy and
manure and provision of pisciculture, aquaculture and irrigation-treated water.
4. Economic benefits to the local population.

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GAP helped in estimating the magnitude of Ganga Pollution. In an estimate, it was calculated
that about 10,90,000 kg toxic effluents and 13,00,000 kg domestic andmunicipal effluents are
discharged every year from the cities of UP only. The first step of GAP started in 1985 and
second in 1995 to complete the plan by the end of 1999. Despite, 20,000 crore has been spent
to clean the water, the results achieved remain insignificant. Various other projects have also
been subsidised by the Government of Netherlands and Japan to clean the water of the Holy
Ganges. Now Project of GAP includes cleaning of Yamuna and Gomti rivers. NGPRA has
granted rupees 100 million to clean them.
Technical experts (2014) have recommended 5 programmes for cleaning National River of
India, the Ganga, as follows:
- Formation of microdams
- Planning for floating population
- Reduction in number of riverside industries
- Limited storage of waters in barrages and
- Development of organic farming
The present Prime Minister, Shri Narendra Modi has launched a new scheme called
NamamiGange to clean holy river Ganga (2015). Government has sanctioned rupees 20,000
crore for this project.
The Yamuna Pollution: River Yamuna after being originated for Yamunotri covers a
passage of 1376 km before joining the river Ganga at Allahabad. The river has been divided
into five segments from the point of view of pollution level.
6. Himalayan Segment from Yamunotri to Tajewala, 172 km, nonpolluted zone.
7. Upper segment from Tajeala to Wazirabad, 224 km polluted by agrochemicals used in
Haryana.
8. Delhi segment from Wazirabad barrage to Okhla barrage, 22 km, highly polluted zone
due to Delhi effluent discharges.
9. Eutrophicated segment from Okhla barrage to joing place with river Chambal, 490
km, highly polluted with microbes and with highest BOD, Mathura and Agra covered
in the segment.
10. Mixed segment from Chambal sangam to Allahabad 468 km, pollution level
decreases.
The pollution problem in Delhi segment is acute and highly dangerous. About 1900 million
litre seage is discharged every day in this segment of 22 km. The total treatment capacity of
Delhi plants is about 1270 ml/day i.e. about 630 ml//day of it is still discharged directly to
river Yamuna without any treatment. Moreover, the treated water is also not pure. It remains
partially untreated. Further 2800 ml effluents day are discharged into the river by eleven main
nullahs which result in an increase of 200 BOD and 160 tonnes suspended solids. Najafgarh
and Shahdara nullahs are most problematic.

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The pollution indicator coliform test revealed the presence of 24,000,000 Escherichia coli per
100 ml in the downstream of Okhla region which is indicative of the magnitude of wwater
pollution. Conditions become more severe during summer.
In 1993, in the second step of Ganga Action Plan (GAP) of Government of India, Yamuna
Action Plan (YAP) was also taken up. It included 127 working projects of which 48 are in
UP, 76 in Haryana and 3 in Delhi. After 13 years of works on these projects, the pollution
problem still remains serious. Pollution is further nurtured due to barrages built in Delhi,
Mathura and Agra for civic water supply and number of canals made for irrigation. All this
has made river Yamuna as sewage vahini.
Minamata Tragedy: Already discussed above.
Chernobyl Disaster: The Chernobyl Disaster took place in April 1986 in Ukraine formerly
known to part of USSR. Chernobyl disaster is known to be the biggest disaster to have
occurred in nuclear power plant. In a routine maintenance of one of the four nuclear reactors
of the plant a sudden power surge caused uncontrolled chain reaction in one of the reactors
leading to explosions in the reactor. The explosion exposed the nuclear reactors causing
spread of radioactive material in atmosphere. The initial response from the administration
was to contain the fallout of disaster but later it realized that too much irreparable damage has
already happened. The explosion had released around 30 percent of 190 metric tons of
Uranium being used in reactors. The USSR government later informed the world of the
explosion and started evacuating people when they realized fall out couldn’t be controlled. It
is estimated that 335,000 people were evacuated and more than hundreds died due to
explosion. The periphery of the nuclear reactor approximately 19 miles wide was cordoned
off as “exclusion zone” with no human activity. The incident site has been covered with thick
sheets of steel in order to limit radiation leakage.
More than 34 years on, the scientists opine that the area won’t be habitable for next 20000
years. The researchers predicted contamination of surrounding areas with high radiation
which led to low and high-level radiation exposure to as many 10,000 people causing
radiation related cancer which led to there death in later years. The disaster led to global anti
nuclear movement discouraging the use of nuclear energy.
Fukushima Disaster: The Fukushima disaster is considered as second biggest disaster in
history after Chernobyl Disaster. The Fukushima disaster occurred in March 2011 in one of
the islands in Japan. The accident was rated 7 by INES scale due to high radioactive release
for 5-6 days. Four nuclear reactors were damaged in the incident leading to radiation fallout
in the region.
The accident mainly happened due to a major earthquake followed by 15 m high Tsunami
causing damage to the reactors. There were no reports of death due to radiation sickness but
more than hundred thousand people were evacuated from the area as precaution. The
radiation mainly consisted of Iodine-131, Caesium-134, Caesium-137, strontium-90, and
Plutonium-238.

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Indore: Global model for Waste Management: Indore city is one of the big cities in India
and has been named the cleanest city in India for record third time in Swachh Survekshan
2019. The city has managed to segregate 100% waste at source and successfully managed the
organic waste through composting and other methods. The better implementation of
cleanliness programs by Indore Municipal Corporation (IMC) had led to cooperation and
participation from citizens. The IMC is a global model for the world especially big cities
where waste management is a huge task due to quantity of waste and number of people
needed for its handling. The success of the IMC can be attributed to following steps:
 Information, education and communication (IEC): This is key to behavioral change in
the primary stakeholders-the citizens.
 Waste generation and segregation at source and at bulk in collection centers: Door to
door collection of waste in segregated form of dry waste and wet waste. Special
attention is given to hazardous or biomedical waste.
 Waste collection and transportation: the waste is collected from all the sources and
reaches a central facility where data is gathered from different localities and assessed.
 Waste processing: The wet waste is sent to a central facility for composting and dry
waste such as hazardous or biomedical waste is sent to incinerators. The waste is also
used to create bio-compressed natural gas (bioCNG) that is being used to run vehicles
in the city.

Swachh Bharat Abhiyan (Clean India Mission)

This is a campaign launched by prime minister of India on 2nd October 2014 to create
awareness regarding cleanliness in our homes, streets, and infrastructure of the country. It is
India’s largest cleanliness drive where students, government employees and people from
private sector participate. This movement has been successful in creating awareness for
cleanliness and discouraging open defecation by building toilets in rural and urban areas. The
movement has also created awareness for health and sanitation among the communities.
Ghazipur Landfill
Ghazipur landfill is one of the oldest and biggest landfill area in Delhi NCR region. The
landfill area is more than 30 years old and highly saturated to its capacity. The 65 m high
landfill is one of the towering structures in Delhi filled with municipal waste generated from
various parts of the city. The landfill is releasing green house gases together with leachate in
soil. More than 3 million people survive within 10 sq km radius of the landfill. In spite of
using various management practices the early solution to this problem is not seen. Recently
prime minister’s office have shown interest in handling this problem and various institutions
have been included to find a permanent solution in order to meet global sustainable
development goals regarding health and environment.

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LEARNING OUTCOME (Summary)
 The substances that are not considered useful are categorized as waste. The origin of
these can be domestic, industrial, construction or agriculture.
 The waste management is important for categorization of different types of waste and
their proper handling.
 The increasing waste generation in the world has supported the 5R principle for waste
management that consists of –reduce, reuse, recycle, recover and refuse.
 The hazardous wastes are generally treated by a method known as incineration and
organic waste is treated by method of composting.
 Special treatment is required for e-waste and biomedical waste as these can lead to
serious health problems among people.
 The awareness and knowledge is the most important step in reduction and
management of waste.
Questions:
Short Answer type questions
Q.1 What are 5-R principle and its importance in solid waste management?
Q.2 What is incineration process? Why is it only used for biomedical waste or hazardous
waste?
Multiple-Choice Questions
1. Which among these is non degradable
a) Paper bag
b) Woollen clothes
c) Plastic plates
d) Banana peel
Answer: Plastic plates
2. Which is the best methods to treat garbage consisting of newspapers, magazines and
old books
a) Incineration
b) Composting
c) Recycling
d) Landfill
Answer: Recycling
3. Vermicomposting to treat organic waste to compost uses which organism
a) Fungi
b) Earthworms
c) Termites
d) Beetles
Answer: Earthworms

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 4. Harmful gases like dioxins and furans are released by
a) Composting
b) Bio-gas
c) Landfills
d) Incineration
Answer: Incineration
5. In order to recycle the plastic, the minimum permissible thickness is
a) 20 micron
b) 40 micron
c) 50 micron
d) 100 micron
Answer: 50 microns
Study Questions
Q.1 Describe briefly any three study cases, one each related with air pollution and river
pollution.
Q.2 Write short notes on:
i. Bhopal Gas Tragedy
ii. London Smog Disaster
iii. Minamata Episode
iv. Ganga Pollution

GLOSSARY
Landfills: Sites created for storage or dumping of municipal solid waste.
Incinerator: The furnace designed to burn hazardous or infectious waste at high temperature
in controlled conditions.
Compost: Organic matter rich in nutrients created by decomposition of biodegradable waste.
Vermicomposting: The organic matter with high nutrient availability, good for soil and
plants created with the help of earthworms by decomposition of biodegradable waste like
kitchen waste.
Leachate: The liquid consisting of dissolved harmful substance enters the environment by
seeping to soil from landfills.
Polychlorinated biphenyls: A group of toxic chemicals used for manufacturing various
appliances and commodities including electrical appliances, adhesives, and fluids that are
considered carcinogenic in nature.

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