Physical Science Notes

Module 1

Observations
-qualitative vs. quantitative

Controlled experiment
-variable-factor that can change in an experiment
-independent variable-the variable that we manipulate
-dependent variable-the response

Theory vs. Law

-both are “well-tested explanations of a phenomenon in natural world, but laws use
mathematical terms, and laws don’t need to explain what causes it or why it exists

Science does not prove; it just collects evidence; technology may change and contradict what
we think we know

Inferences: a logical conclusion drawn from observations, previous knowledge and available
information; “rainbow”

Metric system:
Length. Meter
Mass Kilogram
Time second

Converting

Mass of baby pig

12,820 gm; what is mass in Kg

1) Coversion factor: 1 kg=1000 g
2) Start with mass we know
3) Arrange conversion factor so units cancel

Advanced concepts:
No relationship
Direct relationship-increase independent, and dependent increases
Inverse-increase independent, dependent decreases
Module 4-Chemical Bonds
Colossians 1:17:” And He is before all things, and in him all things hold together”

Chemical formulas are “recipes”

Subscripts are how many atoms in each molecule
Sugar: C6H12O6
Homonuclear diatomic molecule: “2 atoms of the same nucleus/atom
--H2, N2, F2, O2, Br2, Cl2, I2

Reactants: substances that undergo a chemical change

Products: new substances formed as a result of chemical change
ReactantsProducts
C + O2 CO2 (chemical equation)-the way scientists resprent a chemical change
Coefficents-sometimes chemicat equations require more than one atom or molecule type in the
recipe

Balancing equations:
H2 + O2  H20
2H2 + O2  2 H20
**never change subscripts
Mg2SiO4 (how many atoms of each element?)

Chemical bonds-force of attraction between atoms or a group of atoms due to sharing or

transferring of electons
-*most stable electron cocnfiguration for atoms is when highest energy level has full set of
electrons (1st energy level 2 electrons, 2nd 8 electrons)
-
Ionic bonds: ions-an atom or group of atoms that has a positive or negative charge (they gave
away or gained electrons so not neutral)
Alkali metals-gropu 1A-1 valance electron -easily give up 1 electron to achieve more electron
configuration -they are VERY reactive
Ca+tion: naming keep the element name and add “ion”
Anion: negative charge; naming-keep the base of the element name and add -ide (chlorine->
chloride)

Formation of NaCl is because there is transfer of electrons and the charges attract
-draw the reaction-page 124
-electron dot diagrams-valance electrons
Mg + Cl2-> MgCl2

Ionic bonds are with Group 1A, 2A, 3A, 7A. cations (usually a metal) plus anions (usually a
nonmetal)
Covalent Bonds-sharing electrons between nonmetals (group 4, 5, or 6 electrons)
-diatomic molecules: Cl2 or O2 (have them draw
-group 5A: Nitrogen: triple bond
-group 4A: 4 valence electrons: CH4
-carbon forms the backbone of proteins like hemoglobin
-carbon can form long, stable molectules made up of chains and ringed structures

Unequal sharing of electrons:

-except for noble gases, elements on right side of periodic table have greater attraction for
electrons compared to left and TOP has greater attractions
-flourine -top of group 7A has strongest attraction for electrons-most reactive nometal
-HCl (the cholorine molecule is bigger so attracts the shared electron more, so it spends more
time near the cholorine
-Polar molecule: a molecule that has slight positive and negative charges due to an imbalance in
the way electrons are shared
-nonpolar molecule: Co2; 3 atoms in a row, the pull towards O2 cancels out, so it is nonpolar

“Hydrogen bond”-not actually ionic or covalent bond

-weaker force of attraction strong enough to make molecules “stick together”
-occur in any polar molecule in which slightly + hydrogen atoms are attracted to slightly – atoms
of nearby molecules
-molecules with hydrogen bonding have higher melting and boiling points than other molecules
of similar mass that lack hydrogen bonds; water has a boiling point of 100 celcius so it can be a
liquid!

Solubility:
-water can dissolve substances because of its polarity
-the ions are separated and pulled away from eachother so the salt isn’t visible
-water can’t dissolve nonpolar molecules because it has no net electoral charge in it (canola oil)
-water is universal solvent because vast majority of compounds in creation are either polar or
ionic

Hydrogen bonding and phases of water:

H2S, H2Se, H2Te (a lot like H2O)
-all 3 of these are gases at room temperature
-Water is a liquid at room temperature because of hydrogen bonding-the only reason life
exists!
-keeps water molecules close together and limits their movement

-When water is solid-its molecules stay in rigid geometric arrangement; when liquid more free
to move around and molecules are closer so more dense as liquid

Cohesion: force of attraction between molecules of same substance: much stronger for water
than for most other liquids-sticky (because hydrogen bonds)
-insect “walking” (insects have greater density than water, but cohesion of water forms a
boundary that supports the insectsurface tension
Adhesion: force between molecules of different substances: U shaped meniscus
-water travels up roots of plants in tubes-xylem (no pumping); capillary action

-Soap breaks surface tension of water-one end of soap molecule is attracted to water and
comes between themdisrupts cohesion of water molecules

Hard water-rocks-limestone-rich in calcium; water dissolves the calcium.

-react with soap to make a scum and reduces ability of soap to clean things
-hard water builds up scales on pipes and fixutres-ionic compounds that become undissolved
when water changes temperature-“hard water stains”
-water softener-ion exchange removes ions like calcium and magnesium, but they must be
replaced with sodium or potassium ions
-cations from salt are exchanged with calcium and magnesium ions in water, soap lathers better

Module 6
Vector Quantity: a physical measurement that contains both magnitude (number) and
directional information
Scalar Quantity: physical measurement that contains ONLY magnitude and not directional info

Total displacement vs. distance: if person walked 6 km and then turned back 2 km, only
displaced 4 (net) km, but total distance is 8 km
Speed vs. velocity: speed-tells you distance over time; velocity is displacement over time
Speed: M/s, or km/hr, mi/hr, ft/sec
S=d/t; v=d/t (include 30 km/hr east; always include direction)

Average speed: total distance traveled over total time covered

Instantaneous speed: rate that it is moving at any given time
Advanced concepts: 6.1 meters per second; give them each problems
Graph of distance/time graph: straight line -constant speeds, curved if it accelerates
Overhand curve-slows to a stop; underhand curve-accelerates

Experiment:
1) When objects travel in the same direction, their relative speed is the difference between
their individual speeds (relative speed=speed of object 1-speed of object 2)
2) When objects travel in opposite directions-their relative speed is the sum of their
individual speeds; (relative speed=speed of object 1 + speed of object 2 ; or minus.
Anegative is a +)
Acceleration: change in object’s velocity over time; example bouncing ball decelerates as it gets
to the upward point and accelerates as it a=final velocity-initial velocity divided by time that
passed in that interval; m/s per second; m/s squared (divide fractions is multiplying/flip the
fraction)
Acceleration -if it speeds up in same direction
No deceleration-just acceleration in opposite direction
Acceleration group:
Speed vs. time: acceleration is straight line
On distance vs. time: acceleration is curved

Module 7
I. Forces
a. A push or pull that acts on an object; force of gravity of earth vs. moon
b. SI unit: newton (N) force needed to make object 1 kg accelerate to 1
meter/second squared
c. Length of arrow is strength of force; direction of force is direction of arrow
i. Tug a war: add force of each of child; when forces are unbalanced then
there is movement, and object accelerates
d. Friction: force that opposes motion resulting when surfaces of objects rub
against each other
e. Static friction: friction that opposes the initiation of motion
f. Kinetic friction: friction that opposes motion once the motion has already started
(less force to keep it moving than to get it started)
g. Rolling friction-less surface contact
h. Fluid friction
i. Free fall: the motion of an object when it is falling solely under the influence of
gravity (without air resistance)
j. Experiment 7.1
i. Objects behave differently in free fall; air resistance affects objects
differently (first-you see the book hit ground faster
ii. (many people think that heavier objects accelerate more than light
objects, feather in a vacuum falls at same rate as apple because got rid of
air resistance
iii. Near earth surface gravity is 9.8 m/s squared; or 32 ft/s squared
iv. Distance from top of cliff to bottom: ½ of acceleration X time squared
v. Inertia: the tendency of an object to resist changes in its velocity
vi. Aristotle: thought that heavenly objects all behave differently than on
earth (heavenly normal state of moving in circle), earth-tends to stay still
1. His theories accepted for 1500 years (a continual unbalanced
force is needed to keep an object moving at a constant speed)
2. Galileo Galilei-used inclined planes to study motion
a. Inertia-if no forces acting on object-it would stay still
b. If an object in motion if would stay in motion unless if
stopping force (friction); Galileo laid the groundwork
c. Sir Isaac Newton-came up with laws to join movements of
earth and heavens
i. 1642-born in same year that Galileo died
ii. Came up with branch of math called calculus
II. Newton’s Laws of Motion
 a. 1st law: (law of inertia) An object in motion (or at rest) will stay in motion (or at
rest) until it is acted upon by an outside force.
b. Experiment 7.2 coin on cardstock; flick card and coin drops
i. If you slowly pull it, coin comes with it (fast flick doesn’t allow time for
friction to work on coin, so coin just drops), but slow pulling -friction
keeps working on coin
ii. Hard boiled egg and raw egg spinning; raw egg spin, touch it and keeps
spinning
1. Raw egg has liquid inside it, so liquid kept moving
a. Inner ear liquid
iii. Pie pan, marble; which direction -if it will curve or go straight, when ball
hits wall-it exerts a force on it, but when no wall, it doesn’t change
direction anymore
nd
c. 2 law: when an object is acted on by one or more unbalanced forces, the net
force is equal to the mass of the object times the resulting acceleration
i. F=m X a; acceleration of object is in direction of net force
ii. Car mass 1500 kg; he’s pushing it. How much force to move it 0.03 m/s
square to the east; N are kg x m/s squared
iii. *advanced concepts for constructional worker
iv. List what is given and unknowns; check units; write out equation
v. Weight= mass X acceleration (gravity)
vi. (on moon acceleration due to gravity is 1.625 m/s squared)
d. 3rd law: for every action, there is an equal and opposite reaction
e. Experiment 7.3; baking soda/vinegar; CO2 pushed a force on the stopper and an
equal and opposite force pushed against it
f. Thrust from a rocket
III. Fundamental Forces
a. Electromagnetic force
i. Electric can be attractive or repulsive
ii. Magnetic force between
b. Strong nuclear force
i. Protons in nucleus-strong nuclear force is the strongest force in nature
and it overcomes the electromagnetic force that would cause protons to
repel one another (100X stronger)
1. Standard model of particle physics; protons/neutrons made of
quarks
c. Weak nuclear force
i. Acts over a small range-involved in radioactive process; a proton can turn
into a neutron and neutron can change to a proton
ii. Plays a part in nuclear fusion in the sun
d. Gravitational force-it is the weakest force of the 4
i. Applies to tiny things and massive things like planets-keep it orbiting
around sun
ii. Every object exerts a force on another object (can’t be overcome by
friction holding objects in place)
1. F= G X (M1 X M2)/R squared
2. Tides/planets
3. Quantum gravity-quantum mechanics (gravitational force graviton
at subatomic level)
4. Albert Einstein-theory of relativity; any matter can bend space and
time
Module 8

Energy
1) Kinetic
2) Potential
a. Gravitational potential
b. Elastic potential
Mechanical energy: sum total of potential (energy of position) and kinetic energy (energy of
motion)
Electrical energy: moving charged particles, lights and appliances
Batteries store chemical energy and convert it to electrical energy to power small objects
Lightning: electrical potential energy-converted to light energy and sound energy

Electromagnetic energy: given out from the sun through waves-some electric and magnetic
properties
-space has no matter; doesn’t need to touch an object to transfer
-radiowaves/microwaves, visible light, gamma radiation, xrays
-we cannot store light energy; it is always moving-kinetic energy
-can convert it into other forms-plants convert light to energy-photosynthesis
-sound waves-bounce air molecules like standing dominos
(light does not need a media but sound does need matter to travel)
-nuclear energy-when atom is
Fission-splitting atomic nuclei apart; mostly uranium
Fusion-nuclei of smaller atoms combine-hydrogen into helium happens on the sun
-tricky thing is how to harness this; easy to get out of control

Match-friction converts kinetic energy into thermal energy,

-whenever energy changes, energy doesn’t go away

Law of conservation of energy: energy cannot be created nor destroyed; it can only be
converted
Ex: bike on a hill-gravitational energy converted to kinetic energy, converts into friction along
ground and thermal energy (closed system)
Oyster fall from seagull potential energy converted to kinetic energy (at maximum at rocks and
potential energy is 0)
Energy is ability to do work
Work: product of a force (applied in the direction of motion of an object) and the distance the
object moves (the transfer of energy)
-an object has to move
-force has to act on the object in the direction it is moving

Man with a box-NOT working if he is holding box (only when lifting box or pushing along
ground)
Power: amount of work done each second (rate of work you do)
2 ways to increase power:-increase amount of work done in a specific time or decrease the time
to do a given amount of work
W=F X d
J= N m

Problem: Lift book from floor to bookshelf 1.5 M. Exert 19.6 N of upward force. How much work
in joules did you do?
1) List knowns and unknowns and check units F=19.6 N; d= 1.5 m W=? (J)
2) Write equation W=F X d
3) Substitute numbers and units

58.8 J to lift book and took same 19.6 N. What is distance in meters?
3M
(double work; kept force the same)

Power= W/t (work divided by time)

Si unit is Watt J/s (James Watt) 65 Watt bulb burns 65 J per second

Work/Machines
-machines make work easier-change size of force, direction of force or a distance for which force
is applied (don’t change how much work needs to be done, just makes the work easier)
-Jack-magnify small force from rotating handle and converts it over a large force
-change direction of applied force-pulley-pull down and other side pulls up with same
magnitude/different direction
Screw-applying input force (force that someone puts into machine
Output force-force exerted by a machine
-distance that your hand moves the distance-input distance is greater than output force-
(handle has larger circumference)

Mechanical advantage: how many times it makes work easier

Simple machines
1. Inclined plane-distance you have to work is longer
2. Wedge-2 inclined planes-drives wood apart
3. Pulley-easier to pull down on heavy load than lift it up
4. Wheel and axle-cylinder and rod (steering wheel)-cause shaft of a wheel
5. Lever-bark that has a fulcrum (see saw 1st class lever)
a. Wheelbarrow -input force pulls up on handle
b. 3rd class-broom -hand on tip of broom behaves like a fulcrum
6. Screw-inclined plane wrapped around a cylinder