Basic Modern Physics

Chapter 2. Particle Properties of Waves

Outline
Electromagnetic waves
Blackbody radiation
Photoelectric effect
What is light?
X-rays
X-ray diffraction
Compton effect
Pair production
Photons and gravity
 Waves vs particles

Waves: diffraction, interference, polarization…

vs

Particles: having charge, mass, collision…

Classical Physics
Classical Physics Strict
border
<Particle> <Wave>

- def : An ideal body that locates in - def : A disturbance that propagates

certain spot of the space. through space and time
- Applied to Newton’s law - Applied to Maxwell equation
- Mechanics of particle - Optics of wave
- Mass and energy transportation - Energy transportation only
 Electromagnetic Waves
Maxwell’s Suggestion (1864)

• Accelerated electric charges generate linked electric and

magnetic disturbances that can travel indefinitely through
the space.

• If the charges oscillate periodically, the disturbances are

waves whose electric and magnetic components are
perpendicular to each other and to the direction of
propagation.

Electromagnetic waves (EM waves): coupled electric and magnetic oscillations

that move with the speed of light and exhibit typical wave behaviour
The speed c of electromagnetic waves in free space

c
1
 2.998 108 m / s ε0 = electric permittivity
 0 0 μ0 = magnetic permeability

Experimental support by Hertz

Hertz generated EM waves by applying AC to an air gap between two metal balls
Through experimentation, he proved that transverse free space electromagnetic
waves can travel over some distance
 Spectrum of EM radiation

Light is a typical example of EM waves

The interaction with matter of EM waves depend upon its frequency

Principle of Superposition
Principle of Superposition: When two or more waves of the same nature
travel past a point at the same time, the instantaneous amplitude there is the
sum of the instantaneous amplitudes of the individual waves.

(a) constructive interference : reinforce each other

(b) destructive interference : partially or completely cancel out each other
 Diffraction

When two or more trains of light waves meet in a region, they interfere
to produce new waves
Diffraction refers to various phenomena which occur when a wave
encounters an obstacle. It is described as the apparent bending of waves
around small obstacles and the spreading out of waves past small
openings. Diffraction occurs with all waves, including sound waves, water
waves, and electromagnetic waves such as visible light, x-rays and radio
waves.

Young’s (Double Slit) Experiment

Origin of the interference pattern in Young’s experiment: Constructive

interference occurs where the difference in path lengths from the slits
to the screen is θ, λ, 2λ... Destructive interference occurs where the
path difference is λ/2, 3λ/2...

• This is a typical example of “Diffraction”

• Interference and diffraction are found only in waves – the particles we are familiar
with do not behave in those ways: Young’s experiments prove that light consists of waves
 Radiation

Thermal radiation is the process by which the surface of an object radiates its
thermal energy in the form of electromagnetic waves. Thermal radiation is
electromagnetic radiation emitted from the surface of an object which is due
to the object's temperature.
All objects radiate energy continuously whatever their temperature, though which
frequencies predominate depends on the temperature. Even at RT, there exits
thermal radiation: only invisible.

Blackbody Radiation

• The ability of a body to radiate is closely related to its ability to absorb radiation
• Blackbody : an ideal body one that absorbs all radiation incident upon it, regardless
of frequency

• Any radiation striking the hole enters the cavity where it is trapped by reflection

black
approximation of a blackbody :
body
‐ A hole in the wall of a hallow object

light
 Blackbody spectra

A hot blackbody radiates more when it is hot and the spectrum of a hot
black body has its peak at higher frequency.

Blackbody spectra
The radiation inside a cavity of absolute temperature T is a series of
standing EM waves: perfect reflectors

Density of standing waves in cavity : number of

independent standing waves in the frequency
interval d

8 2
G ( )d  d
c3
(proportional to wave frequency, details in Chap 9)

Theorem of equipartition of energy: the average

energy per degree of freedom of an entity is
1/2kT (k: Boltzmann’s constant = 1.381 x10‐23 J/K)

one dimensional harmonic oscillator: 2 degree of

freedom(kinetic energy,potential energy)
⇒average energy/standing wave :   kT

Rayleigh‐Jeans formula 8kT 2

u ( )d   G ( )d  d
c3
 Ultraviolet Catastrophe

classical spectrum of the radiation from blackbody

(Rayleigh‐Jeans Law)

observed spectrum of the radiation from blackbody

 8kT 2
Classical total energy of radiated energy from blackbody : 0 c3
 d   (Wrong Answer!)

 8h  3 d
Actual total energy of radiated energy from blackbody : 0 d  finite value
c 3 e h / kT  1

Planck Radiation Formula (1900)

Planck’s “Lucky guesswork”:

8h  3
u ( )d   G ( )d  d
c 3 e h / kT  1

h: Plack’s constant = 6.626 x10‐34 J.s

At high frequency, u()d goes to 0, and at low
frequency, it becomes R-J’s formula

Quantum hypothesis: oscillators in the cavity could not have a

continuous distribution of energies, but only the specific energies
 n  nh
Quantum (plural quanta): each discrete bundle of energy h

Classical average Actual average energy

energy per standing per standing wave
wave
h
  kT  h / kT
e 1
 Photoelectric Effect
Hertz notified that spark occurred more readily when UV light was
illuminated: discovery of PE effect

retarding potential

Photoelectric effect: The phenomenon that electrons were

emitted and made sparks when the sufficiently high
frequency of light was directed at the metal electrode.

Photoelectric Effect: Experimental

observations
<No delay in the emission of photoelectrons>
‐ Impossible to explain the absorption of light energy by atom

<change the intensity of light>

‐ A bright light yields more photoelectrons than a dim one
of the same frequency, but the electron energies remain
the same.(retarding voltage does not change at all)

<change the frequency of light>

‐ The higher the frequency of light,
the more energy the photoelectrons have.
(retarding potential voltage changes)
 Quantum theory of light

In 1905, Einstein realized that the PE effect can be

understood if the energy in light is concentrated
in a package, “photon”
Each photon of light of frequency  has energy of
hn
Energy was not only given to EM waves in
separate quanta but was also carried by the waves
in separate quanta.

The three observations can be explained by “photons”

(1) em wave energy is concentrated in photon not spread out → no
delay time for photoemission
(2) All photon of the same frequency have the same energy intensity
↔ # of photon
(3) higher → high photon energy h → high photoelectron energy
 Work function

E = hv - Ф

change the electrode materials

‐ At frequencies below a certain critical frequency vo, which is
characteristic of each particular material, no electrons are emitted.

• Work function : The minimum energy φ for an electron to escape

from a particular metal surface.

Work function
• The greater the work function of a metal, the more energy is needed for an electron
to leave its surface, and the higher the critical frequency for photoelectric emission
to occur.

• Work function :

• Photoelectric Effect :   h 0
h  KEmax  

If the energy hv0 is needed to remove an electron from

a metal surface, the maximum electron kinetic energy
will be h(v-v0) when light of frequency v is directed at
the surface.
 What is Light?
Two Different Theories are needed to explain a single phenomenon

<Interpretation of Light>

Wave Properties Particle Properties

Young’s Double Slit Experiment
Photoelectric Effect
Compton Effect

- Light can be interpreted as both wave and particle.

- The wave theory and the quantum theory complement each
other.

X-rays
Inverse Process of Photoelectric Effect

<Wilhelm Roentgen’s Discovery>

Accelerated Electron
→ Highly Penetrating Radiation
(He named it ‘x-ray’ since its nature was
then unknown)

*Classical EM theory’s interpretation on X-ray

Bremsstrahlung(Braking Radiation) :
Accelerated electron → EM wave radiation
 Wilhelm Konrad Roentgen
- Roentgen noticed that a sheet of paper
coated with barium platinocyanide glowed when
he switched on a nearby cathode-ray tube that
was entirely covered with black cardboard.

- In a cathod-ray tube electrons are accelerated

in a vacuum by an electric field, and it was the
impact of these electrons on the glass end of
the tube that produced the penetrating x-rays
that caused the salt to glow.

- X-rays were an immediate sensation and only two

months later were being used in medicine. (Fig:
Anna Roentgen’s hand)

The X-ray gallery

Bioimaging

Airline scanner

CT
(computed tomography)
 X-ray spectra of materials
The Limit of Wave Theory Interpretation on X-ray

1 Problem 1)
Intensity peak in the case of molybdenum
→ rearrangements of the electron structures of
the target atom after bombarding with electrons.
(Sec 7.9)

2 Problem 2)
Limitation of minimum wavelength λmin
(same for every material)

X-ray Production
The relationship between applied voltage and X-ray wavelength

Energy by Applied Voltage Energy of X-ray

hc
Ve  hvmax 
min
V : accelerating potential
(Actually, the energy of X-ray is hvmax-hv0,
but work function can be ignored)
* accelerating potential >> work function

Higher potential voltage applied hc 1.240 10 6

→Shorter wavelength of x-ray X-ray production:min  Ve

V
V m

(Wavelength of X-ray  1/Accelerating Voltage)

 Scattering
Scattering is a general physical process where some forms of radiation, such
as light, sound, or moving particles, are forced to deviate from a straight
trajectory by one or more localized non-uniformities in the medium through
which they pass. In conventional use, this also includes deviation of reflected
radiation from the angle predicted by the law of reflection. Reflections that
undergo scattering are often called diffuse reflections and unscattered
reflections are called specular (mirror-like) reflections.

Rayleigh scattering (named after the English physicist Lord Rayleigh) is the
elastic scattering of light or other electromagnetic radiation by particles much
smaller than the wavelength of the light, which may be individual atoms or
molecules. It can occur when light travels in transparent solids and liquids,
but is most prominently seen in gases. Rayleigh scattering is a function of
the electric polarizability of the particles. Rayleigh scattering of sunlight in
clear atmosphere is the main reason why the sky is blue. (in contrast to
Compton scattering)

X-ray Diffraction
Scattering Process of X-ray

- Spherical Wave

- Plane Wave
Plane Wave

- Atom absorb incident plane waves → Emit

spherical waves (Same frequency)
 Bragg Plane
Analysis of Group of atoms as a Parallel Planes

Bragg Plane : Families of parallel plane

→ The grouping of ‘regularly arranged’
atoms in a crystal
d1 d2

Condition for Radiation : Bragg’s Law

constructive interference : 2d sin   n n  1,2,3...

1
destructive interference : 2d sin   (n  )
2
We can calculate the x-ray
wavelength λ if we know atomic
lattice parameter d.

X-ray Spectrometer
Diffraction Pattern of X-ray

X-ray spectrometer
 Compton Effect
Further confirmation of the photon model: Photons Behave Like
Particles Except Lack of Mass
Photon (especially X-rays) increases in wavelength when
scattered.

① 1. before collision between

a photon and an electron
②
2. after collision between
a photon and an electron

- Scattering of photon
Photon striking
- Scattering of a rest electron

* For massless particle, E=pc from relativity, thus, p=E/c=h/c

https://www.youtube.com/watch?feature=player_detailpage&v=4p47RBPiOCo

Compton Effect Derivation

The Relationship between Wave Scattering Angle and Wavelength

1. Energy Conservation Law

Lost in photon energy = gain in electron energy
hv – hv’ = KE (v>v’)
2. Momentum Conservation Law
initial momentum final momentum
original photon direction hv hv'
0 = cos   p cos 
c c
perpendicular to photon hv'
0 = sin   p sin 
direction c

E hv
* Relationship between massless particle (ex. photon) and energy : p
c

c
 Compton Effect Derivation

eq1. Derivation of Compton effect equation

pc cos   hv  hv' cos 
p 2 c 2  (hv) 2  2(hv)(hv' ) cos   (hv' ) 2
pc sin   hv' sin 

=
p 2 c 2  (hv) 2  2(hv)(hv' ) cos   (hv' ) 2 p 2 c 2  (hv) 2  2(hv)(hv' )  (hv' ) 2  2mc 2 (hv  hv' )

eq2. The total energy principle

2mc 2 (hv  hv' )  2(hv)(hv' )(1  cos  )
E  KE  mc 2
Dividing by 2h2c2
E  m 2c 4  p 2c 2
mc v v' v v'
(  ) (1  cos  )
p c  KE  2mc KE
2 2 2 2
h c c cc

h
Compton effect :  '  (1  cos  )  '  C (1  cos  )
mc *   180

→ wave scattering angle  wavelength change

h 6.63 10 34 J  s
* Compton wavelength : C   2.426  10 12 m
mc (1.609 10 31 kg )(3.0  108 m / s )

Compton Effect Experiment

Compton Effect Experiment
x-ray of a single,
known wavelength

Detecting x-ray spectrum

at various angle φ

greater scattering angle

→ wavelength becomes larger
(It means loss of photon energy)
 Energy into Matter
Bubble chamber

• pair production : a photon → an electron and a positron (materialization)

    e  e

• pair annihilation : an electron and a positron → a photon

Pair production needs at least a photon energy >1.02 MeV, since rest
energy of e and p is 0.51 MeV

Condition for Pair Production

It is Impossible to Occur Pair Production in an Empty Space
* relativistic
coefficient
eq1) Conservation of Energy 1

hv  2mc 2 1
2
c2

eq2) Conservation of momentum

hv
 2 p cos 
c
eq1. hv  2mc 2
hv
eq2.  2 p cos  hv  2 pc cos  Discrepancy between two equations
c *p = γmυ

hv  2mc 2 ( ) cos  * In reality, always hv >2γmc2
c
<1

To occur pair production, some other object is needed to

carries away part of the initial photon momentum
 Photon Absorption
The Manner of High Frequency Photon Interaction With a Matter

- Three chief ways of photon interaction with a matter

electron
more dominant at
moving electron, high photon energy
diffracted photon (ex.Lead)

generation of
positron + electron

Atomic Number and Photon Interaction

Analysis of the Relationship

absorber A Light Atom(Carbon) A Heavy Atom(Lead)

Less significant More significant
Photoelectric Effect
at lower frequency even at high frequency

Less energy needs to emit electron in light atom

absorber A Light Atom(Carbon) A Heavy Atom(Lead)
Occur at Start at
Pair Production
high photon energy low photon energy

Light atom hardly takes away the initial momentum of photon

 Linear Attenuation
The Decay of Light Intensity as the Beam Passes an Absorber

The relationship between intensity attenuation and thickness of an

absorber
dI
   dx (proportional to thickness)
I

Linear Attenuation Coefficient(The proportionality constant) : μ

 x
- Radiation Intensity : I  I 0 e
ln( I 0 / I )
- Absorber Thickness :x 


Photons and Gravity

Photons Behave as they have gravitational mass:
light is affected by gravity by virtue of spacetime around mass (general relativity)

p hv
Photon ‘mass’ :m   
c2

A photon of frequency v ought to act gravitationally like a particle of

mass hv/c2.
General particle
(which has rest mass) Light
KEi  0 Ei  hv
Initial i  0 i  c

KE f  mgH hv
E f  hv  mgH  hv  gH
Final c2
 f  2 gH
f  c

(increasing speed of particle) Gravitational (increasing frequency of light)

Field
 Gravitational Red Shift
When a Photon Losses Its Energy
frequency
v v’

What is Gravitational Red Shift ?

def : The phenomenon that frequency of light decreases(lost its energy)
when the light escapes from the gravitational field.
The potential energy of a mass m on the star(mass : M)’s surface
GMm GMhv
= PE   PE  
R m ← mass of photon Rc 2
GMm GMhv GM GM
E  hv   hv  2
 hv(1  2 ) hv'  hv(1  2 )
R Rc Rc Rc
Total Quantum Potential
Energy Energy Energy
v v  v' v' GM
Gravitational Red Shift :   1 
v v v Rc 2

Black Holes
Why Nothing Can Escape from It?
What is a Black Hole?
def : The case that gravitational red shift stretches the photon
wavelength to infinity(=zero frequency) due to the heavy
gravitational field

frequency
v no photon can
0
leave the star!(invisible)

2GM
Schwarzchild radius (The criterion for a star to be a RS 
c2
black hole) :
The escape speed from a black hole > c (Impossible to escape!)