Nervous System

Learning objectives:

• Outline the organization of nervous system

• Name cranial and spinal nerves
• Outline the organization of autonomic nervous system (ANS)
• Enumerate the functions of ANS
• Name the functional areas of cerebral cortex and their functions
• Describe the morphology and functions of a neuron
• Mention the functions of neuroglia
• Describe the structure and functions of myelinated and unmyelinated
nerve fibers
• Describe resting membrane potential
• Define stimulus & nerve-impulse
• Draw and label the nerve action potential
• Describe the ionic basis of the nerve action potential
• Define 'synapse'
• Describe the structure of a synapse
• Explain the events in synaptic transmission
• Classify sensory receptors according to type and location of stimulus,
giving examples for each
• Outline the general organization of sensory pathways
• Describe the dorsal column and lateral spinothalamic tract with the
help of labelled diagrams
• List the different sensations that are carried by the above pathways
• Describe somatic, visceral and referred pain with examples
Organization of nervous system
• Cranial nerves and spinal nerves
• The cranial nerves emerge directly from the brain and brain stem.
• The spinal nerves emerge from the segments in the spinal cord.
Overview of Spinal Cord
• The spinal cord is an extension of the brain and is enclosed in and
protected by the bony vertebral column.
• Extends through vertebral canal from foramen magnum to L1

• Main function - transmission of neural inputs between the periphery and

the brain.
• Each pair of spinal nerves receives sensory information and
issues motor signals to muscles and glands

• The peripheral regions of the spinal cord contains neuronal white matter
tracts containing sensory and motor neurons.
• The central region is gray matter that contains nerve cell bodies.
• The central canal is an anatomic extension of the fourth ventricle.
• Overview of Spinal Cord
Spinal cord is a component of the Central Nervous System
while the spinal nerves are part of the Peripheral Nervous
System
Spinal nerves
Autonomic Nervous System
• The autonomic nervous system is a component of the peripheral
nervous system that regulates involuntary physiologic processes
including heart rate, blood pressure, respiration, digestion, and sexual
arousal.
• It contains three anatomically distinct divisions: sympathetic,
parasympathetic, and enteric.
• Sympathetic takes origin from the lateral horn
cells of the thoraco lumbar segments of spinal cord
(LHC* of T1-L3)

• Parasympathetic takes origin from the cranial (in

the brain) and sacral (in the spinal cord) regions.

• In the parasympathetic component the nerves

included are cranial nerve III,VII,IX & X and also
the pelvic nerve from the sacral segments of spinal
cord(S2,3,4)

• *LHC- Lateral horn cells

• Centers for autonomic nervous system are
present in hypothalamus.
 Functional Areas Of The Cerebral Cortex
Motor areas Central sulcus Sensory areas and related
association areas
Primary motor area
Premotor cortex Primary somatosensory
Frontal 3 1 cortex
2 Somatic
eye field 6 4 5 Somatosensory sensation
Broca’s area 7 association area
8
(outlined by dashes)
Gustatory cortex Taste
(in insula)
Prefrontal cortex
Wernicke's area
Working memory (outlined by dashes)
45 44 43
for spatial tasks
22
Executive area 41 42
for task
management 19 18
22 17 Primary visual
Working memory 47 cortex
for object-recall 11
Visual Vision
tasks
association
Solving complex, area
multitask problems
Auditory
association area
Hearing
Primary
auditory cortex
(a)
Neuron:

Is the structural and functional unit of nervous system.

There are about 100 billion neurons in central nervous system (CNS).

This apart, nerves are also present in the peripheral nervous and this is
outside the CNS.

The neurons of peripheral nervous system help to establish contact

between CNS and the structures present in different parts of body.

Function of nervous system is to receive, integrate and transmit the

information.
Some of the important definitions are:

Neuron: Is the structural and functional unit of nervous system.

Nerve/nerve trunk: Is the collection of nerve fibers outside the CNS.

Ganglion: Is the collection of nerve cell bodies outside CNS

.
Nucleus: Is the collection of nerve cell bodies inside the CNS.

Synapse: Is the functional junction between parts of two different

neurons.

Tract: Is collection of nerve fibers in CNS having common origin, course,

termination and function.
.
Excitability: Is the ability of the tissues to respond to a stimulus.

Stimulus: Is the sudden change in the external or internal environment,

to which a tissue responds.

Threshold stimulus: Is the minimum strength of stimulus that is

required to elicit a response.

Action potential or impulse: Is an electrical change brought about by

movement of charged ions across the cell membrane, which is self-
regenerating one and gets conducted in a decrimentless fashion along
the fiber length.
• Neurons are discrete cells which are not
continuous with other cells

• The neuron is composed of 3 parts – the

dendrites, axon and cell body

• Information flows along the neuron in one

direction (Dendrites to the Axon, via the Cell
body)
• Dendrites, also called afferent processes,
carry impulses TOWARDS the cell body.
• Axons, also called efferent processes,
carry impulses AWAY from the cell body
• Multipolar neurons have a number of
neurites arising from the cell body .
• the long process- the axon,
• other neurites are dendrites.
• Most neurons of the brain and spinal cord
• The structure and functions of myelinated and unmyelinated nerve
fibers
Myelinogenesis:

Is the process by which myelination of the nerve fiber takes place.

In the peripheral nervous system the myelinogenesis is contributed by
the Schwann cells whereas in the CNS it is being contributed
by the Oligodendroglial cells.
The sheath of Schwann cell wraps the axon byabout 80 – 100 times.
The cell membrane lipids form the myelin sheath.
Functions of the myelin sheath

1. Fast conduction of impulses

2. a protective sheath preventing injury to

the nerve fiber

3. It acts as an insulator and prevents cross

transmission of impulses from one fiber to
the other in a mixed nerve.
Membrane potentials
• The plasma membrane of all living cells have a “membrane potential “
or is electrically polarized

• It is the separation of opposite charges across the plasma

membrane- (potential difference across the membrane )

• It is also difference in the relative number of cations and anions in

the ICF&ECF

• Measured in millivolts(mV)

• It is due to differences in concentration and permeability of key ions

Resting Membrane Potential (RMP)
The difference in electric potential, that exists across the cell
membrane, when cell is in resting state.

Normal value- -10mV to -100mV

Genesis of RMP : due to

Permeability of cell membrane- selectively permeable
 Potassium is more permeable than sodium
 Cell membrane is impermeable to anions & proteins
Sodium-Potassium pump in the membrane
 Resting Membrane Potential

+ Cl-
outside Na K+
+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

Membrane
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -

inside
A- Na+ K+ Cl-
0 mV
-80 mV
 + + +
+
+
- - - +
-
+
-
- +

-80 mV
 [K+] = 3
[Na+] = 142
[Cl-] = 103
A-
+ + +
+
+
- - - +
-
+
-
- +

-
[K+] = 140
[Na+] = 10
-80 mV
[Cl-] = 4
A-
• The concentration gradient for K+ facilitates its movement out of the
cell via K+ channels, but its electrical gradient is in the opposite
(inward) direction.

• As a result, an equilibrium is reached in which the tendency of K+ to

move out of the cell is balanced by its tendency to move into the cell

• At this equilibrium there is a slight excess of cations on the outside

and anions on the inside.

• This condition is maintained by Na, K ATPase, which uses the energy of

ATP to pump K+ back into the cell and keeps the intracellular
concentration of Na+ low.(electrogenic pump- the Na, K ATPase moves
three Na+ out of the cell for every two K+ moved in - coupling ratio of
3:2. )
• The resting membrane potential of neurons is usually about –
70 mV
• the intracellular and extracellular K+ concentrations are the
prime determinants of the resting membrane potential,
which is therefore close to the equilibrium potential for K+.
ACTION POTENTIAL:

Action potential is a brief or temporary propagation

of the depolarization (physico-chemical change)
brought about by a threshold stimulus or above.

It is a self-regenerating one, and it gets conducted

in a decrementless fashion.
Synapse
Synapse:
• A function junction between two neurons
TYPES OF CHEMICAL SYNAPSES/ANATOMICAL CLASSIFIATION
• IPSP – inhibitory post synaptic potential
• An electrical charge (hyperpolarisation) in the membrane of a
postsynaptic neuron caused by the binding of an inhibitory
neurotransmitter from a presynaptic cell to a postsynaptic
receptor; makes it more difficult for a postsynaptic neuron to
generate an action potential.
• Increases the chloride permeability  hyperpolarization

• EPSP –excitatory post synaptic potential

• An electrical change (depolarisation) in the membrane of a
postsynaptic neuron caused by the binding of an excitatory
neurotransmitter from a presynaptic cell to a postsynaptic
receptor; makes it more likely for a postsynaptic neuron to
generate an action potential
• Increase in sodium influx/calcium influx/ closure of potassium
channels depolarization
• Synaptic inhibition :
• Purpose/ significance
Protection (E.g. as antagonism protection)
 Coordination ( Inhibition of nervous process in the CNS
that ensures the harmonious activity)
Sensory receptors
Sensory receptor:

Definition : a biological transducer that converts any form of energy

to electrical impulses
Classification: based on

Function (Stimuli)
• Mechanoreceptors – respond to touch, pressure, vibration, stretch,
and itch

• Thermoreceptors – sensitive to changes in temperature

• Photoreceptors – respond to light energy (e.g., retina)

• Chemoreceptors – respond to chemicals (e.g., smell, taste,
changes in blood chemistry)

• Nociceptors – sensitive to pain-causing stimuli

• Osmoreceptors – detect changes in concentration of solutes,

osmotic activity

• Baroreceptors – detect changes in fluid pressure

 based on Location

• Exteroceptors
sensitive to stimuli arising from outside the body
• Located at or near body surfaces
• Include receptors for touch, pressure, pain, and temperature

• Interoceptors – (visceroceptors) receive stimuli from internal viscera

• Monitor a variety of stimuli

• Proprioceptors – monitor degree of stretch

• Located in musculoskeletal organs
General Organization of Somatosensory Pathways

• Sensory pathways consist of the chain of neurons, from receptor

organ to cerebral cortex, that are responsible for the perception of
sensations.

• Common Anatomical Features

• Somatosensory stimuli activate a chain of neurons starting with the
peripheral first-order (1°) afferent and ending in the cerebral cortex.
• Within each somatosensory pathway,
• The 1° afferent is a pseudounipolar neuron that has its cell body located in
a peripheral (spinal or cranial) ganglion. It has a peripheral axon that forms
or innervates somatosensory receptors and a central process that synapses
with 2° afferent neuron(s) in a spinal cord or brain stem nucleus.
• The 2° afferent may synapse with 3° afferent neurons in the spinal cord or
may ascend the neuraxis to synapse with 3° afferent neurons in the
thalamus.
• There is a decussation (i.e., axons crossing the midline to the opposite side
of the spinal cord or brain stem) in each somatosensory pathway below the
level of the thalamus.
• All somatosensory pathways include a thalamic nucleus. The thalamic
neurons send their axons in the posterior limb of the internal capsule to
end in the cerebral cortex.
• Most somatosensory pathways terminate in the parietal lobe of the
cerebral cortex.
• Each somatosensory pathway is named after a major tract or nucleus in the
pathway.
 SSA- Somato Sensory Area
DRG- Dorsal Root Ganglia
A∂- A delta – fast pain
C- C fiber- slow pain
SG- Substantia Gelatinosa

Lateral spinothalamic Tract

 L- Leg; T- Trunk, H- hand

Dorsal column/ posterior column/ tract

of Goll and Burdach/ dorsal column-
medial lemniscal pathway
• The dorsal column-medial lemniscal pathway, or posterior column,
is an ascending pathway which conveys sensory information from the
spinal cord to the brainstem (medulla). From the medulla, these
fibers decussate (cross) in the medial lemniscus to synapse in the
thalamus. From the thalamus, a 3rd neuron carries information to the
sensory cortex (contralateral to where our fibers entered the cord).
• Sensations carried through this pathway:
Fine touch
Tactile localization
Tactile discrimination(two point discrimination)
Vibratory sensation
Pressure sesnation
Stereognosis( ability to identify familiar objects with closed eyes)
proprioception
• Lateral spinothalamic Tract:
• The lateral spinothalamic tract, located in the lateral funiculus of the
spinal cord, is a crossed pathway.
• transmits the majority of pain and temperature input in the CNS.
• First order neurons enter the spinal cord, they synapse in substantia
gelatinosa of Rolandi(SGR)second order neurons from SGR cross
midline and reach lateral funiculus of opposite side to form lateral
spinothalamic tract. From here fibers ascend up and synapse in
ventroposterior lateral(VPL) nucleus of thalamus from VPL and
midline nucleus third order neurons arise and end in sensory cortex
area 3, 1, 2
• Noxious stimuli are stimuli that elicit tissue damage and activate
nociceptors.
• Examples for noxious stimuli: Chemical(e.g., capsaicin present in chili
pepper or cayenne pepper), mechanical (e.g., cutting, crushing), or thermal
(heat and cold)
• Nociceptors are sensory receptors that detect signals from damaged tissue
or the threat of damage and indirectly also respond to chemicals released
from the damaged tissue.

• The impulses are carried in lateral spinothalamic pathway to sensory cortex

• Somatic pain: It can be described as aching, cramping, gnawing, or
even sharp. It usually appears in one area of the body, and movement
can trigger it. Cuts, headaches, and pelvic pain can all be classified
under Somatic pain.
• This pain is focused on a specific area
• Visceral pain:
• It comes from the internal organs and blood vessels.
• Poorly localized/ harder to identify the location
• Examples: Inflammation of internal organs like gallbladder, intestine
etc.
• Referred pain:
• Referred pain is pain perceived at a location other than the site of the
painful stimulus/ origin.
• Pain is felt at a site distant from site of origin.
• Pain is referred to the region of the skin that has developed from the same
segment /dermatome from which the visceral organ has developed.
• The organ and region of the skin get the nerve supply from the same
segment of the spinal cord.

Examples:
An injured pancreas could be causing pain in back,
 a heart attack could be triggering pain in jaw.