Functions of the Nervous System  Cranial nerves—carry

impulses to and from

 Sensory input—gathering information the brain
o To monitor changes occurring o Functions
inside and outside the body  Serve as
o Changes = stimuli communication lines
 Integration among sensory organs,
o To process and interpret the brain and spinal
sensory input and decide if cord, and glands or
action is needed muscles
 Motor output
o A response to integrated stimuli
o The response activates muscles
or glands

Structural Classification of the Nervous System

 Central nervous system (CNS)

o Organs
 Brain
 Spinal cord

Functional Classification of the

 Function Peripheral Nervous System
o Integration; command center
o Interpret incoming sensory  Sensory (afferent) division
information o Nerve fibers that carry
o Issues outgoing instructions information to the central
nervous system
Structural Classification of the Nervous System  Motor (efferent) division
o Nerve fibers that carry impulses
 Peripheral nervous system (PNS) away from the central nervous
o Nerves extending from the system
brain and spinal cord
 Spinal nerves—carry
impulses to and from
the spinal cord
  Motor (efferent) division (continued)

o Two subdivisions
 Somatic nervous system
= voluntary
 Consciously
controls
skeletal
muscles
 Autonomic nervous
system = involuntary  Microglia
 Automatically o Spiderlike phagocytes
controls o Dispose of debris
smooth and
cardiac muscles
and glands
 Further divided
into the
sympathetic
and
parasympatheti
c nervous
systems
Nervous Tissue: Support Cells

 Support cells in the CNS are grouped  Ependymal cells

together as “neuroglia” o Line cavities of the brain and
spinal cord
 General functions o Cilia assist with circulation of
o Support cerebrospinal fluid
o Insulate
o Protect neurons
 Astrocytes
o Abundant, star-shaped cells
o Brace neurons
o Form barrier between
capillaries and neurons
o Control the chemical
environment of
the brain  Oligodendrocytes
o Wrap around nerve fibers in
the central nervous system
o Produce myelin sheaths
  Satellite cells
o Protect neuron cell bodies
 Schwann cells
o Form myelin sheath in the
peripheral nervous system

 Processes outside the cell body

o Dendrites—conduct impulses
toward the cell body
Nervous Tissue: Neurons
 Neurons may have
hundreds of dendrites
 Neurons = nerve cells
o Axons—conduct impulses away
o Cells specialized to transmit
from the cell body
messages
 Neurons have only one
o Major regions of neurons
axon arising from the
 Cell body—nucleus and
cell body at the axon
metabolic center of the
hillock
cell
 Axons
 Processes—fibers that
o End in axon terminals
extend from the cell
o Axon terminals contain vesicles
body
with neurotransmitters
 Cell body
o Axon terminals are separated
o Nissl bodies
from the next neuron by a gap
 Specialized rough
 Synaptic cleft—gap
endoplasmic reticulum
between adjacent
o Neurofibrils
neurons
 Intermediate
 Synapse—junction
cytoskeleton
between nerves
 Maintains cell shape
 Myelin sheath—whitish, fatty material
o Nucleus with large nucleolus
covering axons
 o Schwann cells—produce myelin
sheaths in jelly roll-like fashion
around axons (PNS)
 Nodes of Ranvier—gaps
in myelin sheath along
the axon
o Oligodendrocytes—produce
myelin sheaths around axons of
the CNS

Neuron Cell Body Location

 Most neuron cell bodies are found in

the central nervous system
o Gray matter—cell bodies and
unmyelinated fibers
o Nuclei—clusters of cell bodies
within the white matter of the
central nervous system
 Ganglia—collections of cell bodies
outside the central nervous system
 Tracts—bundles of nerve fibers in the
CNS
 Nerves—bundles of nerve fibers in the
PNS
 White matter—collections of
myelinated fibers (tracts)
 Gray matter—collections of mostly
unmyelinated fibers and cell bodies

Functional Classification of Neurons

 Sensory (afferent) neurons

o Carry impulses from the
sensory receptors to the CNS
 Cutaneous sense organs
 Proprioceptors—detect
stretch or tension
 Motor (efferent) neurons
o Carry impulses from the central
nervous system to viscera,
muscles, or glands
  Bipolar neurons—one axon and one
dendrite
o Located in special sense organs
such as nose and eye
o Rare in adults

 Unipolar neurons—have a short single

process leaving the cell body
o Sensory neurons found in PNS
ganglia

Functional Classification of Neurons

 Interneurons (association neurons) Functional Properties of Neurons

o Found in neural pathways in the
central nervous system  Irritability
o Connect sensory and motor o Ability to respond to stimuli
neurons  Conductivity
o Ability to transmit an impulse
Structural Classification of Neurons
Nerve Impulses
 Multipolar neurons—many extensions
from the cell body  Resting neuron
o All motor and interneurons are o The plasma membrane at rest is
multipolar polarized
o Most common structure o Fewer positive ions are inside
the cell than outside the cell
 Depolarization o Repolarization involves
o A stimulus depolarizes the restoring the inside of the
neuron’s membrane membrane to a negative charge
o The membrane is now and the outer surface to a
permeable to sodium as sodium positive charge
channels open
o A depolarized membrane allows
sodium (Na+) to flow inside the
membrane
 Repolarization
o Initial ionic conditions are
restored using the sodium-
potassium pump.
o This pump, using ATP, restores
 Action potential the original configuration
o The movement of ions initiates o Three sodium ions are ejected
an action potential in the from the cell while two
neuron due to a stimulus potassium ions are returned to
o A graded potential (localized the cell
depolarization) exists where the
inside of the membrane is more
positive and the outside is less
positive
o

Transmission of a Signal at Synapses

 When the action potential reaches the

 Propagation of the action potential axon terminal, the electrical charge
o If enough sodium enters the opens calcium channels
cell, the action potential (nerve
impulse) starts and is
propagated over the entire
axon
o Impulses travel faster when
fibers have a myelin sheath

 Repolarization
o Potassium ions rush out of the
neuron after sodium ions rush
in, which repolarizes the
membrane
  Eventually an action potential (nerve
 Calcium, in turn, causes the tiny vesicles impulse) will occur in the neuron
containing the neurotransmitter beyond the synapse
chemical to fuse with the axonal
membrane

 The entry of calcium into the axon

 The electrical changes prompted by
terminal causes porelike openings to
neurotransmitter binding are brief
form, releasing the transmitter
 The neurotransmitter is quickly
removed from the synapse

 The neurotransmitter molecules diffuse

across the synapse and bind to
receptors on the membrane of the next
The Reflex Arc
neuron
 Reflex—rapid, predictable, and
involuntary response to a stimulus
o Occurs over pathways called
reflex arcs
 Reflex arc—direct route from a sensory
neuron, to an interneuron, to an
effector

 If enough neurotransmitter is released,

graded potential will be generated
  Somatic reflexes
o Reflexes that stimulate the
skeletal muscles
o Example: pull your hand away
from a hot object
 Autonomic reflexes
o Regulate the activity of smooth
muscles, the heart, and glands Three-Neuron Reflex Arc
o Example: Regulation of smooth
muscles, heart and blood  Three-neuron reflex arcs
pressure, glands, digestive o Consists of five elements:
system receptor, sensory neuron,
 Five elements of a reflex: interneuron, motor neuron, and
o Sensory receptor–reacts to a effector
stimulus o Example: Flexor (withdrawal)
o Sensory neuron–carries reflex
message to the integration
center
o Integration center (CNS)–
processes information and
directs motor output
o Motor neuron–carries message
to an effector
o Effector organ–is the muscle or
gland to be stimulated
Central Nervous System (CNS)

 CNS develops from the embryonic

neural tube
o The neural tube becomes the
Two-Neuron Reflex Arc
brain and spinal cord
o The opening of the neural tube
 Two-neuron reflex arcs
becomes the ventricles
o Simplest type
 Four chambers within
o Example: Patellar (knee-jerk)
the brain
reflex
 Filled with
cerebrospinal fluid
  Lobes of the cerebrum
Regions of the Brain
o Fissures (deep grooves) divide
• Cerebral hemispheres (cerebrum) the cerebrum into lobes
• Diencephalon o Surface lobes of the cerebrum
• Brain stem  Frontal lobe
• Cerebellum  Parietal lobe
 Occipital lobe
 Temporal lobe

Regions of the Brain: Cerebrum

 Cerebral Hemispheres (Cerebrum)

o Paired (left and right) superior  Specialized areas of the cerebrum
parts of the brain o Primary somatic sensory area
o Includes more than half of the  Receives impulses from
the body’s sensory
brain mass
o The surface is made of ridges receptors
 Located in parietal lobe
(gyri) and grooves (sulci)
o Primary motor area
 Sends impulses to
skeletal muscles
 Located in frontal lobe
 o Broca’s area
 Involved in our ability  Layers of the cerebrum
to speak o Gray matter—outer layer in the
cerebral cortex composed
mostly of neuron cell bodies
o White matter—fiber tracts deep
to the gray matter
 Corpus callosum
connects hemispheres
 Basal nuclei—islands of gray matter
buried within the white matter

 Cerebral areas involved in special

senses
o Gustatory area (taste)
o Visual area
o Auditory area
o Olfactory area
 Interpretation areas of the cerebrum
o Speech/language region
o Language comprehension Regions of the Brain: Diencephalon
region
o General interpretation area  Sits on top of the brain stem
 Enclosed by the cerebral hemispheres
 Made of three parts
o Thalamus
o Hypothalamus
o Epithalamus
 o Includes the choroid plexus—
forms cerebrospinal fluid

Regions of the Brain: Brain Stem

 Attaches to the spinal cord

 Parts of the brain stem
o Midbrain
o Pons
o Medulla oblongata

 Midbrain
 Thalamus
o Mostly composed of tracts of
o Surrounds the third ventricle
nerve fibers
o The relay station for sensory
o Has two bulging fiber tracts—
impulses
cerebral peduncles
o Transfers impulses to the
o Has four rounded protrusions—
correct part of the cortex for
corpora quadrigemina
localization and interpretation
 Reflex centers for vision
 Hypothalamus
and hearing
o Under the thalamus
 Pons
o Important autonomic nervous
o The bulging center part of the
system center
brain stem
 Helps regulate body
o Mostly composed of fiber tracts
temperature
o Includes nuclei involved in the
 Controls water balance
control of breathing
 Regulates metabolism
 Medulla oblongata
o Houses the limbic center for
o The lowest part of the brain
emotions
stem
o Regulates the nearby pituitary
o Merges into the spinal cord
gland
o Includes important fiber tracts
 Produces two
o Contains important control
hormones of its own
 Epithalamus centers
o Forms the roof of the third  Heart rate control
 Blood pressure
ventricle
regulation
o Houses the pineal body (an
 Breathing
endocrine gland)
 Swallowing
  Vomiting
 Reticular Formation
o Diffuse mass of gray matter
along the brain stem
o Involved in motor control of
visceral organs
o Reticular activating system
(RAS) plays a role in
awake/sleep cycles and
consciousness

Meninges

 Dura mater
o Tough outermost layer
o Double-layered external
covering
 Periosteum—attached
to inner surface of the
skull
 Meningeal layer—outer
Regions of the Brain: Cerebellum covering of the brain
o Folds inward in several areas
 Two hemispheres with convoluted  Falx cerebri
surfaces  Tentorium cerebelli
 Provides involuntary coordination of  Arachnoid layer
body movements o Middle layer
o Web-like extensions span the
subarachnoid space
o Arachnoid villi reabsorb
cerebrospinal fluid
 Pia mater
o Internal layer
o Clings to the surface of the
brain

Protection of the Central Nervous System

• Scalp and skin

• Skull and vertebral column
• Meninges
• Cerebrospinal fluid (CSF)
• Blood-brain barrier
Cerebrospinal Fluid (CSF)

• Similar to blood plasma composition

• Formed by the choroid plexus
• Choroid plexuses–capillaries in
the ventricles of the brain
• Forms a watery cushion to protect the
brain
• Circulated in arachnoid space,
ventricles, and central canal of the
spinal cord
Cerebrospinal Fluid (CSF) Pathway of Flow

1. CSF is produced by the choroid plexus

of each ventricle.
2. CSF flows through the ventricles and
into the subarachnoid space via the
median and lateral apertures. Some CSF
flows through the central canal of the
spinal cord.
3. CSF flows through the subarachnoid
space. Hydrocephalus in a Newborn
4. CSF is absorbed into the dural venous
sinuses via the arachnoid villi.  Hydrocephalus
o CSF accumulates and exerts
pressure on the brain if not
allowed to drain
o Possible in an infant because
the skull bones have not yet
fused
o In adults, this situation results
in brain damage

Blood-Brain Barrier
  Includes the least permeable capillaries  Progressive degenerative brain disease
of the body  Mostly seen in the elderly, but may
 Excludes many potentially harmful begin in middle age
substances  Structural changes in the brain include
 Useless as a barrier against some abnormal protein deposits and twisted
substances fibers within neurons
o Fats and fat soluble molecules  Victims experience memory loss,
o Respiratory gases irritability, confusion, and ultimately,
o Alcohol hallucinations and death
o Nicotine
o Anesthesia Spinal Cord

Traumatic Brain Injuries • Extends from the foramen magnum of

the skull to the first or second lumbar
 Concussion vertebra
o Slight brain injury • Provides a two-way conduction
o No permanent brain damage pathway from the brain to and from the
 Contusion brain
o Nervous tissue destruction • 31 pairs of spinal nerves arise from the
occurs spinal cord
o Nervous tissue does not • Cauda equina is a collection of spinal
regenerate nerves at the inferior end
 Cerebral edema
o Swelling from the inflammatory
response
o May compress and kill brain
tissue

Cerebrovascular Accident (CVA) or Stroke

 Result from a ruptured blood vessel

supplying a region of the brain
 Brain tissue supplied with oxygen from
that blood source dies
 Loss of some functions or death may
result
o Hemiplegia–One-sided paralysis
o Aphasis–Damage to speech
center in left hemisphere
 Transischemia-attack (TIA)–temporary
brain ischemia (restriction of blood
flow)
o Warning signs for more serious
CVAs

Alzheimer’s Disease
 bodies outside the
central nervous system
o Ventral root
 Contains axons

Spinal Cord Anatomy

 Internal gray matter is mostly cell

bodies
o Dorsal (posterior) horns
o Anterior (ventral) horns
o Gray matter surrounds the Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)
central canal
• Central canal is filled  Nerves and ganglia outside the central
with cerebrospinal fluid nervous system
 Exterior white mater—conduction  Nerve = bundle of neuron fibers
tracts  Neuron fibers are bundled by
o Dorsal, lateral, ventral columns connective tissue

PNS: Structure of a Nerve

• Endoneurium surrounds each fiber

• Groups of fibers are bound into fascicles
by perineurium
• Fascicles are bound together by
epineurium

 Meninges cover the spinal cord

 Spinal nerves leave at the level of each
vertebrae
o Dorsal root
 Associated with the
dorsal root ganglia—
collections of cell
 • And – Abducens
• Feel – Facial
• Very – Vestibulocochlear
• Green – Glossopharyngeal
• Vegetables – Vagus
• A – Accessory
• H – Hypoglossal

PNS: Cranial Nerves

• I Olfactory nerve—sensory for smell

• II Optic nerve—sensory for vision
• III Oculomotor nerve—motor fibers to
eye muscles
• IV Trochlear—motor fiber to one eye
muscle
• V Trigeminal nerve—sensory for the
face; motor fibers to chewing muscles
PNS: Classification of Nerves • VI Abducens nerve—motor fibers to
eye muscles
 Mixed nerves • VII Facial nerve—sensory for taste;
o Both sensory and motor fibers motor fibers to the face
 Sensory (afferent) nerves • VIII Vestibulocochlear nerve—sensory
o Carry impulses toward the CNS for balance and hearing
 Motor (efferent) nerves • IX Glossopharyngeal nerve—sensory
o Carry impulses away from the for taste; motor fibers to the pharynx
CNS • X Vagus nerves—sensory and motor
fibers for pharynx, larynx, and viscera
PNS: Cranial Nerves • XI Accessory nerve—motor fibers to
neck and upper back
• Twelve pairs of nerves that mostly serve • XII Hypoglossal nerve—motor fibers to
the head and neck tongue
• Only the pair of vagus nerves extend to
thoracic and abdominal cavities
• Most are mixed nerves, but three are
sensory only

PNS: Cranial Nerves Device

• Oh – Olfactory
• Oh – Optic
• Oh – Oculomotor
• To – Trochlear
• Touch – Trigeminal
 PNS: Anatomy of Spinal Nerves

 Spinal nerves divide soon after leaving

the spinal cord
 Ramus—branch of a spinal nerve;
contains both motor and sensory fibers
o Dorsal rami—serve the skin and
muscles of the posterior trunk
o Ventral rami—form a complex
of networks (plexus) for the
anterior

PNS: Spinal Nerve Plexuses

 Plexus–networks of nerves serving

motor and sensory needs of the limbs
 Form from ventral rami of spinal nerves
in the cervical, lumbar, and sacral
regions
PNS: Spinal Nerves  Four plexuses:
o Cervical
• There is a pair of spinal nerves at the o Brachial
level of each vertebrae for a total of 31 o Lumbar
pairs
o Sacral
• Formed by the combination of the
 Cervical Plexus
ventral and dorsal roots of the spinal
o Originates from ventral rami in
cord
C1 – C 5
• Named for the region from which they
o Important nerve is the phrenic
arise
nerve
o Areas served:
 Diaphragm
 Shoulder and neck
 Brachial Plexus
o Originates from ventral rami in
C5 – C8 and T1
o Important nerves:
 Axillary
 Radial
 Median
 Musculocutaneous
 Ulnar
o Areas served: shoulder, arm,
forearm, and hand
 Lumbar Plexus
o Originates from ventral rami in
L1 through L4
o Important nerves:
  Femoral
 Obturator
o Areas served:
 Lower abdomen
 Anterior and medial
thighs
 Sacral Plexus
o Originates from ventral rami in
L4 – L5 and S1 – S4
o Important nerves:
 Sciatic
 Superior and inferior
gluteal
o Areas served:
 Lower trunk and
PNS: Anatomy of the Parasympathetic Division
posterior thigh
 Lateral and posterior
 Preganglionic neurons originate from
leg and foot
the craniosacral regions:
 Gluteal muscles of hip
o The cranial nerves III, VII, IX,
area
and X
o S2 through S4 regions of the
PNS: Autonomic Nervous System
spinal cord
 Motor subdivision of the PNS  Due to site of preganglionic neuron
o Consists only of motor nerves origination, the parasympathetic
division is also known as the
 Also known as the involuntary nervous
craniosacral division
system
 Terminal ganglia are at the effector
o Regulates activities of cardiac
organs
and smooth muscles and glands
 Neurotransmitter: acetylcholine
 Two subdivisions
o Sympathetic division
o Parasympathetic division

PNS: Differences Between Somatic

and Autonomic Nervous Systems
  digestion, defecation,
and diuresis

Development Aspects of the Nervous System

• The nervous system is formed during

the first month of embryonic
development
• Any maternal infection can have
extremely harmful effects
• The hypothalamus is one of the last
areas of the brain to develop
• No more neurons are formed after
birth, but growth and maturation
continues for several years
• The brain reaches maximum weight as a
young adult

PNS: Anatomy of the Sympathetic Division

• Preganglionic neurons originate from T1

through L2
• Ganglia are at the sympathetic trunk
(near the spinal cord)
• Short pre-ganglionic neuron and long
post-ganglionic neuron transmit
impulse from CNS to the effector
• Neurotransmitters: norepinephrine and
epinephrine (effector organs)

PNS: Autonomic Functioning

 Sympathetic—“fight or flight”
o Response to unusual stimulus
o Takes over to increase activities
o Remember as the “E” division
 Exercise, excitement,
emergency, and
embarrassment
 Parasympathetic—“housekeeping”
activites
o Conserves energy
o Maintains daily necessary body
functions
o Remember as the “D” division