VISION INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY,ALIGARH

Subject: Data Base management system

Unit-1

Database

The database is a collection of inter-related data which is used to retrieve, insert and
delete the data efficiently. It is also used to organize the data in the form of a table,
schema, views, and reports, etc.

For example: The college Database organizes the data about the admin, staff,
students and faculty etc.

Using the database, you can easily retrieve, insert, and delete the information.

Database Management System

o Database management system is a software which is used to manage the

database. For example: MySQL, Oracle, etc are a very popular commercial
database which is used in different applications.
o DBMS provides an interface to perform various operations like database
creation, storing data in it, updating data, creating a table in the database and
a lot more.
o It provides protection and security to the database. In the case of multiple users,
it also maintains data consistency.
DBMS allows users the following tasks:

o Data Definition: It is used for creation, modification, and removal of definition

that defines the organization of data in the database.
o Data Updation: It is used for the insertion, modification, and deletion of the
actual data in the database.
o Data Retrieval: It is used to retrieve the data from the database which can be
used by applications for various purposes.
o User Administration: It is used for registering and monitoring users, maintain
data integrity, enforcing data security, dealing with concurrency control,
monitoring performance and recovering information corrupted by unexpected
failure.

Characteristics of DBMS

o It uses a digital repository established on a server to store and manage the

information.
o It can provide a clear and logical view of the process that manipulates data.
o DBMS contains automatic backup and recovery procedures.
o It contains ACID properties which maintain data in a healthy state in case of
failure.
o It can reduce the complex relationship between data.
o It is used to support manipulation and processing of data.
o It is used to provide security of data.

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Subject: Data Base management system

Unit-1

o It can view the database from different viewpoints according to the

requirements of the user.

Advantages of DBMS

o Controls database redundancy: It can control data redundancy because it

stores all the data in one single database file and that recorded data is placed
in the database.
o

o Data sharing: In DBMS, the authorized users of an organization can share the
data among multiple users.
o Easily Maintenance: It can be easily maintainable due to the centralized
nature of the database system.
o Reduce time: It reduces development time and maintenance need.
o Backup: It provides backup and recovery subsystems which create automatic
backup of data from hardware and software failures and restores the data if
required.
o multiple user interface: It provides different types of user interfaces like
graphical user interfaces, application program interfaces

Disadvantages of DBMS

o Cost of Hardware and Software: It requires a high speed of data processor

and large memory size to run DBMS software.
o Size: It occupies a large space of disks and large memory to run them
efficiently.
o Complexity: Database system creates additional complexity and
requirements.
o Higher impact of failure: Failure is highly impacted the database because in
most of the organization, all the data stored in a single database and if the
database is damaged due to electric failure or database corruption then the
data may be lost forever.

Basics File System DBMS

The file system is a way of

arranging the files in a DBMS is software for managing
storage medium within a the database.
Structure computer.

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 VISION INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY,ALIGARH
Subject: Data Base management system

Unit-1

Basics File System DBMS

Data Redundant data can be In DBMS there is no redundant

Redundancy present in a file system. data.

It doesn’t provide Inbuilt It provides in house tools for

Backup and mechanism for backup and backup and recovery of data
Recovery recovery of data if it is lost. even if it is lost.

Query There is no efficient query Efficient query processing is

processing processing in the file system. there in DBMS.

There is less data There is more data consistency

consistency in the file because of the process
Consistency system. of normalization .

It has more complexity in

It is less complex as
handling as compared to the file
compared to DBMS.
Complexity system.

File systems provide less DBMS has more security

Security security in comparison to mechanisms as compared to
Constraints DBMS. file systems.

It is less expensive than It has a comparatively higher

Cost DBMS. cost than a file system.

In DBMS data
independence exists, mainly of
There is no data
two types:
independence.
Data 1) Logical Data Independence .
Independence 2)Physical Data Independence.

Only one user can access Multiple users can access data
User Access data at a time. at a time.

The user has to write

The users are not required to
procedures for managing
write procedures.
Meaning databases

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 VISION INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY,ALIGARH
Subject: Data Base management system

Unit-1

Basics File System DBMS

Data is distributed in many

Due to centralized nature data
files. So, it is not easy to
sharing is easy
Sharing share data.

Data It give details of storage and It hides the internal details

Abstraction representation of data of Database

Integrity Integrity Constraints are Integrity constraints are easy to

Constraints difficult to implement implement

To access data in a file ,

user requires attributes No such attributes are
such as file name, file required.
Attribute s location.

Example Cobol , C++ Oracle , SQL Server

DBMS Architecture

o The DBMS design depends upon its architecture. The basic client/server
architecture is used to deal with a large number of PCs, web servers, database
servers and other components that are connected with networks.
o The client/server architecture consists of many PCs and a workstation which
are connected via the network.
o DBMS architecture depends upon how users are connected to the database to
get their request done.

Types of DBMS Architecture

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 VISION INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY,ALIGARH
Subject: Data Base management system

Unit-1

Database architecture can be seen as a single tier or multi-tier. But logically, database
architecture is of two types like: 2-tier architecture and 3-tier architecture.

1-Tier Architecture

o In this architecture, the database is directly available to the user. It means the
user can directly sit on the DBMS and uses it.
o Any changes done here will directly be done on the database itself. It doesn't
provide a handy tool for end users.
o The 1-Tier architecture is used for development of the local application, where
programmers can directly communicate with the database for the quick
response.

2-Tier Architecture

o The 2-Tier architecture is same as basic client-server. In the two-tier

architecture, applications on the client end can directly communicate with the
database at the server side. For this interaction, API's like: ODBC, JDBC are
used.
o The user interfaces and application programs are run on the client-side.
o The server side is responsible to provide the functionalities like: query
processing and transaction management.

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Subject: Data Base management system

Unit-1

o To communicate with the DBMS, client-side application establishes a

connection with the server side.

Fig: 2-tier Architecture

3-Tier Architecture

o The 3-Tier architecture contains another layer between the client and server. In
this architecture, client can't directly communicate with the server.
o The application on the client-end interacts with an application server which
further communicates with the database system.
o End user has no idea about the existence of the database beyond the
application server. The database also has no idea about any other user beyond
the application.
o The 3-Tier architecture is used in case of large web application.

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Subject: Data Base management system

Unit-1

Fig: 3-tier Architecture

Three schema Architecture

o The three schema architecture is also called ANSI/SPARC architecture or

three-level architecture.
o This framework is used to describe the structure of a specific database system.
o The three schema architecture is also used to separate the user applications
and physical database.
o The three schema architecture contains three-levels. It breaks the database
down into three different categories.
The three-schema architecture is as follows:

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Subject: Data Base management system

Unit-1

In the above diagram:

o It shows the DBMS architecture.

o Mapping is used to transform the request and response between various
database levels of architecture.
o Mapping is not good for small DBMS because it takes more time.
o In External / Conceptual mapping, it is necessary to transform the request from
external level to conceptual schema.
o In Conceptual / Internal mapping, DBMS transform the request from the
conceptual to internal level.

Objectives of Three schema Architecture

The main objective of three level architecture is to enable multiple users to access the
same data with a personalized view while storing the underlying data only once. Thus
it separates the user's view from the physical structure of the database. This
separation is desirable for the following reasons:

o Different users need different views of the same data.

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 VISION INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY,ALIGARH
Subject: Data Base management system

Unit-1

o The approach in which a particular user needs to see the data may change over
time.
o The users of the database should not worry about the physical implementation
and internal workings of the database such as data compression and encryption
techniques, hashing, optimization of the internal structures etc.
o All users should be able to access the same data according to their
requirements.
o DBA should be able to change the conceptual structure of the database without
affecting the user's
o Internal structure of the database should be unaffected by changes to physical
aspects of the storage.

1. Internal Level

o The internal level has an internal schema which describes the physical storage
structure of the database.
o The internal schema is also known as a physical schema.
o It uses the physical data model. It is used to define that how the data will be
stored in a block.
o The physical level is used to describe complex low-level data structures in
detail.
The internal level is generally is concerned with the following activities:

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o Storage space allocations.

For Example: B-Trees, Hashing etc.
o Access paths.
For Example: Specification of primary and secondary keys, indexes, pointers
and sequencing.
o Data compression and encryption techniques.
o Optimization of internal structures.
o Representation of stored fields.

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 VISION INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY,ALIGARH
Subject: Data Base management system

Unit-1

2. Conceptual Level

o The conceptual schema describes the design of a database at the conceptual

level. Conceptual level is also known as logical level.
o The conceptual schema describes the structure of the whole database.
o The conceptual level describes what data are to be stored in the database and
also describes what relationship exists among those data.
o In the conceptual level, internal details such as an implementation of the data
structure are hidden.
o Programmers and database administrators work at this level.

3. External Level

o At the external level, a database contains several schemas that sometimes

called as subschema. The subschema is used to describe the different view of
the database.
o An external schema is also known as view schema.
o Each view schema describes the database part that a particular user group is
interested and hides the remaining database from that user group.
o The view schema describes the end user interaction with database systems.

Mapping between Views

The three levels of DBMS architecture don't exist independently of each other. There
must be correspondence between the three levels i.e. how they actually correspond
with each other. DBMS is responsible for correspondence between the three types of
schema. This correspondence is called Mapping.

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 VISION INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY,ALIGARH
Subject: Data Base management system

Unit-1

There are basically two types of mapping in the database architecture:

o Conceptual/ Internal Mapping

o External / Conceptual Mapping
Conceptual/ Internal Mapping

The Conceptual/ Internal Mapping lies between the conceptual level and the internal
level. Its role is to define the correspondence between the records and fields of the
conceptual level and files and data structures of the internal level.

External/ Conceptual Mapping

The external/Conceptual Mapping lies between the external level and the Conceptual
level. Its role is to define the correspondence between a particular external and the
conceptual view.

Data Models
Data Model is the modeling of the data description, data semantics, and consistency constraints
of the data. It provides the conceptual tools for describing the design of a database at each level
of data abstraction. Therefore, there are following four data models used for understanding the
structure of the database:

1) Relational Data Model: This type of model designs the data in the form of rows and
columns within a table. Thus, a relational model uses tables for representing data and in-
between relationships. Tables are also called relations. This model was initially described by

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Subject: Data Base management system

Unit-1

Edgar F. Codd, in 1969. The relational data model is the widely used model which is primarily
used by commercial data processing applications.

2) Entity-Relationship Data Model: An ER model is the logical representation of data as

objects and relationships among them. These objects are known as entities, and relationship is
an association among these entities. This model was designed by Peter Chen and published in
1976 papers. It was widely used in database designing. A set of attributes describe the entities.
For example, student_name, student_id describes the 'student' entity. A set of the same type of
entities is known as an 'Entity set', and the set of the same type of relationships is known as
'relationship set'.

3) Object-based Data Model: An extension of the ER model with notions of functions,

encapsulation, and object identity, as well. This model supports a rich type system that includes
structured and collection types. Thus, in 1980s, various database systems following the object-
oriented approach were developed. Here, the objects are nothing but the data carrying its
properties.

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4) Semistructured Data Model: This type of data model is different from the other three data
models (explained above). The semistructured data model allows the data specifications at
places where the individual data items of the same type may have different attributes sets. The
Extensible Markup Language, also known as XML, is widely used for representing the
semistructured data. Although XML was initially designed for including the markup
information to the text document, it gains importance because of its application in the exchange
of data.

Data model Schema and Instance

o The data which is stored in the database at a particular moment of time is called
an instance of the database.
o The overall design of a database is called schema.
o A database schema is the skeleton structure of the database. It represents the
logical view of the entire database.
o A schema contains schema objects like table, foreign key, primary key, views,
columns, data types, stored procedure, etc.
o A database schema can be represented by using the visual diagram. That
diagram shows the database objects and relationship with each other.
o A database schema is designed by the database designers to help
programmers whose software will interact with the database. The process of
database creation is called data modeling.
A schema diagram can display only some aspects of a schema like the name of record
type, data type, and constraints. Other aspects can't be specified through the schema
diagram. For example, the given figure neither show the data type of each data item
nor the relationship among various files.

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 VISION INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY,ALIGARH
Subject: Data Base management system

Unit-1

In the database, actual data changes quite frequently. For example, in the given figure,
the database changes whenever we add a new grade or add a student. The data at a
particular moment of time is called the instance of the database.

Data Independence

o Data independence can be explained using the three-schema architecture.

o Data independence refers characteristic of being able to modify the schema at one
level of the database system without altering the schema at the next higher level.
There are two types of data independence:

1. Logical Data Independence

o Logical data independence refers characteristic of being able to change the conceptual
schema without having to change the external schema.
o Logical data independence is used to separate the external level from the conceptual
view.

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Subject: Data Base management system

Unit-1

o If we do any changes in the conceptual view of the data, then the user view of the data
would not be affected.
o Logical data independence occurs at the user interface level.

2. Physical Data Independence

o Physical data independence can be defined as the capacity to change the internal
schema without having to change the conceptual schema.
o If we do any changes in the storage size of the database system server, then the
Conceptual structure of the database will not be affected.
o Physical data independence is used to separate conceptual levels from the internal
levels.
o Physical data independence occurs at the logical interface level.

ER (Entity Relationship) Diagram in DBMS

o ER model stands for an Entity-Relationship model. It is a high-level data model.

This model is used to define the data elements and relationship for a specified
system.

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Subject: Data Base management system

Unit-1

o It develops a conceptual design for the database. It also develops a very simple
and easy to design view of data.
o In ER modeling, the database structure is portrayed as a diagram called an
entity-relationship diagram.
For example, Suppose we design a school database. In this database, the student
will be an entity with attributes like address, name, id, age, etc. The address can be
another entity with attributes like city, street name, pin code, etc and there will be a
relationship between them.

Component of ER Diagram

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Subject: Data Base management system

Unit-1

1. Entity:

An entity may be any object, class, person or place. In the ER diagram, an entity can
be represented as rectangles.

Consider an organization as an example- manager, product, employee, department

etc. can be taken as an entity.

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Subject: Data Base management system

Unit-1

a. Weak Entity

An entity that depends on another entity called a weak entity. The weak entity doesn't
contain any key attribute of its own. The weak entity is represented by a double
rectangle.

2. Attribute

The attribute is used to describe the property of an entity. Eclipse is used to represent
an attribute.

For example, id, age, contact number, name, etc. can be attributes of a student.

a. Key Attribute

The key attribute is used to represent the main characteristics of an entity. It represents
a primary key. The key attribute is represented by an ellipse with the text underlined.

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Subject: Data Base management system

Unit-1

b. Composite Attribute

An attribute that composed of many other attributes is known as a composite attribute.

The composite attribute is represented by an ellipse, and those ellipses are connected
with an ellipse.

c. Multivalued Attribute

An attribute can have more than one value. These attributes are known as a
multivalued attribute. The double oval is used to represent multivalued attribute.

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Subject: Data Base management system

Unit-1

For example, a student can have more than one phone number.

d. Derived Attribute

An attribute that can be derived from other attribute is known as a derived attribute. It
can be represented by a dashed ellipse.

For example, A person's age changes over time and can be derived from another
attribute like Date of birth.

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3. Relationship

A relationship is used to describe the relation between entities. Diamond or rhombus

is used to represent the relationship.

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Subject: Data Base management system

Unit-1

Types of relationship are as follows:

a. One-to-One Relationship

When only one instance of an entity is associated with the relationship, then it is known
as one to one relationship.

For example, A female can marry to one male, and a male can marry to one female.

b. One-to-many relationship

When only one instance of the entity on the left, and more than one instance of an
entity on the right associates with the relationship then this is known as a one-to-many
relationship.

For example, Scientist can invent many inventions, but the invention is done by the
only specific scientist.

c. Many-to-one relationship

When more than one instance of the entity on the left, and only one instance of an
entity on the right associates with the relationship then it is known as a many-to-one
relationship.

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Subject: Data Base management system

Unit-1

For example, Student enrolls for only one course, but a course can have many
students.

d. Many-to-many relationship

When more than one instance of the entity on the left, and more than one instance of
an entity on the right associates with the relationship then it is known as a many-to-
many relationship.

For example, Employee can assign by many projects and project can have many
employees.

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Subject: Data Base management system

Unit-1

Notation of ER diagram

Database can be represented using the notations. In ER diagram, many notations are
used to express the cardinality. These notations are as follows:

Generalization

o Generalization is like a bottom-up approach in which two or more entities of

lower level combine to form a higher level entity if they have some attributes in
common.
o In generalization, an entity of a higher level can also combine with the entities
of the lower level to form a further higher level entity.
o Generalization is more like subclass and superclass system, but the only
difference is the approach. Generalization uses the bottom-up approach.
o In generalization, entities are combined to form a more generalized entity, i.e.,
subclasses are combined to make a superclass.
For example, Faculty and Student entities can be generalized and create a higher
level entity Person.

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Subject: Data Base management system

Unit-1

Specialization

o Specialization is a top-down approach, and it is opposite to Generalization. In

specialization, one higher level entity can be broken down into two lower level
entities.
o Specialization is used to identify the subset of an entity set that shares some
distinguishing characteristics.
o Normally, the superclass is defined first, the subclass and its related attributes
are defined next, and relationship set are then added.
For example: In an Employee management system, EMPLOYEE entity can be
specialized as TESTER or DEVELOPER based on what role they play in the company.

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Unit-1

Aggregation
In aggregation, the relation between two entities is treated as a single entity. In
aggregation, relationship with its corresponding entities is aggregated into a higher
level entity.

For example: Center entity offers the Course entity act as a single entity in the
relationship which is in a relationship with another entity visitor. In the real world, if a
visitor visits a coaching center then he will never enquiry about the Course only or just
about the Center instead he will ask the enquiry about both.

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Subject: Data Base management system

Unit-1

Database Languages in DBMS

o A DBMS has appropriate languages and interfaces to express database queries

and updates.
o Database languages can be used to read, store and update the data in the
database.

Types of Database Languages

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Unit-1

1. Data Definition Language (DDL)

o DDL stands for Data Definition Language. It is used to define database

structure or pattern.
o It is used to create schema, tables, indexes, constraints, etc. in the database.
o Using the DDL statements, you can create the skeleton of the database.
o Data definition language is used to store the information of metadata like the
number of tables and schemas, their names, indexes, columns in each table,
constraints, etc.
Here are some tasks that come under DDL:

o Create: It is used to create objects in the database.

o Alter: It is used to alter the structure of the database.
o Drop: It is used to delete objects from the database.
o Truncate: It is used to remove all records from a table.
o Rename: It is used to rename an object.
o Comment: It is used to comment on the data dictionary.
These commands are used to update the database schema that's why they come
under Data definition language.

2. Data Manipulation Language (DML)

DML stands for Data Manipulation Language. It is used for accessing and
manipulating data in a database. It handles user requests.

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Here are some tasks that come under DML:

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o Select: It is used to retrieve data from a database.

o Insert: It is used to insert data into a table.
o Update: It is used to update existing data within a table.
o Delete: It is used to delete all records from a table.
o Merge: It performs UPSERT operation, i.e., insert or update operations.
o Call: It is used to call a structured query language or a Java subprogram.
o Explain Plan: It has the parameter of explaining data.
o Lock Table: It controls concurrency.

3. Data Control Language (DCL)

o DCL stands for Data Control Language. It is used to retrieve the stored or
saved data.
o The DCL execution is transactional. It also has rollback parameters.
(But in Oracle database, the execution of data control language does not have
the feature of rolling back.)

Here are some tasks that come under DCL:

o Grant: It is used to give user access privileges to a database.

o Revoke: It is used to take back permissions from the user.
There are the following operations which have the authorization of Revoke:

CONNECT, INSERT, USAGE, EXECUTE, DELETE, UPDATE and SELECT.

4. Transaction Control Language (TCL)

TCL is used to run the changes made by the DML statement. TCL can be grouped into
a logical transaction.

Here are some tasks that come under TCL:

o Commit: It is used to save the transaction on the database.

o Rollback: It is used to restore the database to original since the last Commit.

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