Surveying

ETB 2123 / ETG 2123

4. Angle Measurement
Lecturer - Dr. Sankha Widisinghe
 Learning Outcomes
 LO 2 - Carry out basic surveying and mapping activities such as measurement of
ground elevation, angle and distance measurements and detailed surveying using
appropriate surveying equipment
 LO 3 - Select and apply appropriate computing techniques to analyse and process
surveying field measurement data

Sub Topics –
• Tools and techniques to measure angles
• Practical applications of measured angles
• Levelling using the theodolite or total station
• Instrumental errors
• Tests and adjustments
 What is ANGLE?
Definition: for line SA, there are two types of angles, horizontal and vertical angles.
For horizontal angles, according to definition, the angle ASB between SA’ and SB’ directions. These directions are projections of
SA and SB directions. So in this instance, direction SB’ can be the reference.
For the vertical angle, point Z lies on the vertical direction passing through S. All point above point S are called “Zenith”, all
the point below this point are called “Nadir”. The angle between SZ and SA (direction of interest) is called zenith angle. This
angle is measured in the clockwise direction.
Angle units:

Degree, D
Grad, G
Radian, R
Miliem, M
Calculator Setup for Angle Computations

Set to degree

Press this for

indicating degree,
minute and second
 Tools to Measure Angles?
• The theodolite is used to measure angles accurately.
• To measure both the horizontal angle between two points and independently to measure the
vertical angle between those same two points.
• The theodolite consist of rotatable vertical and horizontal axes.
 Practical Applications of Measuring Horizontal Angles
Measuring distance between two points, where one point is not accessible: Suppose we are looking to find the
distance between points A and B. Due to presence of a barrier such as rivers, one of these points can not be accessed so
that direct measurement of distance is not possible. Propose a method for measuring the distance (refer to the following
figure).
• Locate another point in the side where point A is located (point
C). Find the direct distance between A and C (AC).
• Position the theodolite at A. Target points B and C and calculate
the angle between AB and AC
• Position the theodolite at C. Target points B and A and calculate
the angle between CB and CA
• Now, AB distance can be calculated as follows,
Barrier –
•large tree
•Building
•River, mountain
 Practical Applications of Measuring Horizontal Angles
Measuring distance between two points, where both points are not accessible: Suppose we are looking to find the distance
between points A and B. Due to presence of a barrier such as rivers, both points can not be accessed so that direct
measurement of distance is not possible. Propose a method for measuring the distance (refer to the following figure).

(1)Locate two points in the side where there is access (C and D).
(2)Position the total station at C and D. At each station, target points A
and B and the other station. Calculate angles α, β, γ and δ.
(3) Directly measure DC distance (d).
(4) Now, AB distance can be calculated as follows,

Barriers –
•Roads not available between A to B
•Building
•River, mountain
 Practical Applications of Measuring Horizontal Angles
Finding intersection of two lines: Suppose we are looking to find the intersection of lines AB and CD. These could be two
intersection roads, or two sides of a land.

(1)Position the theodolite at point A. By targeting point B, the theodolite

sight is directed in AB direction.
(2)Locate two points (P1 and P2) near which the intersection is
anticipated. Use two ranging rods to mark these points.
(3)Position the theodolite at C and target point D. Similar to step (2),
mark two points (P3 and P4) on CD close to the anticipated intersection.
(4) Intersection of P1P2 and P3P4 is actually the intersection of AB and
CD.
(5)For more accuracy, two theodolite instruments can be used. Locate
them at A and C and target the opposite points (B and C, respectively).
Move the ranging rod so that it is visible in both sight lines of the
positioned theodolites. The final location of ranging rod is the required
intersection.
 Exam question
Q1. You are tasked to find the distance between points P and Q (PQ distance), which are not accessible because of a
river. So two accessible points (A and B) were chosen, such that points P and Q are visible, following measurements
were taken (Figure 1). Determine the PQ distance, showing your calculations. (06 Marks)
 Measuring Vertical Angles
In the case of a vertical angle, the protractor moves relative to a
fixed horizontal index. Figure shows the telescope horizontal and
reading 90◦; changing face would result in a reading of 270◦.
the vertical circle index remains horizontal whilst the protractor rotates
with the telescope.
The vertical circle reading of 65◦ is the zenith angle, In Figure (b),
equivalent to a vertical angle of (90◦ − 65◦) = +25◦ = α. This illustrates the
basic concept of vertical angle measurement.
 Levelling using the theodolite
 Levelling is rather accurate – usually error of 3-4 mm for 1 km length
 This method is suitable, if
1. Less accuracy is expected
2. If practical limitations present, for eg. Barrier for travel
3. Less time to be invested
 For example – measuring height of a building or height difference
 Levelling Using Theodolite
In order to find the height difference between A and B, the Theodolite or Total Station is positioned at A and
from there point B is targeted. At point B only a target sign or ranging rod is required.
 Practical Applications of Measuring Vertical Angles

Checking vertical alignment of a column: having the alidade locked horizontally, vertical alignment of a direction can be
investigated using rotation of the telescope.
In order to check vertical alignment of a column, a theodolite can be positioned roughly perpendicular to the column. The a
point above or below the column is targeted and the alidade is locked.
By vertically rotating the telescope, if the telescope sight falls outside the column, the column is not vertically aligned.
Vertical alignment of column should be checked in two directions.
This means that as the following figure shows, the theodolite should target two perpendicular faces of the column.
 Practical Applications of Measuring Vertical Angles
Measuring height of a building: Suppose that measurement of height of building as shown in the following figure is
required. M and N points represents top and bottom of the building.

𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀 = 𝑑𝑑 tan 𝛼𝛼
𝑂𝑂𝑂𝑂 = 𝑑𝑑 tan 𝛽𝛽

Height of the building = MN

MN = MO+ON
 Practical Applications of Measuring Vertical Angles
Measuring height of a building: Suppose that measurement of height of building as shown in the following figure is
required. M and N points represents top and bottom of the building.

𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀 = 𝑑𝑑 tan 𝛼𝛼
𝑂𝑂𝑂𝑂 = 𝑑𝑑 tan 𝛽𝛽

Height of the building = MN

MN = MO - ON
 Practical Applications of Measuring Vertical Angles
Finding height of a point which can not be accessed from one side: Suppose height of point M is required. As the
following figure shows, this point cannot be accessed from the left side. The other reason for indirect calculation of height
of point M could be related to its far distance from point A. In this case, there are two unknowns: the horizontal and the
vertical distances. The theodolite should be positioned in two stations. These stations and point M should be located
in the same vertical plane.
Exam question
Setting up
(1) Establish the tripod roughly over the survey
point using a plumb-bob.
(2) Depending on the situation of the optical
plummet, attach the tribrach only, or the
theodolite, to the tripod.
(3) Using the three black foot screws at base of the
Total Station (tribrach) move the bubble into the
middle of the black ring of the circular level, as
shown below.
(4) There are various ways to using the three foot
screws to level the Total Station. But the easiest
way is whichever foot screw you turn clockwise
the bubble will move towards that foot screw.
Or vice versa turn a foot screw anti clockwise
and the bubble will move away from that foot
screw. Once you have the bubble positioned in
the middle of the black ring of the circular level,
you can turn on the Theodolite or Total Station. Have a look at this video

Theodolite 1 - Intro & Setup

Initial check for the instrument
(1) Collimation in Azimuth test (2) Collimation in Altitude test

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=gPkPHFYjNJc https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Wuaa1ZtqOco
 Measuring Vertical Angles
The following tables show face left observations for a number of vertical angles, calculate the missing face right
observation that should be expected if the theodolite/total station is in adjustment.
Observed Vertical
Observed Angles
Vertical Angles

Face LeftLeft
Face Face Right
Face Right

10o10
o00’00” 350o00’00”
00’00”

35o35
o53’08” 324o06’52”
53’08”

255255
o23’15”
o23’15” 104o36’45”

355355
o42’58”
o42’58” 04o17’02”

Face Left, vertical circle on the left of observer

 How to Measure Horizontal Angles
Example: The following tables show face left and right observations for a horizontal angle, calculate the horizontal angle
between PA and PB directions.
Left Line Right

Face Left Station P Face Right Mean of FL & FR

To Station A 154°37’45” PA 334°37’50” To Station A 154°37’47.5”

To Station B 67°33’40” PB 247°33’30” To Station B 67°33’35”

(154°37’45”-67°33’40” ) = ? (334°37’50” -247°33’30” ) = ?

Measuring Horizontal Angles by Direction

The method of directions is generally used when observing a set of angles. The angles are observed, commencing
from A and noting all the readings, as the instrument moves from point to point in a clockwise manner. Once the cycle is
completed, the face changed (FR) and observations are recorded. Finally the mean directions are reduced relative to the
starting direction for PA by applying the ‘orientation correction’.

We will discuss the solution

during tutorials in details
 Instrumental Errors, Tests, Adjustments
 In order to achieve reliable measurement of the horizontal and vertical angles, one must use
an instrument that has been properly adjusted and adopt the correct field procedure. The
theodolite is a precision instrument constructed to very fine tolerances to measure angles
accurately.
 Just as there are no error free measurements, there is no error free geometry in theodolite
construction. Manufacturers need to control manufacturing tolerances to produce a
theodolite that meets accuracy specifications so theodolites are expensive, and more precise
instruments are more expensive.

 However, some errors in construction and

adjustment of the theodolite can be adjusted by reading
an angle with ‘both faces’ of the theodolite, that is, reading
the angle ‘face left’ then flipping the telescope 180o and
rotating the alidade 180o, and reading the angle
again ‘face right’.
Instrumental Errors, Tests, Adjustments.. For own reference

The tests described in Section 5.3 in the textbook must be

conducted in the following order:

(1) Plate bubble is out of adjustment: Vertical axis is not

vertical  Test and adjust

(2) Line of sight not perpendicular to transit axis:

Collimation in azimuth  Test and adjust

(3) Transit axis not perpendicular to vertical axis: Transit

axis test  No Adjustment

(4) Vertical circle index test: Vertical circle index not

horizontal  Test and adjust

(5) Centering error: Optical plummet  Test and adjust

 Instrumental Errors, Tests, Adjustments.. For own reference
Error What is it? Good reading Test Adjustment Textbook section
procedure
Instrument axis not This occurs if the (upper) The error cannot be Plate level User can adjust the 5.2.4, 5.3.1 (1)
vertical, plate bubble plate level bubble is not eliminated by taking instrument to eliminate
out of adjustment set so that the upper readings on both faces this systematic error by
plate of the instrument and averaging the adjusting the plate level.
is horizontal when the results. It does not affect An experienced
bubble is at the centre vertical angles construction surveyor
of its run. significantly. would normally make
this adjustment, not an
engineer or associate.
Collimation in azimuth- If the line of sight of the The error can be Collimation in azimuth User can adjust the 5.2.4, 5.3.1 (2)
Line of sight telescope is not at right eliminated by taking instrument to eliminate
perpendicular to transit angles to the horizontal readings on both faces this systematic error by
axis transit axis about which and averaging the adjusting the position of
the telescope rotates in results. the cross-hairs. An
the vertical plane, there experienced
will be systematic error construction surveyor
in observations. would normally make
this adjustment, not an
engineer or associate.
 Instrumental Errors, Tests, Adjustments.. For own reference
Error What is it? Good reading Test Adjustment Textbook section
procedure
Transit axis error-Transit This occurs if the The error can be Spire Test The user cannot make 5.2.3, 5.3.1 (3)
axis not perpendicular horizontal transit axis eliminated by taking adjustments to
to vertical axis about which the readings on both faces eliminate this error. The
telescope rotates and averaging the theodolite would need
vertically is not at right results. to be returned to the
angles to the vertical manufacturer for repair.
axis about which the
alidade rotates.
Vertical circle index not The vertical The error can be Study Section 5.3.1(4) User can adjust the 5.2.7, 5.3.1 (4)
horizontal circle reading is relevant eliminated by taking instrument to eliminate
to a fixed vertical circle readings on both faces this systematic error by
index which is rendered and averaging the adjusting the altitude
horizontal by means of results. level. An experienced
its attached altitude construction surveyor
bubble or by automatic would normally make
vertical circle indexing. this adjustment, not an
Vertical circle index engineer or associate..
error occurs when the
index is not horizontal.
 Instrumental Errors, Tests, Adjustments.. For own reference
Error What is it? Good reading Test Adjustment Textbook section
procedure
Centring error-Optical If the vertical axis of the The error can be Study section 5.3.1 (5) The correct plumb point 5.4.3, 5.3.1 (5)
plummet adjustment theodolite/total station eliminated by taking is at the centre of the
does not pass through readings on both faces square obtained in the
the station mark (the and averaging the test above.
mark on the peg on the results.
ground), there will be
systematic centring
errors. These are critical
when sight distances are
short.
Eccentricity of horizontal If the centre of the The error can be The problem could be The user cannot make 5.2.1
circle centre about graduated horizontal eliminated by taking found by observing the adjustments to
vertical axis circle does not align readings on both faces same two points about eliminate this error. The
with the vertical axis of and averaging the 20o apart repeatedly for theodolite would need
rotation, observations results. every 20o around the to be returned to the
will have systematic whole 360o of the manufacturer for repair.
errors. horizontal circle and
plotting the values
obtained against the
360o of the circle. If
there is a problem, there
will be 2 cycles of larger
and smaller values
 Instrumental Errors, Tests, Adjustments.. For own reference
Error What is it? Good reading Test Adjustment Textbook section
procedure
Circle graduations errors The manufacture of the The random error can be For very accurate work The calibration curves 5.2.5
graduated horizontal compensated for instruments can be can be used to adjust
and vertical circles horizontal angles by tested to produce errors.
requires high precision. taking multiple calibration curves. Study
In any manufacturing measurements of angles Section 5.2.5.
process there are using different parts of
tolerances that allow the horizontal circle and
some variation, averaging the result.
provided the variation is
within specification. If
graduation marks are
not evenly spaced, there
will be random errors in
angle measurement.
Personal and natural These are random The personal errors that - - 5.6
sources of error errors. require care on the part
of the surveyor. Avoid
the listed natural errors
listed in Section 5.6.2.
Questions?
Thank you