Chapter 2:

Water and Hydrology

Lecture 4
Lecture
Lecture
Content
Content

-Hydrological
-Soil and RockCycle
strength
-Soil
-Ground
Properties
water movement
and Water
-Water
and topography
Table
-Aquifers
-The principles of
-Wells
stratigraphic units
-Soil and Rock strength

Importance of soil and rock strength?

Effect of particle size on soil strength
Effect of water on soil strength
-Soil and Rock strength

Importance of soil and rock strength?

 If Failure
Building
Load

Soil

Shear stress

Soil Strength
Normal stress
-Soil and Rock strength

Effect of particle size and shape on soil strength

Poorly graded / Ungraded Soil
Ungraded Soil contains particles of the same size

Well graded Soil

Well graded Soil contains particles of lots of
different sizes
1. Ungraded soil have same size of soil particles

2. An Ungraded soil is stronger than a graded soil

3. The more angular the soil particles, the stronger the soil
-Soil and Rock strength

Effect of water on soil strength

Water pressure in
the voids of a soil
reduces its shear
strengh

In a damp soil,
surface tension
increases shear
strengh
-Ground water movement and topography

Recap of Ground water and Water table

Movement of Ground water
Water Quality and Ground water contamination
-Ground water movement and topography

Recap of Ground water and Water Table

Groundwater is water that exists in the pore spaces and fractures in rock and
sediment beneath the Earth's surface. It originates as rainfall or snow, and then
moves through the soil into the groundwater system, where it eventually makes
its way back to surface streams, lakes, or oceans.

Groundwater makes up about 1% of the water on Earth (most water is in oceans).

But, groundwater makes up about 35 times the amount of water in lakes and
streams.
Groundwater occurs everywhere beneath the Earth's surface, but is usually
restricted to depths less that about 750 meters.
The volume of groundwater is a equivalent to a 55 meter thick layer spread out
over the entire surface of the Earth.
The surface below which all rocks are saturated with groundwater is the water
table.
Rain that falls on the surface seeps down through the soil and into a zone called the
zone of aeration or unsaturated zone where most of the pore spaces are filled
with air. As it penetrates deeper it eventually enters a zone where all pore spaces
and fractures are filled with water. This zone is called the saturated zone.

The water table occurs everywhere beneath the Earth's surface. In desert regions it is
always present, but rarely intersects the surface.
In more humid regions the water table reaches the surface at streams and lakes,
and generally tends to follow surface topography. The depth to the water table may
change, however, as the amount of water flowing into and out of the saturated zone
changes. During dry seasons, the depth to the water table increases. During wet seasons,
the depth to the water table decreases.
-Ground water movement and topography

Movement of Ground water

Movement in the Zone of Aeration
Rainwater soaks into the soil where some of it is evaporated, some of it adheres to grains
in the soil by molecular attraction, some is absorbed by plant roots, and some seeps down
into the saturated zone. During long periods without rain the zone of aeration may remain
dry.

Movement in the Saturated Zone

In the saturated zone (below the water table) water percolates through the interconnected
pore spaces, moving downward by the force of gravity, and upward toward zones of lower
pressure. Where the water table intersects the surface, such as at a surface stream, lake,
or swamp, the groundwater returns to the surface.
Arrows show the direction of ground water
movement
Groundwater is in constant motion, although the rate at which it moves is generally slower
than it would move in a stream because it must pass through the intricate passageways
between free space in the rock. First the groundwater moves downward due to the pull of
gravity. But it can also move upward because it will flow from higher pressure areas to
lower pressure areas, as can be seen by a simple experiment illustrated below. Imagine that
we have a "U"-shaped tube, filled with water. If we put pressure on one side of the tube, the
water level on the other side rises, thus the water moves from high pressure zones to low
pressure zones. The same thing happens beneath the surface of the Earth, where pressure is
higher beneath the hills and lower beneath the valleys.
Example 1
Example 2
Example 3
Example 4
Types of Groundwater-stream interactions
1. Gaining stream
Groundwater discharges
into the stream. The water
table in the vicinity of the
stream is higher than the
water level in the stream
2. Losing stream
Stream water recharges the
aquifer. The water table in
the vicinity of the stream is
lower than the water level
in the stream
3. Disconnected stream
The water table is disconnected
from the losing stream by an
unsaturated zone. The water
table is below the water level in
the stream
4. Groundwater flow through
The groundwater flow direction is
approximately perpendicular to the
stream (or segment) and
groundwater flows into one side of
the stream, and outflows on the
other side. The water table is higher
on the upgradient side of the
stream.
Recharge Areas and Discharge Areas
The Earth's surface can be divided into areas where
some of the water falling on the surface seeps into
the saturated zone and other areas where water
flows out of the saturated zone onto the surface.
Areas where water enters the saturated zone
are called recharge areas, because the saturated
zone is recharged with groundwater beneath these
areas. Areas where groundwater reaches the
surface (lakes, streams, swamps, & springs) are
called discharge areas, because the water is
discharged from the saturated zone. Generally,
recharge areas are greater than discharge areas.
When discharge of groundwater exceeds
recharge of the system, several adverse effects
can occur.
Most common is lowering of the water table,
resulting in springs drying up and wells having to
be dug to deeper levels.
If water is pumped out of an aquifer, pore
pressure can be reduced in the aquifer that
could result in compaction of the now dry
aquifer and result in land subsidence.
In some cases withdrawal of groundwater
exceeds recharge by natural processes, and thus
groundwater should be considered a non-
renewable natural resource.
It is desirable whereever possible to determine the position of the water table and the direction of
ground-water movement. To do so, it is necessary to determine the water level in wells. However, in most
areas, general but very valuable conclusions about the direction of ground-water movement can be
derived from the observations of land-surface topography

Gravity is the dominant driving force in ground-water movement. Under natural conditions, ground water
moves "downhill" until, in the course of its movement, it reaches the land surface at a spring or through a
seep along the side or bottom of a stream channel or an estuary

Thus, ground water in the shallowest part of the saturated zone moves from interstream areas toward
streams or the coast. If we ignore minor surface irregulates, we find that the slope of the land surface is
also toward streams or the coast. In effect, the water table usually is a subdued replica of the land
surface.
In areas where ground water is used for domestic and other needs requiring good-quality water, septic
tanks, sanitary landfills, waste ponds, and other waste-disposal sites should not be located uphill from
supply wells

Groundwater is normally hidden from views; as a consequence, many people have difficulty visualizing
its occurance and movement. This difficulty adversely affects their ability to understand and to deal
effectively with ground-water related problems.
Groundwater Model

link: https://www.youtube.com/watch?
v=Vwu_WooEJ68&ab_channel=WarrenCountySWCD
Water Quality and Groundwater Contamination
Water quality depends on the amount of dissolved solids, and lack of toxic and biological
pollutants. Most pollution of groundwater is the result of biological activity, much of it is human.
Among the sources of contamination are:

Sewers and septic tanks

Waste dumps (both industrial and residential)
Gasoline Tanks (like occur beneath all service stations)
Biological waste products - Biological contaminants can be removed from the groundwater by
natural processes if the aquifer has interconnections between pores that are smaller than the
microbes. For example a sandy aquifer may act as a filter for biological contaminants.
Agricultural pollutants such as fertilizers and pesticides.
Salt water contamination - results from excessive discharge of fresh groundwater in coastal
areas.
Video explanation on Groundwater Contamination
-The principles of stratigraphic units

What is stratigraphy?
Principles of stratigraphic units
Hydrostratigraphic units
-The principles of stratigraphic units

What is stratigraphy?
 Strata - Layer Graphy - study

Definition: Stratigraphy is a branch of Geology which is a Study of layers of rocks. It is concerned with the
order and relative position of layers and their relationship to the geological time scale. It deals with origin,
composition, distribution and succession of strata; and with the arrangement of strata (generally
sedimentary beds)

In Simple Terms: In stratigraphy we study all those things that tells us about history also known as
"historical geology". we study about the time of occurrence of strata, time of destruction of strata and also
study about the fossils present in these strata. We get to know about earth's history. We study the events
that happened on earth in chronological order.
Categories of Stratigraphic Units:

1. Lithostratigraphy
2. Pedostratigraphy
3. Biostratigraphy
4. Chronostratigraphy
5. Geochronostratigraphy
6. Magnetostratigraphy
7. Chemostratigraphy
8. Sequence stratigraphy
1.Lithostratigraphy
Definition: Lithostratigraphy deals with the study of strata or rock layers.
(It is the subdivision, classification, and orgranization of rock strata on the basis of their lithologic
(physical characters)

Lithostratigraphic unit:
A body of rocks that is defined and recognized on the basis of its lithologic properties or
combination of lithologic properties and stratigraphic relations.
A lithostratigraphic unit may consist of sedimentary, or igneous, or metamorphic rocks.
Lithostratigraphic units are defined and recognized by observable physical features and not by their
inferred age, the time span they represent, inferred geologic history, or manner of formation.
The geographic extent of a lithostratigraphic unit is controlled entirely by the continuity and extent of
its diagnostic lithologic features.
2.Pedostratigraphic unit
Definition: is a body of rock that consists of one or more pedologic horizons. A pedologic horizon is a
layer parallel to the soil surface whose physical, chemical and biological characteristics differ from the
layers above and beneath.
3. Biostratigraphic unit
Definition:
Biostratigraphic units (biozones) are
bodies of rock strata that are defined
or characterized on the basis of their
contained fossils.
Biostratigraphic units exist only
where the particular diagnostic
biostratigraphic feature or attribute
on which they are based has been
identified. Biostratigraphic units are,
therefore, descriptive units based on
the identification of fossil taxa.
4.Chronostratigraphy
Definition: It aims in determining the ages of strata. It
studies the age of rock strata in relation to time

Chronostratigraphic unit:
A body of rocks that includes all rocks
representative of a specific interval of geologic
time, and only this time span. Chronostratigraphic
units are bounded by isochronous horizons which
mark specific moments of geological time.
The rank and relative magnitude of the units in
the chronostratigraphic hierarchy are a function
of the durations they represent.
5. Geochronostratigraphic unit
Definition: The units of geologic time during which chronostratigraphic units were formed are called
geochronologic units.

6.Magnetostratigraphy
Definition: The organization of rock bodies into units based on
differences in magnetic character.

Magnetostratigraphic unit: A body of rocks unified by similar magnetic

characteristics which allow it to be differentiated from adjacent rock
bodies.
7. Chemostratigraphy
Definition: Is study of chemical changes within sedimentary layers to determine stratigraphic relations

Chemical stratigraphy, or chemostratigraphy, is the technique of sediment characterisation and

correlation using subtle variations in the elemental composition of the sediments. The technique relies
upon the fact that even apparently homogenous sediments show changes in their chemical
composition, these changes reflecting minor fluctuations in variables such as sediment source, facies,
palaeoenvironment, palaeoclimate and diagenesis.
8. Sequence stratigraphic units

Definition: Sequence stratigraphic units are bodies of sedimentary rocks that are defined and
characterized on the basis of their stratal stacking patterns and their stratigraphic relations. Stratal
stacking patterns provide the basis for the definition of all units and surfaces of sequence
stratigraphy.

The bounding surfaces of sequence stratigraphic units are sequence stratigraphic surfaces,
which are stratigraphic contacts that mark changes in stratal stacking pattern between the
underlying and the overlying units.
-The principles of stratigraphic units

Principles of stratigraphic units

Principles of stratigraphy units are geological tools that helps to determine the
relative age of strata or the rock formations, Stratigraphic principles are broadly
defined into three as:

1. Lithology
2. Superposition
3. Fossil content
1. Lithology - is the study of lithosphere (rock bed) in chronological order. Older beds are found
below than the younger beds. Sedimentary beds may be identified by its lithological characters
2. Superposition - when beds are not disturbed, a bed that is over another bed is younger. As we
move up sedimentary beds become younger, in a stratigraphic sequence. Younger rocks are at
top and older at bottom. In younger rock beds we will find remains of events that took place
recently and in older beds we will find remains of events that took place earlier
3. Fossil content - preserved remains of animals are called fossils. These are preserved naturally in
the earth. Each sedimentary bed contain a particular set of fossil by which it can be identified.
Lower forms of life are formed in older beds and evolved forms of life are found in new beds. By
this we can assign their ages.
-The principles of stratigraphic units

Hydrostratigraphic units
 Aquifers Aquitards

An aquifer is a body of saturated An aquitard is a saturated body of

rock that both stores and transmits rock that impedes the movement of
important quantities of groundwater groundwater
Definition: The term Hydrostratigraphy is claimed When the rock sequence is subdivided
on the basis of the ability of the rocks to store and transmit water

Geologic layers or formations are often classified into Hydrostratigraphic Units for analysis
during hydrogeologic investigations.
A hydrostratigraphic unit is a geologic formation, part of a formation, or a group of formations
with similar hydrologic characteristics or properties (e.g. hydraulic conductivity or permeability)
relating to groundwater flow.
Hydrostratigraphic units are then classified into aquifer or aquitard units. Fluids flow more
readily through aquifer units (e.g. sand and gravel) compared to aquitard units (e.g. clay).
Ultimately a single geologic layer or formation may be subdivided into multiple
hydrostratigraphic units, including both aquifers and aquitards.
Examples of Lithostratigraphic and/or Hydrostratigraphic units at different study areas are shown
below From youngest to oldest, the interpretation is as follows:
of Chapter 2