Unit 8

Electricity
 8.1
Electric charge (1)

Tr Allan
Two types of electric charge
Atom
No: of electrons = No: of protons
Net charge is zero.
Neutral

Atom gains electrons

No: of electrons > No: of protons
Negatively charged objects (Negative
ion)

Atom loses electrons

No: of electrons < No: of protons
Positively charged objects (Positive
ion)
Law of electrostatics

Like charges repel and unlike charges attract.

The closer the charges, the greater the force between them.
SI unit for charge = Coulomb (C)

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Law of electrostatics (No need to take note)

The girl has been charged up.

Her hair carry the same type of
charge, so they repel each
other.

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 8.2
Electric charge (2)

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 Detecting charge
(Gold leaf electroscope)

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Gold leaf electroscope

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Different way to charge object
3 ways of making an object charged:
1. Charging by friction
2. Charging by induction
3. Charging by earthing (Earthing process)

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1. Charging by friction

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Charging up due to the movement of
electrons

• When charge is transferred from one object to another, it is

generally due to the movement of electrons.
• During the process, charge is never created or destroyed.
• Overall charge between two objects is zero.
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Worked example

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Worked example

Rod X = negative and Rod Y = uncharged

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2. Charging by induction

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 Answer: D

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 Answer: C

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Attraction of uncharged objects

Why does charged comb attract tiny pieces of paper?

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Attraction of uncharged objects
Rod

Paper

• When charged object is placed near uncharged object, there is a charge

separation in the uncharged object. These charge separation is called
induced charges.
• As negative charge is nearer to the rod than positive charge, paper
attraction force between (+ and -) is larger than the repulsive force
between (+ and +). Tr. Allan
3. Neutralizing and charging by earthing

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Neutralizing (Earthing)
Conductor can be discharged by earthing.
Earth can give or take electrons.
When we earth a charged conductor, we provide a path for
• Excess electrons to flow away from the charged conductor, or
• Electrons to flow to the charged conductor.
Electrons from Electrons from object
+ earth moved up - moved down
+ + - -
+ + - -

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 Answer: A

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Hazards of electrostatics

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Why the aircraft must be earthed when refueling?

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Hazard of electrostatics
Excessive charge build up on the objects due to friction.

Aircrafts move at greater speed through the air. Explain how they become
electrostatically charged.

The force of friction between air and aeroplane cause electrons to be

transferred.
When refuelling, an aeroplane is attached by a metal cable to the ground.
Explain why.

The aircraft is earthed by the metal wire so charge can flow off the plane to
the ground. This prevents sparks caused by discharging to ground through
the air which could set the fuel on fire.
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Uses of electrostatic charge

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 8.3
Electric field

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 What is electric field?
An electric field is a region in which an electric charge experiences a force.
An electric field line is the path a a positive charge would take if it is free to
move.

Electric field line away from + charge Electric field line toward - charge
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Drawing electric field lines around point charge
• The direction of the field lines must begin from a + charge and end on a – charge.
• The electric field lines do not intersect with each other.
• The number of field lines drawn leaving a positive charge or ending on a negative
charge is proportional to the magnitude of charge.

c has stronger electric field than b

Drawing electric field lines between 2 parallel
plates with opposite charges

The field between them is uniform in strength and

direction because the field lines are parallel to each
other and equally spaced except near the edges.

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 The electric field is strongest where
the charges are most concentrated
and the field lines are closest
together.

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 8.4
Current in simple circuit

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What happens when charges moved?

A particle transporting electrical energy around the circuit is called charge.

A flow of electric charge from one place to another in 1 second is referred to as an electric current.
Current is the rate of flow of charge.
𝐶ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒
𝐶𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 =
𝑇𝑖𝑚𝑒

𝑄
𝐼=
𝑡
SI unit of current is ampere (A).
The unit of charge is coulomb (C)
Charge is a scalar quantity. Tr. Allan
Definition: One coulomb is defined as the charge transported by a current of one ampere in one second.
Worked example
A current of 2A flows for 3 seconds. Calculate the charge.

𝑄
𝐼=
𝑡

Q = IT = 2 x 3 = 6 C

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Electron and its charged
• One electron has a charge of -1.6 x 10-19 C.
• This fundamental amount of charge is known as the electronic charge and
given symbol e.
• A proton has relative charge of +1e and an electron -1e not just +1 or -1.

Example
The current in a lamp is 6.2 A. Calculate the number of electrons passing through one point
in the lamp in 2 minutes.
𝑄
𝐼=
𝑡
Q = I x t = 6.2 x (2x60) = 744 C

744
Number of electrons = −19 = 4.65 x 1021 electrons
1.6 ×10

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How to measure current?

To measure the size of the current, an ammeter is used.

• Choose the ammeter with suitable range on its scale.
• Check for zero error
• Use mirror on the ammeter to eliminate parallax error.
• The ammeter must be connected in series to the circuit.
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Circuit diagram

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Ammeter is always connected in series!

The current in the circuit without branch

(Series circuit) is the same everywhere.

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Direction of current flow

Conventional current direction

Current flow from positive to negative
round the circuit

Electron flow direction

Electron flow from negative to positive
round the circuit

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 8.5
Electromotive force (E.M.F) and
Potential difference (p.d)

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 High voltage sign warns people
to stay clear of certain area.

What is voltage?

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What causes charges to move?

Water flow = charge

Pump = battery

For the electric charges (electron) to move around the circuit, energy is required.
This energy can be provided by battery.
Chemical energy in battery is transferred to kinetic energy of electric charges then
to electrical energy. Tr. Allan
Electromotive force (E.M.F)
The electromotive force (e.m.f) of any electrical source is the
work done on unit charge by the source in driving charge around
the complete circuit.

e.m.f
SI unit for e.m.f is joule per coulomb (J/C) or volt (V)

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Potential difference (p.d)
The potential difference (p.d) across a component is the work
done by unit charge as it passes through a component.

p.d

SI unit for p.d is joule per coulomb (J/C) or volt (V)

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 E.m.f Vs. P.d
e.m.f
Energy supplied to a unit charge by the source to
move the charge around the entire circuit
(Chemical energy to electrical energy)
e.m.f

p.d
p.d.
Energy dissipated by a unit charge to move the
charge across the components.
(Electrical energy to other forms of energy)
𝑊𝑜𝑟𝑘 𝑑𝑜𝑛𝑒
e.m.f or p.d.=
𝐶ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒

SI unit for e.m.f or p.d. is joule per coulomb (J/C) or volt (V)
Connecting the batteries

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How to measure e.m.f or p.d?

To measure p.d across the two points in a circuit, a voltmeter is used.

The voltmeter must be connected in parallel with the component.

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 8.6
Resistance (1)

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Worked examples
 Resistance and temperature

Heating element Filament lamp

Copper wire Nichrome wire Tungsten wire
(Very low resistance) (Very high resistance) (Very high resistance)
Symbol of heating element

Resistance ∝ temperature Why?

Why resistance increases at high temperature?

Resistance ∝ temperature
Why current causes heating effect in wire?
Different types of resistor
• The main function of a resistor is to control or limit the size of the current flowing in a
circuit.
• Resistor may be fixed or variable.
Variable resistor
Fixed resistor
or rheostat
Different types of resistor
 8.7
Resistance
Current-Voltage (I – V) Characteristic

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How current varies with p.d for metallic conductor
at constant temperature

1. Set up the circuit shown in Figure.

2. Turn the variable resistor to its maximum
value.
3. Close the switch and take the readings from
the ammeter and the voltmeter.
4. Alter the value of the variable resistor again
and take a new pair of readings from the
meters.
5. Repeat the whole process at least six times.
Ohm’s law

Ohm’s Law
A graph of current against p.d is a straight line passing through the origin.
Current is directly proportional to the p.d.
p.d ÷ current is always constant.
Such resistor is known as ohmic conductor since it obeys Ohm’s law.
V – I graph
I – V graph
Non-Ohmnic conductor (Filament lamp)
Different types of current

D.C (direct current) the electrons A.C (alternating current) flows

flow in one direction only. alternately backwards and forwards.
Diode
Uses of diodes

The torch light with LEDs giving brighter, Some modern cars have arrays of LEDs in
whiter light than a traditional filament lamp place of filament lamps – LEDs are much
although they are expensive to manufacture, more efficient and last much longer.
they are more energy efficient and hence
cheaper to run so that overall cost is less.
Diode allows current flow in only one direction!
Half-wave rectifier (No need to take note)
Full-wave rectifier (No need to take note)
Full-wave rectifier (No need to take note)
Full-wave rectifier (No need to take note)
Half-wave rectifier Vs. Full-wave rectifier
Half-wave rectifier Full-wave rectifier
(Only one diode) (Two or more diodes)
Worked example
Worked example
Semiconductor diode
At A,
Resistance of the diode is very high.
With p.d. in this reverse direction , the diode
doesn’t conduct. (because the diode only
allow current in one direction)

At B,
As the p.d. increases, the resistance
gradually starts to drop at around 0.6 V.
(Diode act as insulator before 0.6 V.)

At C,
The diode has very little resistance. (Diode
acts as conductor)
https://youtu.be/ksPfzUjMbBk?si=-C9w2_UViqsS2eAq
I-V graphs for various conductors

• Obey Ohm’s law • Does not obey Ohm’s law • Does not obey Ohm’s law
• Current is directly • Current is not proportional • Current does not flow at
proportional to p.d. to p.d. negative p.d or positive p.d
• (p.d ÷ current) is always • Resistance increases as the lower than 0.6 V.
constant. p.d across it increases. • Resistance gradually starts to
• Resistance is constant decreases at around 0.6 V.
Worked examples
16 V

32 V

0.75 A

B
Worked examples

2Ω

4Ω
Worked examples
 8.8
More about factors affecting resistance

Tr Allan
 Resistance and temperature

Heating element Filament lamp

Copper wire Nichrome wire Tungsten wire
(Very low resistance) (Very high resistance) (Very high resistance)
Symbol of heating element

Resistance ∝ temperature
Factor affecting the resistance of conductor
• Temperature
• Length of the conductor
• Cross-sectional area
• Material
Factor affecting the resistance of conductor
Length Cross-sectional area

A long wire has more resistance A thin wire has more resistance
than a short wire. than a thick wire.

d
2d

Resistance ∝ Length Resistance ∝

𝟏
𝑨𝒓𝒆𝒂
𝟏
Resistance ∝
𝒅𝟐
Resistance and resistivity
Worked example
Worked example
Worked example
 8.9 & 8.10
Series and Parallel circuits

Tr Allan
Series circuit
Current in series Potential difference in series
9V
V

A 1.2 A 1.2 A A
A
1.2 A 4V 5V

In series circuit the current is the

V V
same everywhere in the circuit. The sum of p.d. in series circuit is
I = I1 = I2 equal to the p.d. across the whole
circuit.
V= V1 + V2
Series circuit
Resistors in series

Combined resistance

R1 R2 R3
Vtotal = V1 + V2 + V3
V = IR
V1 V2 V3 Itotal Rtotal = IR1 + IR2 + IR3

Current is the same in series circuit.

Rtotal = R1 + R2 + R3
 (b) In series circuit, the current is the same
for all the resistors.
For 3Ω resistor,
V1 = IR1 = 0.5 x 3 = 1.5 V

For 4Ω resistor,
V2 = IR2 = 0.5 x 4 = 2 V

For 5Ω resistor,
V3 = IR3 = 0.5 x 5 = 2.5 V

For 12Ω resistor,

V4 = IR4 = 0.5 x 12 = 6 V
(a) Combined resistance in the circuit
R/Ω 3 4 5 12
R = R1 + R2 + R3 + R4
R = 3Ω + 4Ω + 5Ω + 12Ω p.d/ V 1.5 2 2.5 6
R = 24Ω 12 V
V • When current is constant, p.d and resistance
I = V/R 24Ω are directly proportional.
= 12/24 • The higher the resistance, p.d across the
= 0.5 A resistor increases.
Parallel circuit Potential difference in parallel
Current in parallel 12V
V

4.2 A A A5 4.2 A
1.4 A
12V
A1 V

2.8 A A4 1.2 A
V 12V
A2

1.6 A
A3
The potential difference across the
The current from the source is the
separate branches of a parallel
sum of the currents in the separate
circuit are the same.
branches of a parallel circuit.
V = V1 = V2
I = I1 + I2 + I3
Resistor in parallel
Worked example
Series Vs. Parallel circuit
Series Vs. Parallel circuit (Important)
Two resistor in parallel(Shortcut)
When 2 resistors in parallel,
R1 1 1 1
= +
𝑅 𝑅1 𝑅2

1 𝑅2 𝑅1
= +
𝑅 𝑅1 𝑅2 𝑅2 𝑅1
R
1 𝑅2 𝑅1
= +
𝑅 𝑅1 𝑅2 𝑅2 𝑅1

𝑅1 × 𝑅2
𝑅=
𝑅1 + 𝑅2
Only for 2 resistors in parallel 2 × 8
𝑅= = 1.6 𝑜ℎ𝑚
2+8
Worked example
 8.11
Potential divider or potentiometer

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Potential divider or potentiometer

12 V
• e.m.f = V1 + V2
• e.m.f of the battery will be shared or
divided between R1 and R2.
depending on the ratio of the resistor.
R1 R2 • This simple device is called potential
divider or potentiometer.
V1 V2
Potential divider or potentiometer

Simple potential divider symbol

Potential divider or potentiometer
Potential divider or potentiometer

In series circuit,
I1 = I2

𝑉1 𝑉2
=
𝑅1 𝑅2
Potential divider or potentiometer
In series circuit,
Iin = I2

𝑉𝑖𝑛 𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡
=
𝑅1 + 𝑅2 𝑅2

𝑅2
Vout
𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡 = × 𝑉𝑖𝑛
𝑅1 + 𝑅2
Application of potential divider
• Automatic light switch
• Burglar alarm
• Automatic room heater
• Fire alarm
Automatic light sensor

Temperature/
light intensity
Burglar alarm

Temperature/
light intensity
Automatic room heater

Temperature/
light intensity
Fire alarm

Temperature/
light intensity
Worked examples
Worked examples
Worked examples
 8.10
Electrical power and energy

Tr Allan
Formula for electrical energy and power
𝑊𝑜𝑟𝑘 𝑑𝑜𝑛𝑒 𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑑 𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑑
Potential difference = = Power =
𝐶ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒 𝑇𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑇𝑖𝑚𝑒
𝐸 𝑉𝐼𝑡
V= P=
𝑄 𝑡
E = VQ (Q = It)

E=VIt P=VI

E = 𝐼2𝑅 𝑡 (E = I R x I x t) P = 𝐼2𝑅

𝑉2 𝑉 𝑉2
E= 𝑡 (E = V 𝑡) P=
𝑅 𝑅 𝑅
 8.11
Living with electricity

Tr Allan
Electrical hazard
• Wet electrical appliances: Water will conduct, so electrocution will happen.
• Damaged insulation: Old, frayed wiring: (electric shock and cause a fire)
• Overheating cables: Fire risk
• Overloading plugs, extension leads or sockets: Fire risk and electric shock
Ways to prevent electrical hazard

• Switch
• Earthing
• Fuse
• Double insulation
• Circuit breaker
Inside 3 pin plug
Live Wire: at potential of 240 V that goes
alternatively negative and positive making
the current flow backwards and forwards in
the circuit.

Neutral Wire: at potential of 0 V to return

the current for complete the circuit.

Earth Wire: Always connected to the metal

case of appliance and stops it becoming
live if the live wire comes loose and touches
the metal body, a current immediately flows
to earth and blows the fuse.
Switch

Switch is fitted in live wire so that wire in the cable cannot still be
live when switch is off.
It can be used as safety device to cut off the flow of current from
main power supply.
Why earthing?
Fuse

Fuse is a safety device which is made of thin piece of wire and connect in live wire.
• It protects the electrical appliances or wire from overheating if any electrical fault.
• The fuse melts and breaks the circuit when the circuit exceeds its specified
current value.
Fuse

• If the device operates normally at 3 A, use 5 A fuse.

• If the device operates normally at 10A, use 10 A fuse.
Worked example
Double insulation

Double insulation which means that there is no need for an earth wire and has
extra layer of insulation around the wires.
Circuit breaker

A circuit breaker is an automatic switch which cuts off the current in a circuit if
this rises above a specified value. It has the same effect as a fuse but, unlike a
fuse, can be reset (turned ON again) after it has tripped (turned OFF)
How is electricity usage charged?
Worked example