Department Of Mathematics

DEPARTMENT OF MATHEMATICS
ASSIGNMENT
Submitted to:
Dr Shahida Bashir
Submitted by:
Lubna Javed
Roll No:
21021509-104
Section:
(B)
Course code:
Math-317
Course title:
Group Theory
Semester:
Bs (5)
GROUP THEORY
Group:
A group, in mathematics, is a fundamental algebraic structure that consists of a set and an
operation defined on that set. More precisely, a group is defined as follows:
a) Set: A group G is associated with a non-empty set, typically denoted as G, which

contains elements that satisfy the properties of the group.
b) Operation: A binary operation, denoted by *, is defined on this set G. For any two
elements a and b in G, the operation * yields another element in G, denoted as a * b.
c) Closure Property: For all elements a, b in G, the result of the operation a * b is also
in G. In other words, G is closed under the defined operation.
d) Associative Property: The operation * is associative, meaning that for all a, b, and c
in G, (a * b) * c = a * (b * c).
e) Identity Element: There exists an identity element (denoted as 'e') in G such that for
all elements a in G, a * e = e * a = a. In other words, the identity element has no effect on
the outcome of the operation.
f) Inverse Element: For every element a in G, there exists an inverse element (denoted
as a⁻¹) such that a * a⁻¹ = a⁻¹ * a = e, where 'e' is the identity element. In other words,
every element has an element that, when combined using the operation, gives the identity
element.
Example of a Group:
Let's consider the set of integers Z (positive and negative whole numbers) under the operation of
addition '+'.
Set: G = Z (the set of integers).
Operation: The operation is addition '+', so a * b is simply a + b.
Closure Property: The sum of any two integers is also an integer, so Z is closed under addition.
Associative Property: Addition is associative; for all integers a, b, and c, (a + b) + c = a + (b
+c).
Identity Element: The identity element is 0, as a + 0 = 0 + a = a for all integers a.
Inverse Element: For any integer 'a', its additive inverse is '-a' because a + (-a) = (-a) + a = 0.
Hence, the set of integers Z under addition forms a group.
Group Theory:
Group theory is a branch of abstract algebra that focuses on the study of groups and their
properties. It explores the structure and relationships of groups, investigates their symmetries,
and applies these concepts to various areas of mathematics and science, including geometry,
number theory, and physics.
Example of Group Theory: Permutations
In group theory, permutations are a fundamental concept. A
permutation is a rearrangement of a set of elements. The set of all
possible permutations of a finite set forms a group known as the
symmetric group, denoted by S_n, where n is the number of
elements in the set.
Let's consider a small set with three elements: {A, B, C}. The
symmetric group S_3 for this set consists of all possible ways to
arrange these three elements.
Set: The set of all permutations of {A, B, C} forms the set of elements in the group.
Operation: The operation in this case is the composition of permutations. If you have two
permutations, you can combine them to get another permutation. For example, if we have two
permutations: σ1 and σ2, you can apply σ1, followed by σ2, to get a new permutation σ1σ2.
Closure Property: The composition of two permutations results in another permutation.
Therefore, the group is closed under the defined operation.
Associative Property: The composition of permutations is associative. If you have three
permutations σ1, σ2, and σ3, the order in which you compose them does not matter: (σ1σ2)σ3 =
σ1(σ2σ3).
Identity Element: The identity element is the "do nothing" permutation, which leaves all
elements in their original positions.
Inverse Element: For every permutation, there exists an inverse permutation that, when
composed, yields the identity permutation. In this example, every permutation has an inverse that
undoes the rearrangement.
So, S_3 is a group because it satisfies all the group properties. It is a finite group with 3! = 6
elements, and it play a fundamental role in group theory, particularly in understanding
symmetries and permutations.
History of Group Theory:

1770:
The beginnings of group theory can be traced back to the work of
the Swiss mathematician Leonhard Euler, who studied
permutations of roots of equations. His work laid the foundation
for understanding symmetry.
1824:
Niels Henrik Abel developed the concept of cyclic groups, which are fundamental in group
theory. His work on the unsolvability of the general quantic equation helped to highlight the
importance of group theory in the context of polynomial equations.
1832:
Évariste Galois introduced Galois theory, which uses group theory to study the solvability of
polynomial equations. His work demonstrated the close connection between groups and
algebraic equations.
1870:
Augustin-Louis Cauchy contributed to the development of group theory, making substantial
progress in understanding the structure of permutation groups and introducing the notion of
normal subgroups.
1882:
Sophus Lie made significant contributions to the theory of continuous transformation groups,
paving the way for the study of Lie groups, which are used in various areas of mathematics and
physics.
1893:
William Burnside published "Theory of Groups of Finite Order," which provided an overview of
finite group theory and laid the groundwork for future developments.
1900s:
Several mathematicians, including Emmy Noether and Issai Schur, contributed to the
development of abstract group theory, with Noether's work on group representations being
particularly influential.
1940s and 1950s:
Claude Chevalley and others furthered the study of Lie groups and their representations, which
had important applications in physics, especially in quantum mechanics.
1960s:
John Thompson and Walter Feit proved the Feit-Thompson theorem, demonstrating that all finite
groups of odd order are solvable, which was a significant achievement in group theory.
1970s and 1980s:
The classification of finite simple groups was a monumental effort by many mathematicians,
culminating in the proof that all finite simple groups can be classified into a relatively small
number of families.
2004:
Michael Aschbacher and Richard Lyons published the second-generation proof of the
Classification of Finite Simple Groups, finalizing the monumental classification effort.
1990s-2000s:
The CFSG project was completed, providing a comprehensive understanding of finite simple groups. This
monumental achievement solidified group theory as a cornerstone of modern mathematics.
21st Century:
Group theory continues to play a crucial role in various branches of mathematics, including
number theory, geometry, and physics. It has applications in cryptography, coding theory, and
quantum computing.
References:
Coxeter, H. S. M. (1969). "Introduction to Group Theory." John Wiley & Sons.
Rotman, J. J. (1995). "An Introduction to the Theory of Groups." Springer.
Huppert, B. (1967). "Endliche Gruppen I." Springer-Verlag. (For the history of finite group
theory)
The Role of Group Theory in Mathematics:

Group theory is a fundamental branch of abstract algebra that plays a pivotal role in various
mathematical domains. Its influence extends far beyond its original algebraic context, and it
finds applications in numerous areas of mathematics. Here, we'll explore the key roles of group
theory with illustrative examples.
1. Algebraic Structures and Symmetry:
Understanding Symmetry: Group theory provides a powerful framework for studying and
categorizing symmetries. The study of symmetry is essential in fields like geometry,
crystallography, and art. For example, in crystallography, point groups are used to classify the
symmetries of crystals, enabling the description of their properties.
Categorizing Algebraic Structures: Groups serve as building blocks for other algebraic
structures. For example, rings, fields, and vector spaces all involve operations with defined
algebraic structures that relate to groups. Group theory is foundational in understanding these
structures.
2. Number Theory:
Cryptography: Group theory is crucial in modern cryptography, where it aids in designing secure
encryption and decryption algorithms. The Diffie-Hellman key exchange and RSA encryption
are prime examples. These cryptographic protocols rely on the computational difficulty of
certain group-related problems, such as the discrete logarithm problem in finite fields.
Diophantine Equations: Group theory is used to study Diophantine equations (equations
with integer solutions), especially when investigating the solvability of certain equations. The
group structure of solutions can be analyzed using elliptic curves and modular forms, playing a
role in Fermat's Last Theorem proof.
3. Algebraic Geometry:
Elliptic Curves: The study of elliptic curves involves the group structure of rational points on
the curve. Group theory is used to analyze the arithmetic of these curves, making them a vital
tool in modern number theory and algebraic geometry.
4. Representation Theory:
Quantum Mechanics: In quantum mechanics, group theory is employed to understand the
symmetries of physical systems. Groups like SU(3), SU(2), and SO(3) are used to describe
fundamental particles and their properties. For instance, the Pauli matrices in quantum mechanics
form a representation of the Lie group SU(2).
5. Topology:
Homotopy Groups: Algebraic topology uses groups, known as homotopy groups, to study
topological spaces. The fundamental group (π₁) is a key example, representing the loops in a
topological space. It plays a role in classifying spaces and understanding their fundamental
properties.
6. Abstract Algebra:
Solving Equations: Group theory can be applied to solve algebraic equations, particularly when
dealing with polynomial equations. Galois theory demonstrates the importance of groups in
understanding the solvability of such equations.
7. Coding Theory:
Error-Correcting Codes: Group theory is employed in coding theory to construct error-
correcting codes. These codes are essential in data transmission and storage, ensuring data
integrity in noisy communication channels.
8. Combinatorics:
Permutation Groups: Combinatorial structures like permutations and combinations can be
analyzed using permutation groups. The symmetric group S_n is a common example, used to
study combinatorial problems.
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a) Set: A group G is associated with a non-empty set, typically denoted as G, which

History of Group Theory:

The Role of Group Theory in Mathematics:

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