Best Practice Guide for

Forensic Timber Identification

PC I CP O
OI

IN
TERPOL

INTERNATIONAL CONSORTIUM ON COMBATING WILDLIFE CRIME

Photo credits:
Top cover picture: Mahogany (Swietenia) shipment: Port of Rotterdam.
Bottom cover picture: Reference collection at the Thünen Institute of Wood
Research: The Thünen Institute.
Cover picture right: Scales of justice: UNODC
 Laboratory and Scientific Section
and
Global Programme for Combating Wildlife and Forest Crime
UNITED NATIONS OFFICE ON DRUGS AND CRIME
Vienna

Best Practice Guide for

Forensic Timber Identification

UNITED NATIONS
New York, 2016
 Note

Operating and experimental conditions are reproduced from the original reference
materials, including unpublished methods, validated and used as per the list of
­references. A number of alternative conditions and substitution of named ­commercial
products may provide comparable results in many cases, but any modification has
to be validated before it is integrated into laboratory routines. Mention of names of
firms and commercial products does not imply the endorsement of the United Nations.

ST/NAR/52

© United Nations, August 2016. All rights reserved worldwide.

The designations employed and the presentation of material in this publication do

not imply the expression of any opinion whatsoever on the part of the Secretariat of
the United Nations concerning the legal status of any country, territory, city or area,
or of its authorities, or concerning the delimitation of its frontiers or boundaries.

This publication has not been formally edited.

Publishing production: English, Publishing and Library Section, United Nations

Office at Vienna.
Acknowledgements

This Guide was prepared by the United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime Global
Programme for Combating Wildlife and Forest Crime (GPWLFC) and the Labora-
tory and Scientific Section (LSS). The Guide reflects the discussions of, and con-
tributions from, subject-matter experts who participated in expert group meetings
organized by UNODC, under the umbrella of the International Consortium on Com-
bating Wildlife Crime (ICCWC) in Vienna, 10-12 December 2014 and 7-9 October
2015.

The GPWLFC (headed by Jorge Eduardo Ríos) and the LSS (headed by Justice
Tettey) wish to express their appreciation and thanks to the following experts who
participated in the expert group meetings and/or contributed to the development of
the Guide:

Kingsley Barraclough, Operations Director, Samplexx Ltd, United Kingdom; Hans

Beeckman, Head, Royal Museum for Central Africa, Belgium; Jean Lagarde Betti,
Lecturer, University of Douala, Cameroon; Markus Boner, CEO, Agroisolab GmbH,
Germany; Jez W. B. Braga, Doctor at the Institute of Chemistry, University of
Brasilia, Brazil; Birgit Braun, Independent consultant for nature conservation,
­Germany; Thomas A. Brown, CAMS Deputy Director, Lawrence Livermore National
Laboratory, United States of America; Steve Carmody, Senior Law Enforcement
Expert, UNODC, Australia; Guy Clarke MBE, CITES Enforcement Higher Officer,
Border Force, United Kingdom; Tyler B. Coplen, Director of the Reston Stable
Isotope Laboratory, United States Geological Survey, United States of America; Vera
T. Rauber Coradin, Doctor at the Forest Products Laboratory- LPF, Brazilian Forest
Service, Brazil; Maaike De Ridder, Postdoctoral Fellow, Royal Museum for Central
Africa, Belgium; Bernd Degen, Head, Thünen Institute of Forest Genetics, Germany;
Hamanda Diniz Campos Carvalho, Brazilian Federal Police, Brazil; Jean-François
Dubois, Senior Wildlife Officer in National Operations Support, Environment and
Climate Change Canada, Canada; Edgard O. Espinoza, Deputy Director, National
Fish & Wildlife Forensic Laboratory, United States of America; Indra Exploitasia
Semiawan, Director of the Center for Forestry and Environmental Engineering, Min-
istry of Environment and Forestry, Indonesia; Shelley Gardner, Illegal Logging Pro-
gram Coordinator, USDA Forest Service and USDOJ INTERPOL Washington,
United States of America; Samantha Gunasekara, Deputy Director, Sri Lanka
­Customs, Sri Lanka; Waldemar Hasiholan, Lecturer, Ministry of Environment and
Forestry, Indonesia; Valerie Hipkins, Director of the National Forest Genetics Labo-
ratory, USDA Forest Service, United States of America; Anton Huitema, CITES
Officer with Customs, Port of Rotterdam, The Netherlands; Stephen Kenny, Techni-
cal Director, Samplexx Ltd, United Kingdom; Chen Hin Keong, Timber Trade Pro-
gramme Leader, TRAFFIC, Malaysia; Peter Kitin, Senior Research Fellow, Nanyang
Technological University, Singapore; Gerald Koch, Scientific Director, Thünen Insti-
tute of Wood Research, Germany; Sang-Hyup Lee, Environmental Program Manager,

iii
World Customs Organization, South Korea; Frederic Lens, Assistant Professor, Natu-
ralis Biodiversity Center, The Netherlands; Andrew J. Lowe, Professor of Plant
Conservation Biology and Director of the Centre for Conservation Science and
Technology, University of Adelaide, Australia; Iris Moulijn, CITES Officer with
Customs, Port of Rotterdam, The Netherlands; Rob Ogden, Director, TRACE Wild-
life Forensics Network, United Kingdom; Tereza C. M. Pastore, Doctor at the Forest
Products Laboratory-LPF, Brazilian Forest Service, Brazil; George Phocas, Special
Agent Attaché to South East Asia, United States Fish and Wildlife Service (USFWS),
Thailand; Rocky Piaggione, Senior Counsel for the Environmental Crimes Section,
United States Department of Justice, United States of America; Joseph Poux, Deputy
Chief of the Environmental Crimes Section, United States Department of Justice,
United States of America; Bako Harisoa Ravaomanalina, Lecturer, University of
Antananarivo, Madagascar; Milena Sosa Schmidt, Scientific Support Officer (Flora)
at the Scientific Support Unit, CITES Secretariat, Switzerland; Julius Thaler, Senior
Counsel, The World Bank, United States of America; Chris Watts, Managing
­Director, Samplexx Ltd, United Kingdom; Alex C. Wiedenhoeft, Research Botanist
and Team Leader at the Forest Products Laboratory, USDA Forest Service, United
States of America; Yafang Yin, Professor at the Chinese Research Institute of Wood
Industry, Chinese Academy of Forestry, China.

GPWLFC and LSS wish to express their gratitude and special thanks to Eleanor
Dormontt, Postdoctoral Fellow at the Centre for Conservation Science and Technol-
ogy, University of Adelaide, Australia, for her substantial contribution to the devel-
opment of the Guide.

The valuable comments and contribution of the following experts to the peer-review
process is also gratefully acknowledged:

Ken Farr, Canadian Forest Service CITES Scientific Authority, Natural Resources
Canada, Canadian Forest Service, Canada; Steven Johnson, General Coordinator,
International Tropical Timber Organization, Japan; Pia Jonsson, Enforcement Sup-
port Officer, CITES Secretariat, Switzerland; Simon Robertson, Senior Governance
Specialist, Environment and Natural Resources Global Practice, The World Bank,
United States of America; Davyth Stewart, Coordinator, Natural Resources, INTER-
POL Environmental Security Program, France; Edward van Asch, ICCWC Support
Officer, CITES Secretariat, Switzerland.

The preparation of the Guide was coordinated by Sinéad Brophy of the GPWLFC
together with Olga Kuzmianok, Programme Officer, GPWLFC and Iphigenia Naidis,
Scientific Affairs Officer, LSS. The contributions of Dimosthenis Chrysikos and
Nicole Quijano-Evans are highly appreciated.

iv
Abbreviations

ASEAN Association of Southeast Asian Nations

CBM Coordinated Border Management programme
CCP UNODC-WCO Container Control Programme
CCPCJ United Nations Commission on Crime Prevention and Criminal
Justice
CEN Customs Enforcement Network
CITES Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild
Fauna and Flora
CITES MA CITES Management Authority
CoP Conference of the Parties
DART TOFMS Direct Analysis in Real Time, Time of Flight Mass Spectrometry
DNA Deoxyribonucleic acid
EGM Expert Group Meeting
GTTN Global Timber Trafficking Network
IAWA International Association of Wood Anatomists
ICCWC International Consortium on Combating Wildlife Crime
IFSA International Forensic Strategic Alliance
INTERPOL International Criminal Police Organization
IRT Incident Response Team
ITTO International Tropical Timber Organization
LSS Laboratory and Scientific Section
MLA Mutual Legal Assistance
MLAT Mutual Legal Assistance Treaty
NCB National Central Bureau (INTERPOL)
NEST National Environmental Security Taskforce
NIRS Near Infrared Spectroscopy
PCU Port Control Unit
QA Quality assurance
QMS Quality management system
SAWEN South Asian Wildlife Enforcement Network
SHERLOC Sharing Electronic Resources and Laws against Organized Crime
portal
SLU Sustainable Livelihoods Unit
SNP Single nucleotide polymorphisms
SOP Standard Operating Procedures
STR/SSR Short tandem repeats/simple sequence repeats
SWFS Society for Wildlife Forensic Science

v
SWGWILD Scientific Working Group for Wildlife Forensic Sciences
TRACE TRACE Wildlife Forensics Network
UNODC United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime
WCO World Customs Organization
WEN Wildlife Enforcement Network
WEN-SA Wildlife Enforcement Network–Southern Africa
WIST Wildlife Incident Support Team

vi
Contents

Page

Acknowledgements. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . iii

Abbreviations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v
1. Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
Part I. From search decisions to forensic timber identification: Information
for law enforcement. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
2. Law enforcement best practice flow diagram for timber . . . . . . . . . 8
3. Initial risk analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
4. Undertaking a search . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
5. Rapid-field identification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
6. Formation of the forensic questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
7. Collecting and preserving evidence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
8. Chain of custody . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
9. Transport of samples to the laboratory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
10. Communicating with the timber identification service provider . . . 32
Part II. Undertaking forensic timber identification: Information for scientists 37
11. Available methods for forensic timber identification . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
12. Resources for acquiring reference material . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
13. Resources for acquiring reference data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
14. Laboratory procedural requirements for undertaking forensic work . 48
15. Guidance on communicating with law enforcement . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
16. Guidance on communication of scientific results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
17. Guidance on presenting as an expert witness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
Part III. Forensic timber identification evidence in court: Information for law
enforcement, prosecutors and the judiciary. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
18. Overview of timber identification techniques and ­relevant
­considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
19. Overview of key forensic requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
20. Legal considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
Part IV. International cooperation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
21. International legal frameworks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78
22. Factors impacting international cooperation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
23. Scientific areas requiring international cooperation . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
24. Legal areas requiring international cooperation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88
25. Support available: networks, tools and communication mechanisms. 92
References. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105

vii
 Page

Annexes
Annex 1. Glossary. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113
Annex 2. Non-timber forest products and identification considerations . . . . 119
Annex 3. Non-timber forest products of CITES-listed species . . . . . . . . . . . 127
Annex 4. List of common risk indicators for trafficking of illegal timber
and timber products . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131
Annex 5. Information on CITES-listed tree species. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135
Annex 6. Native geographic distributions and known areas of cultivation of
CITES-listed tree species. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145
Annex 7. Guidance for search of containers, freight vehicles and premises. 159
Annex 8. Forensic identification method capabilities, approximate costs and
lead times. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175
Annex 9. Resources to assist rapid-field identification of timber and timber
products. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179
Annex 10. CITES-listed timbers and lookalikes documented
in CITESwoodID. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183
Annex 11. One hundred important traded timbers documented
in macroHOLZdata. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189
Annex 12. Methods currently under development for rapid-field
identification of timber. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 193
Annex 13. Example chain-of-custody form. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 195
Annex 14. Timber inventory and sampling data collection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 199
Annex 15. Resources to assist microscopic identification of timber and
timber products. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 209
Annex 16. Online resources for the acquisition of reference data. . . . . . . . . . 213

viii
1. Introduction

Background

Illegal logging and the illegal timber trade are major problems domestically and inter-
nationally, threatening not just individual species, but entire ecosystems. The negative
impacts are diverse, causing untold environmental, social and economic damage.
­Illegal timber trade fuels forest degradation and deforestation, causes harm to local
communities, and deprives producer countries of billions of dollars in revenue.

The illegal timber trade is a complex issue, often involving multiple actors in mul-
tiple countries around the world. Illegal activities can occur at all stages in the
timber supply chain and range in complexity from local illegal harvesting through
to international and highly organized criminal syndicates with established commer-
cial supply chains. Timber crime has all the hallmarks of organized and sophisticated
crime, sharing many characteristics with other transnational criminal activities,
­frequently involving fraud, money-laundering, corruption, and counterfeiting.

There are very few mechanisms at the international level to combat illegal timber
trading. The Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna
and Flora (CITES) is an international treaty aiming to ensure that international trade
in specimens of wild animals and plants does not threaten their survival. CITES
regulates the trade in more than 35,000 species of plants and animals to safeguard
certain species from over-exploitation by listing them in one of three appendices (I,
II and III). From the initial 18 tree species listed in the CITES appendices in 1975,
today more than 600 tree species are listed with over 400 used for their timber. One
of the most challenging issues in the implementation of CITES is the definitive
identification of specimens found in trade, which is required to demonstrate whether
the activity is legal or illegal. For law enforcement authorities, identification is a
necessary action that proves to be at the front-line of the global legal and illegal
trade in timber.

The International Community has recognized the severity of the problem of global
biodiversity loss and degradation of ecosystems and this is reflected in a number of
recent conferences, resolutions and decisions. During the twenty-second Session of
the United Nations Commission on Crime Prevention and Criminal Justice (CCPCJ)
in April 2013, Member States strengthened the mandate of the United Nations Office
on Drugs and Crime (UNODC) in the field of wildlife and forest crime by adopting

1
2 Best Practice Guide for Forensic Timber Identification

a resolution on “Crime prevention and criminal justice responses to illicit trafficking

in protected species of wild fauna and flora”, which was subsequently adopted by
the Economic and Social Council (ECOSOC Resolution 2013/40). The resolution
encourages UNODC, in coordination with other members of the International Con-
sortium on Combating Wildlife Crime (ICCWC),1 “to continue its efforts to provide
technical assistance to combat illicit trafficking in wild fauna and flora”. During the
twenty-third Session of the CCPCJ in May 2014, Member States specifically
addressed the issue of timber crime by adopting the resolution “Strengthening a
targeted crime prevention and criminal justice response to combat illicit trafficking
in timber and forest products” (Resolution 23/1), which invites UNODC to strengthen
“the development of tools and technologies for addressing illicit trafficking in forest
products, including timber” and to “promote enforcement related to illicit trafficking
in forest products, including timber”.

At the sixteenth meeting of the CITES Conference of the Parties (CoP16, 2013), 177
governments voted unanimously to bring 293 new timber species under CITES con-
trol in order to ensure legal, sustainable and traceable trade in timber and non-timber
forest products. A number of Decisions adopted at CoP16 encourage the increased
use of forensic analysis to support the implementation and enforcement of CITES.

Building upon this political momentum, UNODC was given the lead, on behalf of
ICCWC, for the development of a Guide to address the challenges posed by timber
crime and provide support to law enforcement operations through the use of forensic
technology and laboratory data.

The identification of evidence in criminal investigations can be achieved through

the application of forensic science. Forensic analysis can significantly contribute to
legal, sustainable and traceable trade in timber and non-timber forest products.
Forensic analysis of timber can provide robust results, including the identification
of the species and geographical provenance of the timber sample, when based on
comprehensively validated methods. These methods can be applied to verify or refute
species and/or origin declarations made by timber-traders, and as such, it is expected
that the availability of this Guide will provide support to tackle the problem of
illegal logging, mislabelling of timber species shipments, and smuggling of timber
products. This information is also vital for the design of targeted law enforcement
responses. It will help to ensure that resources are directed to those areas where
illegal logging occurs and will support countries to combat the illegal trade in
products of protected timber species more effectively. In addition, identifying where
logging activities prove to be illegal assists countries in taking responsibility for the
illegal activities within their borders, helping to promote international cooperation
to address the problem.

1
The International Consortium on Combating Wildlife Crime (ICCWC) is a partnership between
CITES Secretariat, INTERPOL, UNODC, World Bank and World Customs Organization. ICCWC was
formally launched in November 2010 at the International Tiger Summit in Saint Petersburg, Russian
Federation. ICCWC partners united to deliver a coordinated and comprehensive approach to wildlife and
forest crime.
Introduction 3

Purpose and scope

In order to ensure that forensic data are credible and admissible in court, appropriate
methods and procedures must be used throughout the entire investigative process, from
the first inspection of a timber load, to timber sample collection and transport, analysis
in the laboratory, and interpretation and presentation of results for prosecution.

This Guide is intended for worldwide use, with the aim of facilitating the employ-
ment of forensic science to the fullest extent possible to combat timber crime. This
Guide covers the whole chain of events, providing information on best practices and
procedures from the crime scene to the court room. The target audience ranges from
front-line officers, crime scene investigators, law enforcement officials, scientists,
prosecutors and the judiciary. The Guide, as a whole, represents a starting point for
a uniform approach to the collection and forensic analysis of timber for identifica-
tion purposes. It is hoped that the use of the Guide will lead to more timely, thorough
and effective investigations, resulting in an increased number of successful prosecu-
tion and a reduction in the illegal timber trade.

Due to the varied, complex and highly technical nature of timber identification
methodologies, this Guide does not provide step-by-step scientific processes for their
application in the field or laboratory. Instead, this Guide focuses on the procedural
aspects for obtaining robust identification outcomes suitable for presentation in court
to support illegal timber trading prosecutions. A glossary of terms can be found in
annex 1. Example resources detailing the required scientific methodologies are
referred to throughout the Guide; however, as forensic timber identification is a
growing discipline, resources cited here should be considered only as examples. To
obtain a current picture of the available resources, a forensic timber identification
expert should be consulted.

Wood can be processed in a myriad of different ways; it can be turned into pulp to
make paper, powdered for traditional medicine, planed into extremely thin veneers,
fixed together to make plywood or worked into high value objects such as musical
instruments. The applicability of the various available timber identification method-
ologies can vary according to the wood material in question. To avoid confusion,
this Guide focuses on the identification of solid timber only. An explanation of the
various other wood products that may be encountered and considerations for obtain-
ing forensic identification for these materials can be found in annex 2. Specific
information about non-solid-timber wood products of CITES-listed tree species can
be found in annex 3.

The provision of forensic services is affected by the legal framework in place and
includes issues related to entering the crime scene, conducting the investigation,
handling evidence, laboratory analysis and others.

The Guide is divided into four parts containing information specific to different
audiences. They are collectively intended to provide integrated tools for gathering
4 Best Practice Guide for Forensic Timber Identification

and processing evidence on timber crime and performing laboratory analysis in

support of prosecution and for intelligence purposes. A full reading of the Guide
will provide valuable insight and advance understanding of the forensic challenges
facing each actor along the crime chain.

Part I provides information for law enforcement. It describes initial risk analysis
and search guidelines for front-line officers. It advises on options for rapid-field
identification and formulation of forensic questions. Guidance is provided on the
collection and preservation of evidence, maintaining the chain of custody, including
through transport of samples to the laboratory. It also advises on communication
with the timber identification service provider.

Part II is aimed at scientists undertaking forensic identification tests or those who

seek to do so in the future. Some information is also relevant to research scientists
involved in the development of identification methodologies but who may not neces-
sarily undertake forensic case work. The various methods of timber identification
are summarized as an introduction to the associated disciplines. Resources for
acquiring reference material and data are presented, and guidance is provided regard-
ing laboratory procedural requirements for undertaking forensic work. It also advises
on communication with law enforcement and communication of scientific results by
an expert witness in court.

Part III is aimed at law enforcement, prosecutors and the judiciary. It is focused on
appropriate considerations when preparing an illegal timber case for court. To facili-
tate understanding of identification methods and results by the prosecution and judi-
ciary, simple descriptions of the relevant methods are provided. Key forensic require-
ments and specific legal considerations regarding the use of forensic timber
identification services are discussed, and a final checklist is presented.

Part IV discusses the importance of international cooperation to tackle timber crime.

It covers relevant international legal frameworks, which form the basis for coopera-
tion between countries, and at the global level, the basis for regulation, communica-
tion, exchange of information and mutual assistance to tackle transnational organized
crime. Information is provided on networks, mechanisms and tools available for
countries and individuals seeking to obtain legal or scientific assistance from another
country. It outlines some of the benefits, challenges and opportunities to improve
cooperation, communication and collaboration internationally among and between
legal and scientific communities.

Accompanying the Guide, a best practice flow diagram (as shown in figure 1) has
been developed to lead front-line officers through the steps that should be completed
when dealing with a load or shipment containing timber that is passing through a
checkpoint such as an international border crossing. An online version of this flow
diagram that includes dynamic links to additional resources can be accessed at:
www.unodc.org/­documents/Wildlife/Timber_Flow_Diagram.pdf
Part I. From search decisions to forensic
timber identification: Information
for law enforcement

Part I of the Guide is aimed at law enforcement practitioners to provide information

on current and emerging technologies available for the forensic identification of
timber, including how to decide whether to utilize a particular technology and the
methods and approaches most suitable for obtaining robust evidentiary outcomes.
This information is not necessarily exhaustive, and given the intended global audi-
ence cannot address every country’s specific issue. The Guide as a whole represents
a starting point for a uniform approach to the collection and forensic analysis of
timber for identification purposes.

Law enforcement can include police, customs officers, detectives, and a range of
authorities tasked with enforcing timber laws. In practice, customs organizations
tend to most often encounter illegal timber as part of their routine work at border
crossings. The guidance presented here includes information that may only be
­relevant in a customs context, such as risk assessments for incoming shipments.
However, other information, such as the processes involved in taking samples and
maintaining chain of custody, will be relevant in all law enforcement contexts. The
information contained in part I may also be of interest to scientists, prosecutors and
members of the judiciary, to provide insight and advance understanding of the
­challenges facing front-line officers who encounter a suspect timber load.

Part I of the Guide first presents a flow diagram designed to demonstrate best practice
for law enforcement with respect to timber, and then covers in more detail: initial
risk analysis; search guidance; rapid-field identification; formulation of forensic
questions, collecting and preserving evidence, chain of custody, transport of samples
to the laboratory, and communication with the timber identification service
provider.

5
6 Best Practice Guide for Forensic Timber Identification

Figure 1. Law enforcement best practice flow diagram for timber

Part I. From search decisions to forensic timber identification: Information for law enforcement 7
8 Best Practice Guide for Forensic Timber Identification

2. Law enforcement best practice flow diagram

for timber
The best practice flow diagram (see figure 1) indicates the steps law enforcement
agents should follow when dealing with cross-border shipments of timber. The flow
diagram represents the ideal case, and reality may dictate that actual processes need
to differ to fit local conditions. The particular law enforcement personnel involved
in undertaking each step may change depending on jurisdiction. If the inspection
takes place at an international border crossing, these personnel will likely all form
part of a coordinated border management programme (CBM). For example, customs
may inspect shipments with police taking over cases that become criminal investiga-
tions; in other circumstances customs may only deal with document checking and
other agencies undertake physical inspections. The flow diagram is designed to cover
the general principles of dealing with timber at checkpoints and users should con-
sider how each recommended step fits into their own organizational structure and
division of responsibilities. In cases where there is any contradiction between the
recommendations presented here and any local or national requirements, law enforce-
ment officers must comply with the requirements of their jurisdiction.

Layout of the diagram

The flow diagram with all associated documents and links can be can be accessed
at: www.unodc.org/documents/Wildlife/Timber_Flow_Diagram.pdf Where electronic
smart devices are available for use by law enforcement, the flow diagram can be
accessed in full as a pdf with dynamic links, removing the necessity for paper ver-
sions. The flow diagram itself, without dynamic links and associated documents
(figure 1), covers two pages and is designed to enable printing on a single double-
sided sheet of A4 paper that can be easily taken into the field by officers. It can also
be printed on larger poster sized paper and mounted on office walls to provide a
frequent reminder to staff but one which is not necessarily carried out of the office.

The flow diagram is separated into three distinct sections:

Administrative verification

Administrative verification refers to the document checking that must be completed

prior to any physical examination or sampling of a timber load.

Physical verification

Physical verification refers to the process of checking whether the physical materials
present in the shipment are consistent with the documentation and that all required
documentation has been provided given the physical nature of the shipment.
Part I. From search decisions to forensic timber identification: Information for law enforcement 9

Investigation

An investigation will begin if and when any inconsistencies or concerns are raised
as part of the physical verification.

3. Initial risk analysis

Illegal timber can only be identified through appropriate intervention at some point
in the timber supply chain. Customs, and other organizations that form part of a
CBM programme are well placed to intervene as imported products are subject to
verification processes, such as document checking and physical examination. To aid
front-line decision making with respect to illegal timber, a best practice flow diagram
has been developed (see section 2, figure 1, and: www.unodc.org/documents/­Wildlife/
Timber_Flow_Diagram.pdf).

Given the large amount of trade and the wide remit of most customs agencies,
enforcement capacity is a critical limitation. Strategic risk assessments and trend
analyses to determine which consignment should be subject to further scrutiny are
therefore fundamentally important, along with random routine checks. In order to
develop awareness with respect to the potential for illegal trade in wood products
through certain checkpoints, the following should be considered:

1. Volumes of timber shipments passing through specific checkpoints (import,

export and transit)
2. Areas from which and to where timber movements are made
3. Identification of the importers, carriers, brokers and/or exporters involved
in timber shipments
4. History of companies and particular personnel involved, including data from
previous audits and/or visits
5. The activities of relevant companies and personnel, what types of timber
are thereby required or could be required
6. Listings of the timber species, along with the descriptions and product
Harmonized System (HS) codes of material expected in shipments, consid-
ering the identified source countries (see point 2 above) and the type of
timber required by relevant companies (see point 5 above)
7. The validity of CITES documents, which can be checked with the appropri-
ate CITES Management Authority

CBM organizations should assess these sorts of information, along with other rele­
vant intelligence to develop hypotheses regarding potential risks of illegal timber in
shipments. These hypotheses should be tested by carrying out inspections (during
10 Best Practice Guide for Forensic Timber Identification

import, transit, export, and storage, and/or stock) and risk profiles developed. Ongo-
ing physical inspections should be used to refine the risk profiles over time. Some
common risk indicators are described in annex 4. Specific details relating to timbers
covered by CITES can be found in annexes 5 and 6. Since species may be added
or removed over time under CITES, please also check on the CITES website for
updates to the list, www.cites.org.

4. Undertaking a search
Once a shipment, load, premises or other area has been identified as warranting
further scrutiny, a search needs to be undertaken.

Searches must be undertaken in strict compliance with all applicable laws,

policies and procedures. Failure to adhere to correct protocols can lead to
inadmissible evidence and jeopardize the entire case.

Personnel undertaking searches must be aware of the nature and purpose of the
search and the evidence sought. Search officers are responsible for complying with
the law and ensuring that they do not search beyond the statutory limitations
imposed. They must remember that the power to search is limited to the extent that
is reasonably required for the purposes of discovering and securing evidence [1].
Search officers must also fully understand their powers of seizure and powers to
take samples.

Searches can include the search of containers and their cargo, vehicles or premises.
The search method can vary according to the reason for the examination. Regard-
less, searches should be carried out methodically and thoroughly. Set procedures
should always be followed when searches are conducted.

Some countries and organizations might already have comprehensive search guid-
ance procedures in place that law enforcement officials could draw upon. Access to
such search guidelines is often restricted to the law enforcement community. Broad
considerations for law enforcement authorities engaged in different types of searches
are included in annex 7 [1].

The inspection search must stop at the first indication of a crime, for example, when
the first timber item is uncovered in a container, vehicle, etc. that should otherwise
not contain wood, or when a rapid-field-identification result (see section 5) suggests
potential criminal activity. Any further search activities should be conducted according
to the appropriate protocols for criminal evidentiary searches, which may (depending
on jurisdiction) require different personnel and approaches. Officers are encouraged
to use the information contained in annex 7 to complement search guidance procedures
that might be available to them through their respective organizations.
Part I. From search decisions to forensic timber identification: Information for law enforcement 11

5. Rapid-field identification
As expert forensic identification of timber can be costly and time consuming
(annex 8), to decide whether a particular timber load warrants expert forensic iden-
tification, front-line law enforcement officers need to be able to undertake an initial
rapid-field identification. The results of this identification will be necessarily pre-
liminary, and further definitive forensic identification will eventually be required to
support a prosecution case. Initial rapid-field-identification needs to provide officers
with enough information to indicate whether there is due cause to further
investigate.

Pre-identification process

Timber loads selected for examination require rapid-field identification of a

representative portion to determine if further forensic testing is necessary.

Once a load has been selected for further examination, it will be necessary to
undertake some form of rapid-field identification to determine whether there is cause
to warrant further expert forensic testing of the material. Timber loads can range
from a single item to hundreds of whole logs and/or thousands of pieces of manu-
factured products. It is not always practical or necessary to undertake rapid-field
identification of every item. Instead, the aim is to undertake rapid-field identification
on a portion that is representative of the load or to target examination efforts to the
most probable illegal subset of the load.

Only authorized personnel should be present; gloves should be worn; all

­activities should be documented.

Access of personnel should be limited at this stage so that materials are not unnec-
essarily disturbed, and care should be taken to ensure that every person handling
the timber or wood pieces wears examination gloves to prevent introduction of trace
contamination. All observations and steps should be carefully documented, including
the time, date and personnel involved in any verbal approval processes required to
instigate rapid-field identification.

All applicable laws and protocols for inspection, search and seizure must be
followed.

Not every inspection of a timber load or container will warrant compliance with
criminal evidence-collection procedures. In fact, the majority will not. However, all
inspections should adhere to applicable national laws and organizational protocols
12 Best Practice Guide for Forensic Timber Identification

for inspection, search and seizure. Failure to adhere to these requirements may render
any evidence gathered inadmissible in court.

Video or photograph the load before moving anything, using only approved
equipment, file storage and transfer methods.

As there is no way of predicting in which direction a case will turn at this stage,
it is essential to ensure that the contents of the timber load or container are preserved
as close to the state they were initially found as possible. Videoing the scene prior
to search, such as with a camera or smartphone, is a good way of preventing allega-
tions of items being moved or placed prior to any subsequent photographing. If
videoing is not possible, still photographs of the intact shipment are recommended.
Organizations may have their own policies procedures and protocols regarding how
recording equipment and subsequent data can be used. Officers should always com-
ply with these requirements.

Do not move anything unless it is necessary to reach parts of the load.

In cases where materials are packed or stored in such a way that access does not
require unpacking the content, rapid-field identification (and any subsequent sampling
for forensic analyses) should be completed without undue disturbance to the load.

If movement of the load contents is necessary, create a map linking back to

the original arrangement.

When dealing with a truck carrying logs or planks, or a tightly packed container,
unpacking is generally necessary to access all of the material. In these cases it is
important to note how the load was packed so that specimens’ original locations
within the load can be identified, usually through a combination of video or pho-
tography (complying with local policies on the use of recording equipment and the
storage and transfer of derived data), labelling, and the creation of a map of the
unpacked contents linking back to the original arrangement of the load. Ensure that
any labelling at this stage does not create permanent markings on the material, for
example use tags or removable labels instead of permanent markers.

Undertake rapid-field identification of the material according to the method(s)

available at the time.

There are a variety of methodologies available for rapid-field identification, and the
most appropriate one in any given circumstance will depend on the resources avail-
able and the nature of the potential violation. The various options for rapid-field
identification are described in the next subsection.
Part I. From search decisions to forensic timber identification: Information for law enforcement 13

Where screening suggests possible criminal violation, inform relevant supervisor

and/or investigators.

If rapid-field identification of a suspect timber load indicates that a possible criminal

violation has occurred, the relevant supervisor should be notified and if appropriate,
criminal investigators should be notified. If control of the investigation delegated to
another staff member, any subsequent decisions in relation to the load should be
made with the approval or at the direction of that staff member.

Methods currently in use for rapid-field identification of timber

Macroscopic wood anatomical identification by law enforcement

Timber identification through sectioning of the wood with a sharp blade and
examination of the internal structure using a magnifying lens.

A variety of aids have been developed that describe the macroscopic anatomical
features of a selection of timbers to assist law enforcement in the rapid-field iden-
tification of timber loads. These resources include manuals, interactive reference
databases and posters, and they should be accompanied, where possible, by training
programmes on their effective use conducted by professional wood anatomists. A
list of these available resources can be found in annex 9. Examples of timbers from
known species that may be frequently encountered at a particular checkpoint are
another option for supporting front-line macroscopic wood identification. Officers
can examine these real timber examples and compare them directly to the evidence.
However, great care must be taken when obtaining such examples for reference, as
an incorrect example can obviously lead to incorrect rapid-field-identification results.
Example timbers should be checked by an expert wood anatomist before use to
ensure correct identification. Choice of appropriate resources to aid macroscopic
wood anatomical identification by law enforcement personnel should be made based
on the regions of origin of loads that are encountered and/or the specific species or
legislation that are of interest. More specific information on CITES-listed timbers
and a range of lookalike species, which can be distinguished using macroscopic
wood anatomy, can be found in annex 10. Information about the 100 most important
timbers in trade, which can be distinguished using macroscopic wood anatomy, can
be found in annex 11.

Given appropriate training and ongoing proficiency testing, wood anatomical iden-
tification by law enforcement can be a successful rapid-field-identification method.
However, its feasibility as a complete solution in any one circumstance is inversely
proportional to the scale of identification requirements that are likely to be encoun-
tered. For example, law enforcement agents trained to identify a small suite of
14 Best Practice Guide for Forensic Timber Identification

species (approximately fewer than 10) that are the most commonly transported ille-
gally through their checkpoint are likely to master these skills effectively and be
able to meet most, if not all, of the rapid-field-identification needs encountered at
their post. However, their ability to identify novel illegal timbers will be low. For
international ports receiving global shipments, the accuracy achieved through the
use of these tools alone is likely to be relatively poor, given the highly technical
nature of wood anatomical identification and the extended training required to
achieve proficiency. Some larger ports, such as Rotterdam, have dedicated CITES
officers on call who are well trained in macroscopic wood identification of CITES
species and their lookalikes. However, this solution is only likely to be cost effective
for large international ports and only covers identification of CITES-listed
species.

Macroscopic wood anatomical identification by an off-site expert

Timber identification through close-up photography of the structure of the

wood, sent electronically (e-mail/SMS) to a professional wood anatomist who
returns the identification result to law enforcement.

Front-line law enforcement personnel can be trained in image capture suitable for
macroscopic wood anatomical identification. Photographs of suspect timber products
are then transmitted electronically to a laboratory where rapid-field identification of
these images is then undertaken by expert wood anatomists who can identify the
timbers macroscopically and indicate which need to be sampled for further forensic
identification. Rapid-field-identification decisions can be made as quickly as possible
by trained experts and transmitted in real time to the front-line staff that can enforce
the decision. Additional information observed by the front-line officers can also be
of value for rapid-field identification and can be provided to the off-site expert along
with the photographs, such as the smell and/or overall colour of the timber, as well
as information on any other foliage or insects that may also be in the load.

The equipment required at the point of rapid-field identification is minimal: just an

appropriate camera set-up able to capture macroscopic anatomical images and the
means to transmit these images securely to experts and receive decisions in return.
Some skill is required to capture the images correctly, but this can be acquired rela-
tively easily and inexpensively when compared to the skills required to make ana-
tomical identifications. Without the need for experts to be on-site, a relatively small
pool of experts can service a relatively large area. Options for development of this
approach should be discussed with local and/or regional wood anatomical experts.
An example of this approach is provided in the references [2].
Part I. From search decisions to forensic timber identification: Information for law enforcement 15

Detector dogs

Timber identification through the use of trained detector dogs who recognize
the scent of certain timbers.

The use of detector dogs for rapid-field identification of timber can be very useful
for particular species of concern, specifically those under CITES regulation. How-
ever, a dog can only confirm if it detects the odour of a substance to which it has
been trained to respond; it cannot determine the identity of other substances. As
such, the use of detector dogs can augment the tool kit of law enforcement person-
nel, but cannot fulfil all timber rapid-field-identification needs. There is no set limit
to the number of targets a dog can be trained to detect, but 12-15 is considered a
reasonable suite of odours for any one particular dog given the time required for
ongoing training to preserve efficacy. Additionally, the intensity of odours and fre-
quency of their presentation can impact on a dog’s willingness to seek them out.
Rare and faint odours can be ignored by the dog in favour of stronger more common
ones. Guidelines for the training of dogs to detect wildlife in trade have been devel-
oped and a pilot project was undertaken to assess the feasibility of using detector
dogs to identify specific timbers. Information is provided in the references [3].

Methods currently under development for rapid-field

­identification of timber

There are currently two automated methods under development to assist in the
rapid-field identification of timber. At the time of publication, these methods were
not widely available for use by front-line law enforcement officers, but it is hoped
that in the coming years they will be. The methods are automated macroscopic wood
anatomical identification (otherwise known as “machine vision”) and near infrared
spectroscopy (NIRS). Further information on these methods can be found in
annex 12. Although not yet rolled out for use by law enforcement for rapid-field
identification, these methods are appropriate for use by experts as forensic identifica-
tion tests in some circumstances (see annex 8).

Results of the rapid-field identification

If the results of the rapid-field identification are inconclusive, law enforcement will
need to make a decision regarding whether there is due cause to pursue expert
forensic timber identification in the absence of field identification. This decision is
completely at the discretion of the law enforcement agency and may be influenced
by circumstances such as:

• The strength of the non-timber evidence that indicates potential illegality

• The resources and time required to utilize an appropriate forensic timber
identification service
16 Best Practice Guide for Forensic Timber Identification

• The availability of a suitable forensic identification service

• The suitability of available forensic identification services for the specific
question(s) at hand

If a rapid-field-identification result is consistent with the declared items and all other
aspects of the load and its transport are in order, there is usually no reason to pursue
further forensic identification. In certain circumstances, however, there may be suf-
ficient reason to move to expert forensic identification even where the declaration
and rapid-field identification are consistent. For example, rapid-field identification
confirming a genus that is consistent with the declaration (e.g. declared Dalbergia
spruceana returns a positive rapid-field identification of timber from the genus Dal-
bergia), but that genus also contains restricted lookalike species (e.g. Dalbergia
nigra) or there is other evidence to suggest that the shipment may have originated
in an area of high risk for illegal timber (e.g. Madagascar, where all Dalbergia
species are CITES restricted from export). Again, these decisions are at the sole
discretion of law enforcement.

Where rapid-field identification does indicate a CITES restricted species or genus

containing one, officers should check whether the part or derivative of timber they
are dealing with is covered by an annotation, in which case there may be no CITES
violation. See CITES Resolution Conf. 10.13 (Rev. CoP15) for further information,
available at cites.org/eng/res/10/10-13R15.php.

Violations may be CITES related or could be associated with other local or national
laws. Officers should familiarize themselves with the specific laws applicable in
their jurisdiction.

6. Formation of the forensic questions

Where the results of rapid-field identification of timber indicate that further inves-
tigation is warranted, officers must spend some time considering exactly what infor-
mation they require to proceed with their investigation.

Before requesting forensic testing, confirm the suspected offence and informa-
tion required to determine if a crime has been committed.

Before expert forensic timber identification information can be obtained, it is first

necessary for law enforcement to determine the exact nature of the forensic ques-
tions they need to answer. In order to do this, the following information is required:

• The outcome of any rapid-field-identification procedures

• Whether the species and product are listed under CITES (considering any
relevant annotations) or protected nationally
Part I. From search decisions to forensic timber identification: Information for law enforcement 17

• The suspected offence including the relevant Act and Section

• The level of identification required

Case study A is a simple example of this information in a fictional situation.

Case Study A

• Detector dogs indicated a positive result for ramin in a timber load.

• Ramin (Gonystylus spp.) is listed in appendix II of CITES and no
annotations exclude timber material.
• Importing or exporting CITES species without a permit is an offence
under national law.
• The entire genus Gonystylus is listed in appendix II so genus level
identification is sufficient to prove the point of law.

This information facilitates the determination of the following forensic

question:
“Is the wood material sampled from shipment X from the genus
Gonystylus?”

Case study B is a more complex example of this information in a fictional

situation.

Case Study B

• Rapid-field identification using macroscopic wood anatomy by front-

line law enforcement suggests that a timber load of sawn wood con-
tains Dalbergia.
• Risk profiling of the trader suggests that they have a history of trading
in Madagascar.
• The shipment is claimed to be Millettia laurentii originating from
Cameroon.
• All Dalbergia from Madagascar are listed in appendix II of CITES
(and have a zero export quota).
• Dalbergia nigra is listed in appendix I of CITES.
• Several other Dalbergia species are listed on appendix III of CITES.
• Importing or exporting CITES species without a permit is an offence
under national law.
• National legislation requires correct species declaration on all
imported timber.
18 Best Practice Guide for Forensic Timber Identification

This information facilitates the determination of the following forensic

questions:

“Is the wood material sampled from shipment X from the genus
Millettia?”
“If the wood is not from the genus Millettia, is it from the genus
Dalbergia?”
“If the wood material is of the genus Dalbergia, does it originate from
Madagascar?”
“If the wood material is of the genus Dalbergia but does not originate from
Madagascar, is it a protected species?”

Develop a set of forensic timber identification questions and discuss how these
can be answered with timber identification service providers.

Discrete sequential questions that each focus on one aspect of an identification

requirement are more useful than a single complex question. All forensic timber
identification requirements can be broken down into the need for information in one
or more of the following areas:

• Genus (or higher level taxonomic identification) of the evidence

• Species of the evidence
• Geographic provenance of the evidence
• Age of the evidence
• Individual from which the evidence originates

It is unlikely that all questions will need to be answered in any one case. The spe-
cifics that apply to the case at hand will need to be determined by the investigating
personnel. Timber identification service providers will be able to advise which levels
of identification are possible with current scientific knowledge (see annex 8 for
details of which forensic identification methods may be able to answer specific
identification questions). Investigators can then assess whether the available informa-
tion is of use to the investigation. For example, in Case Study B, wood anatomists
could identify the genus of the shipment. Chemical analysis could be used to deter-
mine whether any Dalbergia originated in Madagascar and may also be able to
determine species if non-Madagascan origin was determined. Even when the capac-
ity to answer the full suite of questions is limited, pursuing expert forensic identi-
fication to the level available can still be of use. For example, if a genus other than
Millettia was identified through wood anatomy, the trader would have been proven
to have broken the law requiring correct species declaration for imports.
Part I. From search decisions to forensic timber identification: Information for law enforcement 19

Consider other evidence that may prove specific points such as geographic
origin determined through paperwork, or other materials in shipment.

If a positive genus or species level identification is obtained for a protected species,

but there are no tests available to identify provenance, investigators may deem their
case sufficiently strong as to proceed anyway with other evidence to prove the
geographic origin of the shipment. For example, in Case Study B, other documenta-
tion or evidence associated with the shipment may have been sufficient to prove a
Madagascan origin, in which case forensic geographic region of origin identification
would be unnecessary. Additional biological material evidence, such as insects, can
also assist in determining the geographic region of origin in some instances (see
­section 7 on collecting and preserving evidence).

7. Collecting and preserving evidence

After rapid-field identification has indicated that an investigation should be opened
(see section 5) and appropriate forensic questions have been formulated (see
­section 6), law enforcement must decide whether to seize the load and await the
results of expert forensic timber identification. If the decision is made to go ahead
with the seizure and seek forensic testing, officers need to collect evidence samples
that can be sent to service providers.

The collection of timber samples as evidence that will later be subject to expert
forensic testing must adhere to the relevant organization’s evidence-collection
procedures.

Any staff members tasked with collecting samples should be appropriately trained,
equipped and operating under the direction of the person in charge of the investiga-
tion or a crime scene officer. Chain of custody is vital in demonstrating the integrity
of the exhibit (see section 8). Where feasible, consideration should be given to
appointing a dedicated staff member to be responsible for all samples that have been
collected. That staff member should be responsible for sealing any sampling trans-
portation container(s) and providing the documentation and/or chain-of-custody
forms (see annex 13) that accompany the samples to the laboratory.

Aim to collect samples from a portion of the shipment that is representative of

the timber seized, following the procedures outlined.

The following procedure is a suggestion. Each investigation team may determine

which procedure it should follow based upon the circumstances, such as the level
of training of staff, weather conditions, stability of the load, safety of staff and other
considerations. The following procedure assumes there is a large load of timber that
requires unpacking and addresses common issues that occur when sampling.
20 Best Practice Guide for Forensic Timber Identification

As with rapid-field identification, it is not always practical or necessary to sample

every item for laboratory analysis. Instead, the aim is to collect a portion that is
representative of the timber seized, maximizing the chances of including samples
representative of all locations in the consignment. Specifically, for expert forensic
testing, the sampling must be conducted in a way that does not give the appearance
that it was subjectively designed to mischaracterize the load. This Guide focuses on
the procedure for choosing sampling locations, the physical sampling requirements
for large-scale timber seizures and the challenges posed. However, the same tech-
niques can be applied, as appropriate, to small-scale seizures and consignments of
timber—although these may not require unpacking of the load.

Preparing the work area

Prepare a secure, dedicated work area of adequate size with required facilities
to sample timber.

Prior to sorting and sampling the timber or wood pieces, a dedicated work area
must first be set up. This work area should be:

• Cordoned and secure; no unauthorized persons should be in this area

• Sufficiently large to lay out all the wood to be sampled
• Protected (e.g. from rain, sun and wind)
• Connected to an electricity supply for electric drills, lighting, etc. (optional)

Recording information

Throughout sampling maintain accurate field notes.

Throughout the entire process of timber seizure and analysis, documentation and record-
ing of information is crucial. For the sampling procedure, detailed recording of infor-
mation is essential and should be organized at the outset. When possible, one officer
should be assigned exclusively to take notes and assign/record sampling numbers.

Information can be recorded in officers’ notebooks or on dedicated forms as stipu-

lated in the relevant organizations’ policies, procedures and protocols. If in doubt
as to the correct format, officers should consult their supervisor. Note-taking, record-
keeping and crime scene documentation are thoroughly discussed in basic evidence
gathering and forensic literature.

An officer should record the following information:

Part I. From search decisions to forensic timber identification: Information for law enforcement 21

• Date, time and location of data recording

• Title of the case
• Name of person recording the data, their agency and contact details
• Date, time and location of seizure
• Name of person who carried out the seizure, their agency and contact details
• Additional information on circumstances of seizure

Video or photograph the load before moving any items, using only approved
equipment, file storage and transfer methods.

Videoing the scene prior to sampling, such as with a camera or smartphone, is a

good way of preventing allegations of items being moved or placed prior to any
subsequent photographing. If videoing is not possible, still photographs of the intact
shipment are recommended. Organizations may have their own policies, procedures
and protocols regarding how recording equipment and subsequent data can be used.
Officers should always comply with these requirements.

Conducting a timber inventory and selecting products for

sampling

Conduct and record a thorough timber inventory following all required national
and local procedures; ensure all officers coming into contact with the load wear
gloves.

A timber inventory allows the investigating officers to record a full picture of the
shipment seized, which can be extremely important later in the investigation. A
timber inventory facilitates estimations of timber weight and volume, which are
critical for correctly characteriszing the offence and recording accurate information
for reporting purposes (e.g. to CITES). The timber inventory also allows the results
from any expert forensic timber identification tests undertaken on samples to be
referenced back accurately to the load in its entirety, and it provides a framework
to help ensure that all steps are conducted in the proper order.

Every person handling the timber or wood pieces, even at the inventory stage, should
wear examination gloves. As the load is unpacked (if this is required), a load map
should be created that links back to the original arrangement of the load.

Examine all the timber and wood pieces found in the load. Determine if all the
timber or wood appears to be the same colour, grain and texture (in cases where
there is a large number of wood pieces, this step might not be feasible). When
22 Best Practice Guide for Forensic Timber Identification

examining a container shipment, quite often contraband is found toward the back
of the container with legal products closer to the entrance. A change in the type of
wood or appearance within a container is an indication of possible illegality.

Complete an inventory of the timber, details of which can be found in annex 14,
along with an example form.

Select for sampling at least one item from each group.

Once a timber inventory has been completed, the various different types of timber
or other products within the load will have been organized into groups of like-items,
e.g. group 1 (G001) may contain unprocessed logs, group 2 (G002) may contain
planks, and group 3 (G003) may contain picture frames. The officer should now
select which items from the load should be sampled for expert forensic timber
identification.

At least one item from each group should be chosen for sampling. If the wood is
all the same in appearance and shape, consider taking one piece from each defined
shipping pallet or box and from different locations in the shipment.

Assign and record a unique item number for each item to be sampled.

Give each item to be sampled a unique number; this may have already occurred
when the load was unpacked and items were selected for rapid-field identification.
If a unique number has already been assigned to an item, be consistent with its
usage and do not assign additional numbers to items.

Writing, scratching or painting on samples by the officers can reduce and jeopardize
their evidential value so should be avoided where possible. However, when catalogu-
ing large timber seizures, marking logs is generally required. The marks should be
consistent and easily identifiable. If working with valuable finished products, avoid
the use of permanent markers, which can severely diminish a product’s value.
Instead, use removable tags or labels (but ensure that they are securely attached so
as not to be accidentally removed).

Photograph and record the details of each item to be sampled, using only
approved equipment, file storage and transfer methods. Add details of sampled
items to the load map.

Record all information related to the item and subsequent sample either in the
officer’s notebook, on an appropriate form (see example in annex 14, part C) or
other dedicated method as prescribed by the relevant organization.
Part I. From search decisions to forensic timber identification: Information for law enforcement 23

Photograph each item after it has been numbered according to the policies, proce-
dures and protocols of the relevant organization. At each point on the load map
from where an item was taken, mark the corresponding unique item number. Refer-
ence to the original load map is important as it allows officers to:

• Accurately document the precise location where each evidence item was
collected and the relationship of these to one another
• Illustrate sampling was representative of the wood material being
identified
• Prevent data loss in instances of camera or camera card failures

Preventing cross-contamination of samples

Take appropriate measures to prevent cross-contamination, such as wearing

examination gloves, separating samples and cleaning equipment.

Protective measures are necessary to prevent cross-contamination of samples. Failing

to implement these measures can lead to irrevocable contamination of the samples,
which could misdirect investigators or laboratory technicians and adversely influence
the final result of analysis. Cross-contamination may even prevent the solution of
the case or result in misidentification of the wood. Whist the possibility of cross-
contamination of a plank of wood from an ungloved hand may seem remote, the
potential difficulty in explaining a failure to follow recognized sampling procedures
may create doubt about how careful investigators were in other aspects of the inves-
tigation. To prevent contamination the following should be considered before
­sampling begins:

• Immediate segregation and packaging of samples (e.g. in separate containers

or bags)
• Wearing and changing examination gloves for each activity
• Cleaning sampling equipment between samples or using different sampling
equipment for each sampling event
• Storing bulk goods and trace exhibits separately at all times (including
transfer to and from the forensic science service)

Cutting the sample

Follow the guidance below to cut standard samples or consult with the labora-
tory and the prosecutor to consider alternative non-destructive sampling
24 Best Practice Guide for Forensic Timber Identification

­methods for very high value items.

If dealing with a finished product or a very valuable piece of timber, seek the least
intrusive method of sampling. In some cases, the sampling process may disfigure,
destroy or otherwise decrease the value of the item. In such cases, consult with the
laboratory and the prosecutor to consider alternative methods of sampling before
proceeding. Depending upon the country, if it is determined after the investigation
that there was no violation of law, the owner of the item may seek compensation.
In such cases, the issue of how reasonably the sampler acted and whether other
authorities were consulted could become important.

For most forensic analyses, a simple physical cutting procedure is sufficient, but
care should be taken to ensure that the sample is taken from the correct area of the
timber depending on the type of analysis sought (see table 1). If there is any uncer-
tainly about the required sample size and type, an appropriate expert should be
consulted to determine the exact requirements.

Table 1. Details of how many samples and area of timber to sample for
each queried item for forensic timber identification, depending
on methodology.

Identification Number of Area of timber to be sampled

method samples
required from
each item
Wood anatomy 1 Heartwood preferable, sapwood acceptable,
avoid first 5 cm under bark where possible.
Dendrochronology 1 stem disk; or A stem disk preferred, or increment cores (in
2-3 increment the direction of bark to pith). If boards are
cores encountered, a piece of wood on which you
can see the maximum number of tree rings is
recommended.
Mass spectrometry 1 Heartwood
Near infrared 1 Anywhere
spectroscopy

Stable isotopes 1 Anywhere

Radiocarbon 1 increment Increment core preferred (from bark to pith)
core; or 2 small covering 5-20 rings (ideally >10); two small
blocks blocks should include one from outermost
surface and one from 5-20 rings in (ideally
<10). If collecting two samples, photograph
and/or count the number of unsampled rings
between samples. You must indicate which
sample comes from where in the original item.
DNA analyses 1 Anywhere
Part I. From search decisions to forensic timber identification: Information for law enforcement 25

When choosing an area of timber to sample, the following should be considered:

• Any specific requirements for the particular identification method to be

employed (see table 1)
• Selection of an area that is representative of the timber type being sampled,
i.e. avoid discoloured or structurally compromised areas as they may result
from a wood treatment or pathogen infection that could complicate identi-
fication and/or pose a biosecurity risk for transport of samples to externally
located laboratories

Sampling can be quickly achieved by cutting off the end of a plank of wood
with a small saw, producing a sample somewhere between the size of a “sugar
cube” and a “cigarette packet”.

Cutting a sample using a hack-saw, hand-saw or other kind of saw can be appropri-
ate when you have planks of wood or timber products that are otherwise relatively
easy to sample by cutting off a small piece somewhere between the size of a “sugar
cube” and a “cigarette packet” (see figure 2a). Before sampling begins using this
approach, it is important to check when the forensic identification method you intend
to employ requires a sample (or samples) from a particular plane (such as dendro-
chronology and radiocarbon, see table 1). In such cases, it will generally be more
appropriate to use a coring method (see below). Sawing manually also requires no
electricity, which can be an important consideration in some circumstances.

(A) (B)

Figure 2. Demonstration of basic sample cutting with a hand saw (A) and
resulting sample size (B).

Photo: Eleanor Dormontt.

Samples can also be acquired easily and quickly through use of a drill attach-
ment capable of taking cores. This method works particularly well with dry
timber, but results are more variable in wood with a higher moisture
content.
26 Best Practice Guide for Forensic Timber Identification

Samples can be obtained relatively easily through use of a hand drill and attachment
capable of taking cores. This method is more universally appropriate as it can be
used on all items that are suitable for sampling with a saw (see above) but it is also
capable of taking small samples from large logs and taking increment cores suitable
for dendrochronological and radiocarbon analyses (see table 1). Sampling in this
manner requires electricity, which can be a limiting factor in some circumstances;
however, a cordless drill can be used, which can be charged off-site. A high moisture
content in the wood (as found in many “raw” logs prior to processing) can have a
negative impact on drill performance and prevent straightforward sample collection
with this method.

When using a drill and core attachment to take samples:

• Sampling along the grain is easier and therefore generally the preferred
option.

• Sampling from the end grain is technically more problematic but may be
the preferred option when access for sampling along the grain is
difficult.

• Where possible, efforts should be made to minimize the damage caused by

sampling to the overall product, such as by sampling logs or planks near
the end or base, or by sampling finished products from an area that is out
of sight.

For taking samples along the grain, hole-saw attachments (figure 3a) and dowel-
and-plug cutters (figure 3b) both work well. For taking samples from the end grain,
a dowel-and-plug cutter is required (figure 3b). Where a sample has been cut, but
remains attached to the body of the item once the drill has been removed, a simple
tool can be hammered into the cut groove and used to lever the sample free (figure
4). For dowel-and-plug cutters no pilot drill is used, and hence, use of a plastic
guide affixed to the wood prior to sampling is recommended to make a safe start
and prevent skidding (figure 5).

Considerations for choosing an appropriate drill and bit for taking timber
samples:

• Drill bit design should allow for ease of sample separation from the drill.

• Where possible, drill bits should be suitable for keyless chuck use for ease
of use and safety.

• Where possible, the drill should be cordless for ease of use.

• The power of the drill should be at least 800 W where possible.

• The cutting surface of the drill bit should be durable.

Part I. From search decisions to forensic timber identification: Information for law enforcement 27

Figure 3. Example drill bits suitable for taking timber samples: hole saw (A);
dowel-and-plug cutter (B).

(A) (B)

Photo: Samplexx, Kingsley Barraclough.

Figure 4. Example tool suitable for levering cut sample away from body of
timber. The short, flat edge of the tool can be hammered into the
cut groove once the drill bit has been removed and then used to
lever sample away from the item.

Photo: Eleanor Dormontt.

Figure 5. Example plastic guide affixed to timber sampled with the dowel-
and-plug cutter to make a safe start and prevent skidding.

Photo: Samplexx, Stephen Kenny.

28 Best Practice Guide for Forensic Timber Identification

• For hole saws, a pilot drill is required, and 120 mm is the recommended
size.

Stem disks can be obtained using a hand saw for small diameter logs and an
electric saw can be used for larger diameter logs.

Sampling to produce a stem disk can be an option for dendrochronological and

radiocarbon analyses (see table 1). A stem disk is a cross section of a log (see
figure 6). Sampling a cross section can be relatively easily achieved for small diam-
eter logs by using a hand saw. For larger logs, larger electric saws may be required
(e.g. band saw, circular saw or chain saw). Large samples can present logistical and
financial difficulties with respect to transport. It is recommended that officers liaise
directly with their forensic identification service provider in cases where a stem disk

may be required.

Figure 6. Stem disk of Pericopsis elata from the Democratic Republic of the
Congo.

Photo: Royal Museum for Central Africa.

Sampling non-wood biological evidence

When sampling timber items in a container, any other organic material, such
as vegetation, mould, dirt/soil or insects, should also be documented, photo-
graphed (using only approved equipment, file storage and transfer methods)
and when possible, collected as evidence. If these materials trigger a phytosani-
Part I. From search decisions to forensic timber identification: Information for law enforcement 29

tary violation, follow appropriate local protocols.

Additional biological materials can assist in the taxonomic identification of timber,

as well as in determining its geographical origins. Sampled leaves and other dry
vegetative material can be stored in the same manner as wood evidence without
additional preservation. Any wet or moist vegetative materials and all dirt/soils sam-
ples must be preserved with an appropriate desiccant (e.g. silica gel) before shipment
to the forensic identification facility. Potentially invasive or pathogenic materials,
such as insects or moulds, should be preserved individually in sealed containers
with a 70 per cent ethanol solution. Collection of live insects for evidence should
not be made without checking with the appropriate authorities regarding health,
safety and invasive species issues.

In many instances, the existence of such materials in a load will trigger a phytosani-
tary violation, providing additional justification to seize a shipment regardless of
timber identification. In such cases, officers must follow appropriate local protocols
for dealing with phytosanitary violations.

Discuss any additional biological evidence with the laboratory service provider to
establish whether the material should be sent along with the wood evidence or
should instead be sent elsewhere to a separate facility with expertise in identification
of that specific evidence type.

When collecting non-timber biological evidence:

• Photograph (using only approved equipment, file storage and transfer meth-
ods) each item in its original place in load.
• Assign and record a unique item number for each item sampled.
• Place item (or subsample of item) in appropriate container with preservative
(if required) and label container with unique sample number.
• Record the details in the officer’s notebook or other recording device as
appropriate:
–– unique number of the sample taken as recorded on the sample evidence
bag
–– date, time and place (refer to load map) where the sample was
collected
–– name of the person who took the sample
–– short description of the sample, e.g. leaf material.

When describing the evidence, record only the facts, rather than opinions or hypoth-
eses. For example, the description of leaves recovered from a container of logs
should not suggest the possible species of the log. However, additional information
30 Best Practice Guide for Forensic Timber Identification

such as the route of shipping container, can be communicated to the forensic service
provider through the service request process.

Items collected in the field should be relevant to testing the investigation hypothesis.
While some hypotheses may not be formed until further laboratory and investigative
work is performed, judgement calls must still be made in the field regarding what
items are deemed evidence and worthy of collection. The scene processors must
document, including photographing (using only approved equipment, file storage
and transfer methods) any items that are not collected, and they must detail the
reasons for not collecting them. If there is any doubt about the relevance of an item,
it should be collected.

Preparing samples for transport to the laboratory

Place each sample in its own evidence container. Include a desiccant for wet/
moist samples and note details in the officer’s notebook or other recording
device as appropriate.

Each individual item of evidence must be placed in a separate forensic sampling

jar or evidence bag. If forensic bags are unavailable, small samples can be placed
in separate plastic bags or envelopes. Dry wood samples will require no preservation
for transport to the laboratory for diagnostic identification. If samples are moist in
any way, an appropriate desiccant should be added to the evidence bags, such as
silica beads, to prevent decay in transport. Once samples have been collected, they
should be handled as evidence; all samples should be accurately labelled, docu-
mented and sealed at the crime scene. Ensure all samples are labelled with a unique
sample number.

In the officer’s notebook or other suitable recording device, record the following
information about the samples taken:

• Unique number of the sample taken as recorded on the sample evidence

bag
• Date, time and place where the sample was collected
• Name of the person who took the sample
• Short description of each sample, i.e. small wood core

If the sampling is incomplete at the end of the day, plans must be made to preserve
and secure the seized load and any samples already collected. If the items in ques-
tion have been fully sampled, the load may be moved to an environment suitable
for safe keeping until decisions can be made regarding its longer term storage.
Part I. From search decisions to forensic timber identification: Information for law enforcement 31

8. Chain of custody

A chain-of-custody record must be completed for each sample.

A chain of custody is required for every sample collected. This refers to the chrono-
logical and careful documentation of evidence, clearly showing details of its collec-
tion, custody, control, transfer, analysis and disposal. The chain of custody begins
with the person who first collects the sample. Every time the sample is transferred,
the transaction should be recorded with the date, time and name (typically a signature
or initials) of the persons transferring and receiving the evidence item. A chain-of-
custody form should be used to maintain a running record of custody for every
sample collected from the scene. An example chain-of-custody form can be found
in annex 13.

During transport of samples, packages with an official seal generally do not require
signature by the carrier on the chain-of-custody record, provided that the sender and
receiver can attest to the integrity of the seal. Legislation might differ from country
to country; however, if in doubt, consultation with relevant judicial authorities is
encouraged.

9. Transport of samples to the laboratory

Care must be taken when transporting samples to ensure that all packaging
and documentation requirements are fulfilled, including permits, declarations
and chain-of-custody forms.

Prior to transportation to the laboratory, place the collected samples in a secured

location along with a copy of the chain-of-custody form. For transportation to a
local facility, samples can be delivered by hand or sent through a secure courier or
postal service. When delivering by hand, the receiving laboratory should sign the
chain-of-custody documentation (see section 8, annex 13). Copies of the documenta-
tion should be retained by the laboratory and the original kept by law enforcement
as part of their case file.

Special considerations are required when samples are transported from a country of
seizure to a different country for laboratory analysis. It is vital that the correct
procedures are followed and precautions are taken, including obtaining the correct
import and export permits, where required, and following national biosecurity
protocols.

The following measures will help ensure that valuable samples are not damaged,
delayed, lost or refused entry into the analysing country:
32 Best Practice Guide for Forensic Timber Identification

• Line each box with a plastic bag.

• Place an absorbent liner inside the bag (newspaper or other paper products
can also be used).
• Place all samples inside the bag, ensuring that all vial lids, plastic bags or
other sample containers are tightly closed.
• Place a copy of the chain-of-custody form inside the box with the
samples.
• Include an official statement explaining that the package contains wood
samples of unknown origin being sent for forensic analysis to determine
identity—this statement should circumvent the requirements of most coun-
tries that all imports be declared to species level.
• Externally reinforce the box with sturdy tape on all sides; the carrier may
request to see the contents, so only perform this step after the carrier has
agreed to accept it.
• Place the laboratory name and address on the outside of the box.
• Place all required documentation in an envelope marked “For the Attention
of Quarantine” and secure to the outside of the package using a protective
transparent sleeve, ensuring that the writing on the envelope can clearly be
seen.
• Where possible, photocopy and scan all relevant documents and send elec-
tronically to the laboratory prior to sending the physical samples.
• Inform the laboratory via e-mail or telephone of the name of the carrier
and the tracking number.

10. Communicating with the timber

identification service provider

When communicating with a potential service provider, present the specific

forensic questions and establish whether the methodology in question can pro-
vide the required identification outcome. Use the suggested questions in this
section to further establish whether the resulting evidence will be appropriate
for submission as evidence to court.

Most forensic timber identification requirements will start with an initial taxonomic
identification, which can usually be best achieved through wood anatomical identi-
fication and is most frequently accurate to the genus level. All law enforcement
organizations involved with the identification of timber should have a relationship
with a provider of wood anatomical forensic timber identification services, ideally
Part I. From search decisions to forensic timber identification: Information for law enforcement 33

these services are provided locally or nationally, but in many cases the required
expertise can only be accessed internationally. The CITES Management Authority
within each country should be able to advise on an appropriate wood anatomy
service provider, even for species that are not currently under CITES control.

When communicating with the service provider, present them with the specific foren-
sic questions that have been formulated in regard to the case (see section 6) and
ask them which question(s) they are able to answer with the methodologies they
employ. If the methodologies employed are unable to answer the specific forensic
questions formulated, seek advice on what other providers may be able to assist, or
whether particular identifications are simply not possible for the taxa involved. If
other providers have been contacted previously, be prepared to discuss the outcomes
of those interactions.

Once the scientific feasibility of addressing some or all of the forensic questions with
the laboratory service provider has been established, ensure that the following issues
are addressed before deciding to utilize their services. Note that procedural rules,
evidentiary limitations, and foundation requirements may differ in each jurisdiction.

1. Has the proposed method, as undertaken in the laboratory in question by the

analyst in question, been accepted as evidence in a court of law in the country of
seizure in support of an illegal timber trading prosecution?

• If so, there is reasonable cause to be confident in the suitability of the

analyses. Reviewing the remaining questions with the service provider is
still advised in the first instance.
• If not, the analysis may still be appropriate, but caution should be exercised
when deciding what constitutes an appropriate forensic timber identification
service. Proceed to question 2.

2. Has the basis of the method been published in the peer-reviewed scientific
literature, even if the publication was not focused on the species/genus in
question?

• If so, this fulfils one of the criteria usually used to assess the admissibility
of scientific evidence into court. Proceed to question 3.
• If not, the evidence may not be accepted in court.

3. Has the method been forensically validated?

• If so, this fulfils one of the criteria usually used to assess the admissibility
of scientific evidence into court. Proceed to question 4.
• If not, the evidence may not be accepted in court.
34 Best Practice Guide for Forensic Timber Identification

4. Is the laboratory accredited to any known national or international standards?

• If so, this will assist in proving appropriate procedures are in place in the
laboratory and that staff are appropriately competent. Reviewing the remain-
ing questions with the service provider is still advised in the first instance.
• If not, additional confirmation is required of suitability of laboratory pro-
cedures and staff competency. Proceed to question 5.

5. Are there established standard operating procedures followed in the laboratory

when undertaking the required forensic analysis?

• If so, this will help establish that the test was undertaken in accordance
with established practices. Proceed to question 6.
• If not, careful and detailed descriptions and justifications of the specific
analyses performed will be required as part of the case file. Proceed to
question 6.

6. Will the results of the analysis be presented as a forensic report suitable for
court evidence submission?

• If so, this will help ensure that results are presented in accordance with
established forensic reporting protocols. Proceed to question 7.
• If not, the forensic evidence will not be appropriate for submission as
evidence in court. If one is to pursue acquisition of this analysis, arrange-
ments must be made for appropriate reporting of results to be available.
Proceed to question 7.

7. Is the analyst prepared to testify as an expert witness should the case go to

court?

• If so, proceed to question 8.

• If not, seek an analyst who is appropriate for court appearance or consider
that the results of the test may be appropriate for investigative purposes
only and will not be suitable for evidence submission in court. Proceed to
question 9.

8. Has the analyst testified as an expert witness before?

• If so, this will help establish the analysts experience with the justice system
and the protocols in place for appearance as an expert witness. Details of
that previous experience should be discussed to satisfy any concerns. Con-
sider contacting the law enforcement and legal team involved in the previ-
ous case(s) to obtain an independent critique of the analyst’s previous court
appearance. Proceed to question 9.
Part I. From search decisions to forensic timber identification: Information for law enforcement 35

• If not, the analyst’s court performance skills are untested and consideration
should be given to whether their background presents any credibility risks
(e.g. previous criminal convictions) or what training they may require to
ready them for a successful court appearance in the case. Proceed to ques-
tion 9.

9. Is the analyst certified by any recognized forensic body or do they participate in

any proficiency testing schemes for the forensic identification method in question?

• If so, this helps provide confidence that the analyst has been independently
shown to be competent when applying the analyses in question, proceed
to question 10.
• If not, the analyst’s competence may be called in to question and other
evidence to support their claim of competency may be required. Proceed
to question 10.

10. Is the analyst a member of a recognized forensic science society?

• If so, this helps to provide confidence in the analyst’s professional and

ethical integrity, proceed to question 11.
• If not, the analyst’s professional and ethical integrity may be called in to
question and other evidence to support their claim of competency may be
required. Proceed to question 11.

11. Will all appropriate chain-of-custody requirements be fulfilled within the

laboratory?

• If so, this will help to ensure that the results of the analyses are not chal-
lenged on the basis of potential sample mix-up or tampering.
• If not, the evidence may be challenged and the defence may claim that
there is reasonable doubt that the results obtained are actually from the
sampled evidence. If one is to pursue acquisition of this analysis, arrange-
ments must be made for appropriate chain-of-custody documentation and
procedures to be in place at the laboratory.
Part II. Undertaking forensic timber
identification: Information for
scientists

Part II of the Guide is aimed at scientists undertaking forensic identification tests,

or those who seek to do so in the future and wish to be well prepared. Some infor-
mation in this part is also relevant to research scientists involved in the development
of identification methodologies but who may not necessarily undertake forensic case
work. The information may also be of interest to front-line officers, prosecutors and
members of the judiciary, to provide insight and advance understanding of the chal-
lenges faced by scientists in the forensic identification of timber. The information
presented here is not intended to replace any formal scientific or forensic training
and scientists are encouraged to seek expert advice on specific legal issues pertinent
to relevant jurisdictions. Additionally, scientists should consult the body of peer-
reviewed scientific literature for the latest advances in particular scientific fields.

11. Available methods for forensic timber

identification
Methods of forensic timber identification include a range of visual, chemical and
genetic approaches to determine the taxonomic, geographic and individual sources
of timber material as well as its age (see annex 8 for details of which forensic
identification methods may be able to answer specific identification questions). In
this section the various approaches are summarized as an introduction to the associ-
ated disciplines, see [4] for a published review of forensic timber identification and
[5] for a published review on timber tracking technologies. It is not anticipated, nor
recommended, that a scientist seek to undertake an analysis that is not in line with
their current expertise. As such, these descriptions are given as context, and to
facilitate understanding of the other available methodologies, such that it may be
useful to recommend exploring their utility to a particular case if your own methods
are unable to reach the required identification outcome. All methods rely on exten-
sive reference databases containing data derived from reference material. With the
exception of wood anatomy, radiocarbon and genetics, most disciplines have so far
developed very limited databases, which in turn limit the scope of the application
of the associated identification methods.

37
38 Best Practice Guide for Forensic Timber Identification

Wood anatomy

Wood anatomy involves the study of the structure of timber at the micro- and mac-
roscopic levels. Determinations are based on a large set of wood anatomical char-
acters. Each anatomical character has a relative degree of environmental and genetic
influence, and as such, specific combinations of characters can serve as diagnostic
identifiers of certain taxonomic groups. Wood anatomy primarily focuses on exami-
nation of the shape, size, arrangement and contents of the various cell and tissue
types found in wood. For more information on the history of wood anatomy as a
discipline, see Carlquist [6] and references therein.

Wood anatomical characters can be examined at both the macroscopic and micro-
scopic levels. Macroscopic examination can be undertaken with the naked eye, or
with the aid of a small magnifying hand lens. More specific information on CITES-
listed timbers and a range of lookalike species, which can be distinguished using
macroscopic wood anatomy, can be found in annex 10. Information about the 100
most important timbers in trade, which can be distinguished using macroscopic wood
anatomy, can be found in annex 11.

Microscopic identification requires sectioning a sample, the staining of those sections

where required and observation under a light microscope. In order to achieve a
definitive identification, usually to the genus level, microscopic examination is pre-
ferred over macroscopic observation in most instances.

Wood anatomical characters are described according to the standard terminology of

the International Association of Wood Anatomists (IAWA) [7-9] and identification
to the appropriate taxonomic level can be aided by comparison of unknown samples
to extensive reference materials collections and descriptions. These comparisons are
facilitated by access to samples and pre-prepared microscope slide collections, as
well as various published papers, timber atlases and on- or offline computerized
databases (see annexes 9 and 15).

Wood identification through automated “machine vision” technology is a relatively

new area of wood anatomical research that is showing much promise. The basic
principles underlying the approach are reviewed in Hermanson and Wiedenhoeft
[10], but in summary, the system captures images of the wood under conditions of
strict light control, and uses signal processing approaches to extract information
from the image. The resulting data are used to establish a classification scheme.
The system relies on the input of high quality reference images of the taxa to be
classified and is then able to assign unknown images to these reference groups.
Because the machine-vision system has the ability to “see” and quantify variations
humans cannot perceive, it is plausible that future research will demonstrate resolu-
tion (e.g. species identification, provenance) greater than is available in traditional
wood anatomical identification, at least in some cases.

Examination of wood anatomy generally facilitates identification to genus level [11],

as wood characters tend to be highly conserved within genera—this in turn generally
Part II. Undertaking forensic timber identification: Information for scientists 39

prohibits definitive identification to the species level [12]. Wood anatomy typically
cannot identify the provenance of timber, unless the potential range of the identified
taxon is so restricted that provenance is obvious.

Dendrochronology

Dendrochronology is the study of tree growth increments. The science of dendro-

chronology is based on analysis of the periodic, often annual growth increments
(tree rings) formed in most temperate and some tropical tree species. The charac-
teristics of individual tree rings can provide information on the growing conditions
at the time and the sequence (or “chronology”) of these rings can provide a rich
record of information on the tree and its environment. Although generally applied
to the study of past climates and other environmental events, dendrochronology also
has the potential to give specific information on tree age and provenance [13].

By comparing the tree-ring series of a sample to reference chronologies from specific

regions, it is sometimes possible to determine whether the pattern is consistent with
a particular area, although this is typically only done for old timbers of archaeologi-
cal importance and in temperate regions with clear tree rings [14]. It is also possible
to determine the minimum age of a tree by counting its growth rings and if the
bark and outermost ring are present, it may be possible to determine when it was
felled [15, 16], although caution is required regarding the error margins in such
calculations [17]. Comparisons of tree ring patterns between different wood surfaces
can sometimes be used to identify individuals, i.e. the pattern on a log where it was
cut from a tree, and that on its associated stump could be positively matched. Tra-
ditional dendrochronological methods can only be applied to trees that form periodic
growth rings. The majority of tropical timbers (which are generally those most at
threat from illegal logging) do not produce growth rings. Chemical dendrochrono-
logical methods can also be applied but are more useful if dated tree rings are
already available. See subsections on stable isotopes and radiocarbon below.

Mass spectrometry

This method of timber identification uses mass spectrometry to characterize phyto-

chemicals present in the heartwood, often termed extractives and exudates, or meta­
bolites. These extractives are laid down during heartwood formation and are largely
responsible for its durability. Extractives can be measured through mass spectrometry
to generate a chemical profile or fingerprint. Statistical analyses of these profiles
can be optimized to cluster together taxonomically related individuals. Mass spec-
trometry ionizes chemical compounds to generate charged molecules and measures
the mass-to-charge ratios. Traditionally, mass spectrometry required extensive sample
preparation steps due to the requirement for ionization in a vacuum [18]. However,
more recently ambient atmospheric ionization techniques have been developed that
minimize sample preparation steps and provide very fast results; specifically the
40 Best Practice Guide for Forensic Timber Identification

Direct Analysis in Real Time, Time of Flight Mass Spectrometer (DART TOFMS)
[19, 20] has shown great promise when used for timber identification [21].

Optimized clustering of the chemical fingerprints can be used to assign unknown

samples to reference groups. Depending on the natural variation in extractives pre-
sent in the timber samples, various different levels of taxonomic identification may
be possible, and these have been demonstrated in a number of key publications, e.g.
genera [22, 23], species [18, 24-27], and even wild vs. cultivated [28]. However, it
is important to note that classification models are only valid for taxa included in
the reference dataset.

Near infrared spectroscopy

Near infrared spectroscopy (NIRS) measures the absorption spectra of materials

when exposed to near infrared electromagnetic energy. NIRS can be applied to solid
timber, as well as particles such as pulp, and when used on solid timber it returns
information derived from both the chemical and physical structure of the wood.
NIRS has been used extensively in the wood sciences to estimate its properties, but
less routinely for taxon identification [29, 30]. The raw spectroscopic outputs are
rarely directly informative and must be used in conjunction with appropriate multi­
variate analyses to in order to obtain meaningful results [31]. Data are analysed to
determine the likely taxon when compared with reference datasets.

This technology has the potential to return accurate results with minimal sample
processing and specialized skills required of the operator. However, the use of the
technology for timber identification is only at the prototype stage at present. The
results obtained in field trials so far have shown that accurate timber identification
to the family and species levels are possible. NIRS has been demonstrated to dis-
tinguish between individuals of different genera [31-33], different species within the
same genus [34], and between the same species in different regions [35].

Stable isotopes

Chemical compounds synthesized by trees obtain their raw constituent elements

from the surrounding environment. Elements can have multiple isotopes, meaning
they have the same number of protons and electrons, but a different number of
neutrons, and thus a different atomic mass. The ratios of the various stable isotopes
fluctuate in nature and are often correlated with various climatological, biological
and geological variables. For example, in precipitation, the stable isotope ratios of
hydrogen and oxygen are predominantly dependent on temperature [36], but also
altitude, latitude and continental effects [37]. The oxygen isotope ratio of plant tis-
sues reflect the isotopic composition of the plant’s source water as well as the effect
of transpiration, which is influenced by climate [38]. The ratios of the various carbon
stable isotopes are primarily determined by the photosynthetic pathways employed
Part II. Undertaking forensic timber identification: Information for scientists 41

by the plant [39], but are impacted to a lesser degree by climatological factors,
which effect stomatal conductance such as humidity [40].

By looking at these ratios in a given area, an isotopic “fingerprint” for that location
can be determined. By combining multiple stable isotope analyses, including ele-
ments such as sulphur [41] and strontium [42-44], the spatial granularity of the
isotope signature can be improved. On this basis, it is possible to use stable isotopes
to identify or rule out particular regions of timber provenance. Stable isotopes can
also be analysed separately from different annual growth rings [45], a form of
chemical dendrochronology (see subsection on dendrochronology above). Stable
isotopes are suited to addressing questions of geographic provenance at the broad
regional level [45-48] where appropriate reference databases exist. Stable isotopes
have no ability to determine genus, species or individuals.

The use of stable isotope analyses can potentially be augmented by including analy-
ses of trace elements to improve granularity, e.g. [49-51]. Trace elements and stable
isotopes together can be considered “Geochemistry”. Although it has not been tested,
it is likely that trace element analyses could also augment other methodologies that
seek to determine timber provenance, such as DNA analyses (see subsection on
population genetics and phylogeography below).

Radiocarbon

Along with stable isotopes (see subsection on stable isotopes above), the element carbon
also occurs naturally in the environment as the radioactive isotope 14C, termed “radio-
carbon”. 14C has a half-life of 5730 ± 40 years [52] and naturally decays to 14N, a stable
isotope of the element nitrogen. 14C is constantly being produced in (predominantly) the
upper atmosphere via natural nuclear interactions and, after oxidization to CO2, is mixed
throughout the atmosphere and hence throughout the biosphere including the oceans and
terrestrial soils. Once produced, 14C decays following its half-life and the balance
between production, mixing and decay results in quasi-constant 14C concentrations in
various carbon pools of the Earth’s system. All organisms incorporate carbon into their
bodies throughout their lifetimes, and in the case of plants, this is fixed from CO2 in
the atmosphere via photosynthesis. Once carbon has been sequestered and is no longer
exchanged with the environment via processes such as respiration, it remains in situ in
the body of the organism (e.g. tree trunk). Levels of 14C in the tissue begin at some
relative proportion of the natural atmospheric abundance in accord with various frac-
tionation levels, depending on trophic level, and decay predictably to 14N in accordance
with the half-life of 14C. By measuring the ratio of the number of 14C and 12C atoms
(and separately the ratio of 13C and 12C atoms, to enable correction for any mass-
dependent fractionation) and comparing this to known standards, it is possible to calcu-
late a “radiocarbon age” of organic material [53]. IntCal04 (northern hemisphere) and
SHCal04 (southern hemisphere) are two internationally agreed calibration curves (data
sets) which can be used to convert radiocarbon ages into calendar ages, based on inde-
pendently dated tree-ring and marine samples [54, 55].
42 Best Practice Guide for Forensic Timber Identification

The natural formation of 14C in the upper atmosphere was substantially augmented
in the late 1950s and early 1960s (predominantly the latter) by 14C generated by
nuclear bomb testing [56], creating what is now referred to as the “bomb peak” in
14
C calibrations [57, 58]. This spike in 14C and its subsequent reduction, provide
unique opportunities to accurately date modern materials to within a few years [59],
and have gained attention in forensic applications [60-62]. The steady decrease in
14
C concentration in the atmosphere since this peak is due to the uptake of atmos-
pheric CO2 with elevated 14C levels into the other reservoirs of the earth’s carbon
system (e.g. oceans, soils) and the compensatory transfer of non-14C-elevated carbon
from those carbon pools back into the atmosphere.

Radiocarbon dating has the potential to determine the time before present (when
calibrated) that a given portion of the tree was formed [61, 63, 64]. This ability can
be particularly important in determining whether laws apply to specific pieces of
timber; timber harvested before the implementation of legislation is often exempt.

DNA barcoding
DNA barcoding is built on the premise that particular gene regions show sufficient
genetic variation to enable members of one species to be reliably distinguished from
members of another species [65]. DNA barcoding is now a global initiative with
the mitochondrial cytochrome oxidase (CO1) gene region chosen as the standard for
animals. Two chloroplast gene regions maturase K (matK) and ribulose-bisphosphate
carboxylase (rbcL) are currently the standard markers for plants, however they are
only able to distinguish approximately 70 per cent of plants and often require local
barcodes (additional gene regions) to facilitate determination to species level [66].
DNA barcoding can be used as part of a species discovery process or for specimen
identification [67]. For the purposes of forensic timber identification, it is the latter
application that applies, although species discovery utilizing DNA barcoding will
likely constitute a proportion of the background taxonomic research required to
underpin robust species identification.

DNA barcoding is most appropriate for identifying to the species level or higher, although
it can be informative at the phylogeographic (regional) level within species. In timber,
DNA barcoding has been trialled in the mahogany family using the gene region ITS
with promising results [68] and more recently Aquilaria spp. (CITES-listed) have been
distinguished from other closely related species using trnL-trnF and ITS1 regions using
DNA extracted from xylarium specimens [69]. Most recently, the standard matK and
rbcL regions were used to develop a reference library of the trees of the tropical ever-
green forest of India, to which sapwood samples were correctly assigned [70].

Population genetics and phylogeography

Tree species in natural forests usually exhibit spatial genetic structure to a greater
or lesser extent and these patterns can be observed at both local and regional scales
Part II. Undertaking forensic timber identification: Information for scientists 43

[71, 72]. The term spatial genetic structure describes the tendency for individuals
of the same species to be more genetically similar, the closer they are geographi-
cally. The overall genetic composition of natural populations is influenced by a range
of factors, predominantly migration and extinction history [73, 74], as well as gene
flow via pollen and seed dispersal [75]. By using molecular markers, ideally from
neutral regions across the genome (i.e. not under natural selection), and screening
a large number of individuals from different areas across the range of a species, it
is possible to create a genographic map of that species [76, 77]. These maps have
traditionally been used to elucidate the history of these species, but their utility for
verifying the origins of timber have been realized more recently, starting with Oak
[78, 79]. Depending on the spatial resolution afforded by the reference database
(which will depend on both the underlying genetic structure and the number of
populations used to construct it, [80]), unknown individuals genotyped with the same
genetic markers can be assigned back to their population of origin with a high
degree of statistical confidence. This same principle can be applied to assign indi-
viduals to their species of origin, or even hybrid status, based on their membership
of one or more independent genetic clusters [81].

Population genetics and phylogeography are able to answer questions around the
provenance of timber. Depending on the scale of the question, and the granularity
inherent in the reference database, these techniques can be used to determine country
of origin [82], within country region [83, 84], and even down to the forest conces-
sion level [85]. Population genetics is also a very powerful tool for determining
what constitutes independent gene pools and can be used to assign individuals to
their appropriate species pools or hybrid classes [81, 86, 87]. This application can
be particularly important for establishing hybrid status in law, as hybrid individuals
are usually exempt from species-specific trade laws.

DNA profiling for individualization

DNA profiling is the method by which an organism is genotyped across a range of

genetic loci (markers) to develop their individual genetic “fingerprint”. Originally
developed in the 1980s [88, 89], DNA profiling is now the mainstay of human
forensic science [90]. DNA profiling for forensic purposes aims to enable the iden-
tification or exclusion of an individual from an investigation based on a comparison
of their DNA with that found at the crime scene [91]. The loci examined in DNA
profiling are ideally chosen for their high variability between individuals, and their
low differentiation between populations; the ideal marker is hypervariable but this
variation is not noticeably geographically structured [92]. However in practice, many
genetic marker sets are successfully used for both DNA profiling and population
genetic purposes. By genotyping a broad enough set of representative reference
samples, it is possible to calculate the theoretical probability of a different unrelated
individual providing a DNA profile that is identical to the one in question. This
probability is usually vanishingly small, leading to the general acceptance of DNA
profiling as a robust form of evidence.
44 Best Practice Guide for Forensic Timber Identification

Microsatellite loci are used most frequently in DNA profiling, however single
nucleo­tide polymorphisms (SNPs) are becoming more frequently used in humans
[93, 94]. Although each SNP locus provides less information than a single micro­
satellite locus, comparable power can be obtained by including more loci [95]. SNPs
also require shorter fragments of template DNA to successfully amplify, making
them more suitable for work on degraded samples [96].

In principle, DNA profiling for timber identification should work in the same way
as for human identification. In practice, there are two issues that make it more
complex. Firstly, humans are a diploid species, meaning they have two sets of
chromosomes, one from each parent. At a single locus therefore, a human can only
expect to produce a maximum of two different alleles. In plants, polyploidy is much
more frequent [97], meaning that many more than two alleles could potentially be
found at any one locus in an individual, and in many cases, the ploidy level is
simply not yet known. Secondly, DNA profiling in humans is built almost exclusively
on microsatellite genotyping, but the poor quality DNA that can be extracted from
timber is generally not ideal for this purpose so SNP markers are preferred.

DNA profiling can be used in forensic timber identification to establish whether or

not the DNA in a particular piece of timber or timber product matches the DNA in
another. This capability may be important for linking material seized from suspects
with the stumps of illegally felled trees. This technology also presents opportunities
for independent chain-of-custody verification along supply chains, where DNA pro-
filing can be used to confirm that legal shipments remain intact and are not aug-
mented with additional illegal material as they pass through the supply chain [98].

12. Resources for acquiring reference material

The development and application of forensic timber identification methodologies
generally requires access to high quality reference material. For most disciplines,
this is required in the form of timber, similar in character to those materials expected
to be received for casework, e.g. if heartwood is likely to be encountered in trade,
scientists will usually require heartwood reference samples to develop forensic
­identification tests. Genetic methods can use other plant tissue to extract reference
DNA (such as leaves, or cambium) but still require validation of timber material to
prove their effectiveness for forensic purposes. Isotopic analyses (stable isotopes
and radiocarbon) require calibration standards for analyses. Reference material can
either be obtained from an existing collection, or sourced as part of the research.

Existing collections

Timber

Scientific collections of timber are housed and curated by xylaria. A list of xylaria
worldwide can be found online [99] and a link is provided in annexes 9 and 15).
Part II. Undertaking forensic timber identification: Information for scientists 45

Individual xylaria should be contacted for information regarding their specimen

availability, loans policies and procedures. For dendrochronological samples, larger
intact cross-sections of timber are required (also known as stem disks), which are
less commonly collected and curated. Links to institutions involved in the study of
dendrochronology can be found online [100] and individual institutions should be
contacted for information regarding their specimen availability, loans policies and
procedures. Out of date scientific names can be considered synonyms and in many
cases can still accompany original xylarium specimens. A database of the names
and associated basic bibliographical details of plants can be found online [101]. As
correct identification to the species level is not usually possible from visual exami-
nation of the timber alone (diagnostic features such as leaves, fruits and flowers are
generally required) it is very important to consider the validity of the species deter-
mination provided with any wood sample. The most robust identifications are facili-
tated when a timber sample is accompanied by a voucher specimen from the same
tree which exhibits diagnostic characters such as leaves, fruits and flowers, housed
and curated in a herbarium (see following subsection on plant material).

Plant material

Scientific collections of plants, including trees, are housed and curated by herbaria.
These differ from xylaria in that they rarely house timber; instead, for trees they
collect small examples of branches and leaves, ideally along with fruits, flowers,
bark and other diagnostic features that facilitate identification. A list of current
herbaria worldwide can be found online [102]. Individual herbaria should be con-
tacted for information regarding their specimen availability, loans policies and pro-
cedures. Plant taxonomy is a dynamic field and the agreed scientific names of
particular species can change as new information is discovered. Out of date scientific
names can be considered synonyms and in many cases can still accompany original
herbarium specimens. A database of the names and associated basic bibliographical
details of plants can be found online [101].

Isotopic materials

For the application of stable isotope and radiocarbon analyses, reference standards
are required for calibration which can be provided by various agencies [103].

New collections

Field

Most existing collections do not contain sufficiently large quantities of reference

material to facilitate robust or timely development of new forensic timber
46 Best Practice Guide for Forensic Timber Identification

identification methods, and so researchers frequently must source additional material

independently. Where this is required, accurate taxonomy is critical. Reference mate-
rial should be collected by (or in collaboration with) experts on field identification
of the taxa in question. Where possible, trees already taxonomically verified can be
utilized, such as those that are part of permanent study plots or botanic gardens
(although use of botanical garden specimens should be considered carefully as mis­
identifications can occur, and should be avoided altogether for anatomical or prov-
enance research where the garden is outside of the taxon’s natural range). When
collecting from standing trees that have not yet been taxonomically identified, herb­
arium voucher specimens should be collected to allow post-hoc confirmation of
identity by herbarium taxonomists. Where it is impractical to collect vouchers for
all specimens (e.g. where foliage is high in a dense canopy), identification should
be confirmed through other means by checking that samples cluster with taxonomi-
cally verified individuals, such as through various genetic or chemical profiling
approaches.

Trade

Where reference material is scarce for particular taxa, researchers may find that
examples are available through commercial timber suppliers. Extreme caution must
be exercised when utilizing this material, as there is no robust chain of custody
associated with the sample. There is a high risk that timber other than that which
was requested may be provided. This risk is significant regardless of how honest
the trader may be; most illegal logging and supply chain augmentation occurs with-
out the explicit knowledge of retailers. Researchers should consider that through a
purchase, particularly of very high value and/or rare timbers, they may be inadvert-
ently funding illegal logging activities.

The use of reference material that cannot be traced back to its point of origin also
presents a potential legal challenge to the use of any derived forensic tests reliant
on data from that material. The inadvertent inclusion of data from reference material
that does not come from its supposed point of origin can invalidate, or at least
negatively impact the power and reliability of derived forensic timber identification
methodologies.

If there is no alternative to a commercial supply of reference material, several veri-

fication steps should be employed to mitigate some of the associated risk. It should
be noted that the risk of purchasing the correct species of wood, but from a geo-
graphic origin different from that advertised is particularly of concern for the acqui-
sition of reference material. Utilization of such material in the development of tests
designed to identify geographic origin should be avoided, unless other validated
methods already exist to verify its origins (such as stable isotope or population
genetic analysis).
Part II. Undertaking forensic timber identification: Information for scientists 47

In general, the following steps should be followed:

• Obtain examination by an expert wood anatomist to confirm the genus (and

any further taxonomic information they can provide, such as species in
some cases).
• If sequence data is available, check the species identity of the wood using
DNA barcoding.
• Obtain examination by a dendrochronologist to confirm that each piece is
not obviously from the same tree (this will usually only be detectable where
pieces were adjacent to one another in the original tree, and even then, the
trajectory of sampling can have a significant influence). Inclusion of mul-
tiple samples from the same tree in the development of a forensic test
constitutes pseudo-replication.
• If used as part of population level characterization studies, check that the
samples cluster as expected with other, taxonomically verified, members of
the same taxa.
• If geographic provenance methodologies are available for the taxa, utilize
them to confirm the geographic source of the material. If they are not, avoid
using results from this sample when drawing inferences or conclusions
regarding geographic provenance.
• Adjust the weight of importance placed on the results derived from com-
mercially sourced timber as compared to taxonomically verified samples
when conducting your research.
• Ensure that your results and subsequent publications (including submissions
to reference databases) clearly state the origins and subsequent verifications
employed in the acquisition of your reference samples.

13. Resources for acquiring reference data

Reference data, as opposed to reference material, refers to the results of previously
analysed reference material, such as macro- and microscopically photographed tim-
bers, DNA sequences, chemical/spectral profiles and isotopic compositions. When
utilizing externally generated and analysed reference data, it is important to consider
carefully the source and reliability of the data. Can the results be traced back to
taxonomically validated reference material? Have the methods used been peer-
reviewed and published? Have the performed analyses been thoroughly explained
and justified? Use of external reference data should follow an internal validation
study in order to determine that the results obtained in the analyses are comparable
to the reference data being used. More details on validation studies are provided in
section 14. A list of online resources for the acquisition of reference data can be
found in annex 16.
48 Best Practice Guide for Forensic Timber Identification

14. Laboratory procedural requirements for

undertaking forensic work
This section details the main requirements for scientists undertaking forensic case
work. Readers are encouraged to also consult part III, section 20 for details on the
legal perspective of many of these issues.

Unique challenges to forensic casework

Undertaking forensic casework is qualitatively different from undertaking scientific

research. The scrutiny to which the results may be subjected is significant; every
aspect of the work undertaken may be the subject of criticism and legal challenge,
including the personal lives of any and all people who came into contact with the
evidence, or analysed data in any way. The criticism is usually focused upon four
general areas:

• The chain of custody was not intact for the evidence items.
• The science utilized for the analysis is unreliable.
• The science utilized is reliable, but the required procedures for sampling,
preparation or analysis were not followed; hence, the results are not an
accurate representation of what was sampled.
• The laboratory did not employ sufficient safeguards to prevent cross-­
contamination, accountability or intentional misconduct; hence, the results
are not an accurate representation of what was sampled.

Most laboratories undertaking research into identification methods for timber are
not forensic laboratories set up to undertake casework. As forensic timber identifica-
tion methodologies are not yet routine, there is little short-term prospect that they
will be broadly incorporated into the suite of tests undertaken by dedicated forensic
facilities. It is therefore necessary that the laboratories which currently have the
scientific capacity to address timber identification requirements put in place the
required forensic work flows to meet legal requirements. The remainder of section 14
describes some of the fundamental requirements and recommendations for working
in forensic science.

Secure chain of custody

Chain of custody is a critical concept in law, and refers to the intact record of the loca-
tion and custodian of any evidential material at all times. The requirement for this is
obvious; there must be no opportunity for samples or information to be lost or tampered
with in any way. For forensic purposes the chain-of-custody trail does not end when
the samples are received by the laboratory; tracking of samples throughout all analyses
Part II. Undertaking forensic timber identification: Information for scientists 49

is necessary. When the laboratory fails to follow these procedures, questions are raised
regarding cross-contamination by other samples, or it is suggested that the analysis
results may not be for the samples in question, or that the samples have been switched.

Laboratory personnel who initially receive samples should record (usually in a labora-
tory notebook or form specifically designated for samples received) the condition of
the samples and the transportation container. For example, whether a sample container
seal was intact or broken. Laboratory numbers should be assigned to each sample,
which could be the same number assigned by the samplers or a laboratory unique
number. When a different laboratory number is assigned to a sample, there should be
notation of the original sample number and the new laboratory number on the same
document to avoid confusion as to where this sample was taken after the analysis.

Samples should be kept in a manner that limits access, for example in a secure
room, sealed container or locked refrigerator as necessary. Whenever a sample or a
portion of the sample is taken for analysis, a laboratory chain-of-custody form should
be completed stating that fact. If only a portion of the sample is taken, a sub-number
or letter should be added to the laboratory number for the partial sample and
recorded on the laboratory chain-of-custody form. Analytical results should be iden-
tified by the laboratory number and sub-number or letter. The purpose of this pro-
cedure is to ensure that the analytical results can be documented back to the original
sample received by the laboratory.

Method validation and verification

Before a forensic identification test can be undertaken for the production of evidence
intended for court, the test first must undergo validation and generally prove accept-
ance by the scientific community, usually by peer-reviewed publication of the
method. Validation can be summarized as assessing the ability of a test to achieve
reliable results, determining the conditions under which the test can be performed,
and defining the limitations of the test. Validation typically involves assessing the
rates of false positives and false negatives, and demonstrating the reproducibility,
robustness and reliability via studies of the sensitivity, stability and specificity of
the test in question. Tests that are derived directly from published academic (non-
forensic) literature are usually insufficient and so additional validation studies are
required before legally compliant evidence can be derived. Once a test has been
initially validated, it must then be verified by each new institution seeking to utilize
it, or each time significant changes to the procedure or equipment are made. This
verification procedure is also often referred to as “internal validation”.

Standard operating procedures

Laboratories require written standard operating procedures (SOPs) for each analyti-
cal method they employ that precisely define how a test should be performed and
50 Best Practice Guide for Forensic Timber Identification

how the results should be analysed and interpreted, including considerations of

possible sources of error and conditions that may affect the accuracy of the results.
Once established, SOPs become the standards to which the application of all tests
must adhere. SOPs can be modified and improved over time but these changes must
be carefully documented and it must be clear at all times exactly which SOP (includ-
ing the specific version) was followed in each case.

Legal challenges to scientific evidence very often focus on how closely a laboratory
adhered to its own SOPs. For example, depending upon the analytical procedure
being employed, there may be certain sample preparatory treatments that must be
conducted in a particular chronological order before a sample is subjected to analy-
sis. A timber sample may need to be cut into smaller pieces, ground into a powder,
or mixed with a solution before analysis. Case notes must contain sufficient evidence
that these steps were employed. Similarly, the calibration of analytical equipment
can be another area of scrutiny. If an SOP requires that the equipment is cleaned
and/or calibrated before use, this must be documented.

Casework documentation

All forensic casework must be documented and authenticated throughout the analyti-
cal process. This documentation forms the basis of forensic reports and should be
available to investigators, prosecutors and the court, and include details of:

• Investigative request(s)
• The chain of custody (evidence receipt and control within the laboratory)
• Analytical methods employed
• Analytical results obtained
• The interpretation of the obtained results
• Specific protocols employed
• Specific persons involved in any and all aspects of the case within the
laboratory
• All communication regarding the case including e-mails and a log of all
calls

Proficiency testing

Through regular proficiency testing, laboratories and their staff demonstrate their
proficiency in undertaking particular forensic tests. Participants are asked to perform
tests on materials known to the testing administrator and present their findings as
they would in any normal test on an unknown sample. Where the correct answer is
Part II. Undertaking forensic timber identification: Information for scientists 51

returned, the participant is considered proficient. Where an incorrect answer is

returned, remedial action can be taken and appropriate education programmes
instated to ensure proficiency is obtained and maintained. The most reliable profi-
ciency testing schemes are administered externally to the organizations undertaking
the tests. Proficiency testing is a requirement for certification (see subsection below
on certification) and for ISO/IEC 17025 accreditation (see subsection below on
quality assurance and accreditation).

Certification

Certification of forensic analysts is common in human forensics and increasing

within the wildlife forensic sciences community. Certification is the means by which
individual analysts, independently of their organization, can be recognized as fit to
undertake forensic case work. Certification is administered by a recognized external
body [104]. The decision to award certification status is based on assessment of the
applicant’s education, proficiency, experience, performance, ethical integrity and
standing within the forensic science community.

Quality assurance and accreditation

Quality assurance (QA) is the concept of using systems and procedures to control
quality and maintain continuous improvement of a product or service. QA is nor-
mally ensured in a laboratory testing environment through the design and imple-
mentation of a quality management system (QMS). The QMS includes all of the
protocols, standard operating procedures, method validation documents and reporting
criteria that are operated by a laboratory. For performing forensic casework analysis,
it is essential that the laboratory operates the key features of a QMS. To demonstrate
that a laboratory has established and follows a QMS, the laboratory may seek
accreditation by an external assessment body under one of a number of international
standards. ISO/IEC 17025 is the standard that describes the requirements for the
competence of testing and calibration laboratories and the main international stand-
ard to which laboratories undertaking forensic science testing services become
accredited. Laboratories with this accreditation are able to demonstrate strict chain
of custody, fundamental validation of all results, and have an effective quality man-
agement system in place. Gaining accreditation is not a legal prerequisite for provid-
ing forensic evidence, but by doing so laboratories remove (or at least substantially
reduce) the likelihood of their evidence being challenged in court on the grounds
of bad laboratory practice. However, accreditation (e.g. under ISO/IEC 17025) is
time consuming, expensive and requires dedicated internal resources that many small
wildlife forensic laboratories may not be able to commit.

An alternative to formal accreditation has been developed by the Society for Wildlife
Forensic Science in the form of standards and guidelines for forensic analysts per-
forming botany identifications using morphology, anatomy, DNA or chemistry. The
52 Best Practice Guide for Forensic Timber Identification

Standards and Guidelines encompass the essential aspects of the broader ISO17025
standard that are relevant to performing forensic casework, and they are provided
as a method to achieve the minimum level of quality assurance considered necessary
for different wildlife forensic science disciplines. These Standards and Guidelines
cover laboratory practices, evidence handling, and training, which are central to all
forensic laboratories. They also include critical considerations of p­ hylogeny, tax-
onomy and reference collections that are specific to botanical forensic science. The
Standards and Guidelines are available from www.wildlifeforensicscience.org/swg-
wild/swgwild-work-products.

15. Guidance on communicating with law

enforcement
Communication with law enforcement will usually begin with an approach from an
investigator enquiring about the availability of forensic timber identification services.
The law enforcement officer will provide some context of the case and a forensic
question (or set of forensic questions) for which they are seeking an answer (see
part I, section 6 on formation of the forensic question). What motivates law enforce-
ment investigators is often different to that which motivates scientists, and an appre-
ciation of these differences is important to a successful and rewarding working
relationship.

Law enforcement motivators

With respect to forensic timber identification, law enforcement officers are primarily
interested in ascertaining whether a crime has been committed, and if so, acquiring
forensic evidence to support prosecution. The nuance of the science that may be
able to assist in acquiring such evidence is generally out of the scope of interest
and expertise of law enforcement personnel. Similarly, scientific results that are not
fit for submission as legal evidence in a court of law are of little (if any) value to
law enforcement in most instances. An officer will generally be required to produce
an official report at the start of an investigation to explain their rationale. Similarly,
they will be required to explain any evidence pertinent to a case and how it was
obtained, including the results of scientific analyses. As such, it is imperative that
the investigator understands the content of forensic reports.

Communicating the science

The law enforcement officer who initially contacts a forensic service provider may
have very little prior knowledge about the methodology employed and may have
only a very rudimentary basic science education. It is important to remember the
audience when discussing specific areas of expertise with law enforcement. In
Part II. Undertaking forensic timber identification: Information for scientists 53

general, explanations aimed at intelligent lay-people are appropriate. Scientists

should adjust their communication styles accordingly. Technical jargon, acronyms
and other field-specific terms that the officer will be unlikely to have encountered
before should be avoided. Any new terms should be explained carefully. If providing
routine forensic services to law enforcement, organizations should consider produc-
ing explanatory material that can be made available to law enforcement agencies so
that officers can become familiar with the important concepts where necessary.

Confirming the forensic questions

All forensic timber identification requirements can be broken down into the need
for information in one or more of the following areas:

• Genus (or higher level taxonomic identification) of the evidence

• Species of the evidence
• Geographic provenance of the evidence
• Age of the evidence
• Individual from which the evidence originates

Further, forensic questions can be considered to be either questions of full-­

identification, where information on the exact nature of the evidence is required or
questions of verification, where information is required on whether evidence matches
a specific claim or query. This is a very subtle but important distinction, which can
affect the time and resources required to arrive at the desired answer. Most forensic
questions will initially be focused on verification, with the requirements for further
full-identification at the discretion of the investigator.

For example, if customs stop a shipment containing timber claimed to be Dalbergia

latifolia but believe it may be CITES-listed Dalbergia nigra, their immediate ques-
tion is one of species verification. The verification could be phrased in two ways:

1. Is the evidence Dalbergia nigra? If it is, a CITES infringement has occurred.

2. Is the evidence Dalbergia latifolia? If it is, the shipment is in order.

In each case, if the evidence is not verified as the queried species, the investigator
may choose to have the evidence further verified (e.g. is the evidence one of the
other CITES-listed Dalbergia species?) or fully identified (what species is the evi-
dence?), or they may choose to close the case without obtaining further information
if they deem it unnecessary.

In every case, an initial genus (or higher taxonomic level) determination, usually
through wood anatomical analyses, will be the first requirement, as this information
is required input for the application of most other methods.
54 Best Practice Guide for Forensic Timber Identification

When communicating with the officer, the shared goal should be to determine which
questions are applicable to the case and which answers (if any) particular specialist
methods can provide. Ideally, these questions have been formulated independently
by the investigator beforehand, but if not, this must be the first point of clarification
through discussion of the officer’s working hypotheses in the case.

Legal expectations

In part I, section 10 (communicating with the timber identification service provider),

there is a suggested list of questions for law enforcement to ask potential forensic
service providers before engaging their services. This list of questions is designed
to address the forensic requirements of timber identification services to ensure that
both law enforcement and the science provider understands the legal expectations
associated with providing evidence. The questions centre on:

• Previous forensic experience of the analyst

• Validity of the method
• Chain-of-custody control
• Existence of and adherence to standard operating procedures
• Production of forensic reports
• Suitability and willingness of analyst to appear as expert witness

It is important that this list (part I, section 10) is also considered by scientists to
ascertain the applicability and suitability of their analysis for the enforcement
purposes.

Managing expectations

Before arranging to undertake an analysis, the following points should be discussed

and agreed upon to ensure that both parties understand what is required of them in
order to facilitate a useful result.

• Cost. How much will analyses cost the law enforcement agency, including
any incidental costs? Expected ranges are listed in annex 8, but individual
laboratories may not comply with these averages.
• Time. How long will an analysis take? When can the officer expect to
receive their results? Expected ranges are listed in annex 8, but individual
laboratories may not comply with these averages.
• Sampling. What is the sample size needed? Will destructive testing be
employed?
Part II. Undertaking forensic timber identification: Information for scientists 55

• Logistics. How should the officer transport the samples to the laboratory?
Consider appropriate biosecurity requirements relevant to your
jurisdiction.
• Follow-on analyses. If multiple timber identification methodologies will
need to be employed to answer the full set of forensic question (e.g. wood
anatomy to determine genus followed by DNA barcoding to determine
species), what are the arrangements for organizing follow-up analyses? Who
will be responsible for sending samples on?

16. Guidance on communication of scientific

results
The interpretation of scientific data in connection to forensic evidence is the process
that links laboratory analysis to the investigative question. It is crucial that scientists
clearly communicate the meaning and relevance of their findings to law enforcement
officers, lawyers and the judiciary. There are several principles that should be applied
to the interpretation of results for all tests, to ensure clarity and to minimize the
risk of miscommunication or misunderstanding.

These include:

• Avoid the “prosecutor’s fallacy”. Scientists should restrict their interpreta-

tion of results to commenting on the strength of the evidence under different
scenarios, rather than commenting on the probability of a particular scenario
(guilt or innocence) given the evidence. Doing the latter instead of the
former, often referred to as the “prosecutor’s fallacy”, can be quite subtle,
but is critical to the correct application of forensic evidence. For a full
discussion, see Evett and Weir [105].
• Always attempt to evaluate the evidence with respect to alternative proposi-
tions. This helps ensure that the scientist applies an unbiased approach to
result interpretation. One proposition is usually directed towards the sce-
nario described by the investigator and is referred to as the “prosecution
hypothesis”. For example, where the investigator asks, “Is this wood from
a tree of the genus Gonystylus?” the appropriate prosecution hypothesis
would be: “The wood originated from a tree of the genus Gonystylus.” An
alternative proposition in this case, referred to as the defence hypothesis,
would be: “The wood originated from a tree of a different genus.” The role
of the scientist is to evaluate the probability of observing the forensic
evidence under these alternative propositions [105-107].
• It is essential that interpretation of results follows an approach accepted
by the legal system of the prosecuting country. The commonly accepted
approach is to present evidence in the form of a likelihood ratio, which
56 Best Practice Guide for Forensic Timber Identification

allows the likelihood of observing the evidence under prosecution and

defence hypotheses to be directly compared. Care is needed in interpreting
likelihood ratios, but DNA evidence can produce very large ratios. In certain
countries, evidence may be presented as probabilities of a match (i.e. this
profile occurs 1 in x of the population), rather than using a likelihood ratio.
• Language used to communicate results should be unambiguous, concise
and must not extend beyond the scope of the scientific method employed.
Forensic evidence that is not presented correctly will normally be rejected
by the court.
• Conclusions should be clear, conservative and carefully worded. Following
the interpretation of results, scientists are often required to state their con-
clusions. Conclusions must not be based on assumptions; they cannot say
more than the analysis allows. Although there will be considerable variation
in conclusion statements, all statements should be conservative and clearly
state the final result.

For each of the scientific methods for forensic timber identification considered in
this Guide, examples of clear and concise conclusions are given below, considering
the intended purpose of the applied method. Note that forensic reporting differs
among countries and scientists providing analytical results for law enforcement
should always refer to relevant national standards.

Genus identification (wood anatomy)

The anatomical features of exhibit X are characteristic of the genus Dalbergia.

Exhibits were identified via observation of macroscopic and microscopic anatomical
characteristics and compared to reference material. None of the observed character-
istics contradict the conclusions.

Genus identification (DNA barcoding)

The DNA sequence obtained from exhibit X is characteristic of variants found in

the genus Gonystylus. The sequence(s) identified in this report possess a higher
degree of homology with the identified genus than with sequences that have been
reported for any other genus.

Genus identification (mass spectrometry)

Comparison of the mass spectrometer results obtained from exhibit X to an extensive

collection of eight different Dalbergia species and six other lookalike species indi-
cates that exhibit X is indistinguishable from other members of the genus
Dalbergia.
Part II. Undertaking forensic timber identification: Information for scientists 57

Genus identification (near infrared spectroscopy)

Comparison of chemometric analysis results of the near-infrared spectra obtained

from botanically identified material of all species of the genus Swietenia and six
lookalike species (Cedrela odorata, Erisma uncinatum, Micropholys melinoniana,
Carapa guianensis, Eucalyptus grandis, Hymenaea courbaril) with at least 20 sam-
ples of different trees, and three spectra per sample, determines that exhibit X is
distinguishable as the genus Swietenia.

Species identification (mass spectrometry)

Comparison of the mass spectrometer results obtained from exhibit X to an extensive

collection of Dalbergia species from all parts of the range indicates that exhibit X
is indistinguishable from Dalbergia cochinchinensis.

Species identification (near infrared spectroscopy)

Comparison of chemometric analysis results of the near-infrared spectra obtained

from botanically identified material of Swietenia macrophylla and six lookalike spe-
cies (Cedrela odorata, Erisma uncinatum, Micropholys melinoniana, Carapa guia-
nensis, Eucalyptus grandis, Hymenaea courbaril) with at least 20 samples of dif-
ferent trees, and three spectra per sample, determines that exhibit X is distinguishable
as the species Swietenia macrophylla.

Species identification (DNA barcoding)

The DNA sequence obtained from exhibit X is characteristic of variants found in

Gonystylus bancanus. The sequence(s) identified in this report possess a higher
degree of homology with the identified species than with sequences that have been
reported for any other species.

Geographic provenance identification (dendrochronology)

Using classical tools and methods of dendrochronology, we determined that exhibit

X of species Abies guatemalensis was felled in region A. We came to this conclu-
sion after matching the tree-ring series of exhibit X with several existing reference
tree-ring chronologies on the species in different regions. Those reference tree-ring
chronologies were extracted from the International Tree-Ring Database (ITRDB) or
published in a peer-reviewed scientific journal [add the publications in attachment
of the report].

And
58 Best Practice Guide for Forensic Timber Identification

The mathematical variables that describe the match between tree-ring series of
exhibit X and the reference chronology of region A confirmed the origin of exhibit
X with a 95 per cent probability.

Or

The mathematical variables that describe the match between tree-ring series of
exhibit X and the reference chronologies of region A and B show significantly higher
values for variables from region A compared to B. Only for region A, the variables
confirmed matching tree-ring series with a 95 per cent probability.

Geographic provenance identification (mass spectrometry)

Comparison of the mass spectrometer results to an extensive collection of Dalbergia

species from all parts of the range indicates that exhibit X is indistinguishable from
Dalbergia sp. originating from Madagascar.

Geographic provenance identification (stable isotopes)

Comparison of the mass spectrometer results to an extensive collection of Dalbergia

species from all parts of the range indicates that exhibit X is indistinguishable from
Dalbergia spp. originating from Madagascar.

Geographic provenance identification (population genetics/

phylogeography)

Substantiating a provenance claim

The DNA profile for exhibit X was Y times more likely to be seen if the tree of
origin was growing in Location A, than if it were from Location B.

And

The DNA profile for exhibit X was excluded from originating from a tree in Loca-
tion B with a probability greater than 95 per cent.

Identifying provenance in the absence of a claim

The DNA profile for exhibit X, when compared against DNA profiles from all
geographic locations for which comparative data is available, was found to be most
similar to, and not significantly different from, DNA profiles from Location A. In
Part II. Undertaking forensic timber identification: Information for scientists 59

the absence of a claim by the defendant regarding the geographic origin of the
exhibit, it is concluded that the probability of observing the DNA evidence is high-
est, if the exhibit originated from Location A.

And

The DNA profile for exhibit X was excluded from originating from a tree in any
other location for which comparative data is available, with a probability greater
than 95 per cent.

Age determination (dendrochronology)

Relative age

Using classical tools and methods of dendrochronology, we determined that exhibit

X of species Abies guatemalensis showed Y annual tree rings. We conclude that the
tree from which exhibit X was derived had an age of at least Z years at the time
of felling. The true age will be Z plus the number of years the tree took to grow
to the height at which exhibit X was taken.

Absolute age

Using classical tools and methods of dendrochronology, we determined that the most
recently formed tree ring of exhibit X of species Abies guatemalensis can be dated
back to year A. As the sample includes bark, this means that the tree of exhibit X
was felled in the year A. This date was concluded after matching the tree-ring series
of exhibit X with an existing reference tree-ring chronology on the same species
and region, available from [insert ITRDB, or data published in a peer reviewed
journal] and/or checked against a constructed tree-ring chronology of the same
­species (stumps) in the forest from which exhibit X originates. The mathematical
variables that describe the match between the tree-ring series of exhibit X and the
reference chronology confirmed the year of felling with a 95 per cent probability.

Age determination (radiocarbon)

Results from the radionuclide analysis show that the tree from which exhibit X was
derived was living after 1952. The most probable years of felling are shown (1980-
1985) with a 95 per cent confidence level.

Individualization (dendrochronology)

Specimens W, X, Y and Z were analysed to determine if they are from the same
tree by comparing growth-increment widths, increment outlines, and
60 Best Practice Guide for Forensic Timber Identification

heartwood-sapwood transition. The concordance in measurements between speci-

mens W and Y indicate that they are from the same parent tree. More specifically,
specimen Y is a board cut from the [left] side of specimen W, representing growth
increments 17-79, counting inward from the bark. Specimens X and Z are not a
match to each other or to specimens W and Y.

17. Guidance on presenting as an expert witness

If providing forensic evidence on a case that eventually goes to court, analysts are
likely to be required to appear as witnesses at trial. If required to testify, the pros-
ecutor will provide analysts with preparatory information specific to the jurisdiction
in question. Alternatively, scientific services might be utilized by a defence team,
who should similarly prepare the analyst for appearance in court. As a general Guide,
the following principles should be taken into account.

Expert vs. fact witness

In most jurisdictions, analysts providing forensic expertise are considered expert

witnesses. An expert witness is qualitatively different to a witness of fact, in that
expert witnesses are allowed to give their opinions on matters of which they are an
expert. In general, the expert witness must demonstrate the following to the court:

• That the opinion they are giving is relevant to their area of expertise
• That they are an expert in that area based on specific training, study and/
or experience
• That the opinion is based on facts which are proved to the court
• How the opinion was derived from those facts
• Impartiality of expert witnesses

Although it is likely that scientific services will have been engaged by law enforce-
ment and the prosecutorial legal team, it is important for analysts to remember at
all times that they do not represent the prosecution (or the defence, if their services
have been engaged through the defence team). The analyst is not an advocate for
the cause of particular parties and must remain completely impartial. The analyst’s
responsibility is only to the truth of the scientific evidence that is presented. If an
expert witness can be shown to be biased or characterized as an advocate rather
than an impartial witness, their testimony can be undermined and in some cases
rejected as inadmissible.
Part II. Undertaking forensic timber identification: Information for scientists 61

Reliability of expert witnesses

In attempts to discredit expert witness testimony, opposing counsel can often target
the personal lives of expert witnesses, seeking to demonstrate bias, advocacy, dis-
honesty, poor judgment or criminal behaviour. It is important to realize that no area
of an analyst’s life is out-of-bounds when it comes to potential questions they may
be obliged to answer in court; any publicly available information, including social
media profiles and personal websites, can be used to inform questioning. Ideally the
suitability of an analyst as an expert witness should be determined in consultation
with law enforcement prior to the commencement of any forensic testing.
Part III. Forensic timber identification
evidence in court: Information for
law enforcement, prosecutors and
the judiciary

Part III of the Guide is aimed at law enforcement, prosecutors and the judiciary, and is
focused on appropriate considerations when preparing an illegal timber case for court.
The information may also be of interest to front-line law enforcement and scientists who
would like to better understand the legal importance of the work they do and how they
do it. Part III provides an overview of the various forensic identification methods available
and key forensic requirements are covered. Specific legal considerations regarding the use
of forensic timber identification services are discussed and a final checklist presented.

18. Overview of timber identification techniques

and relevant considerations
This section briefly covers each of the available forensic identification methods and
presents specific considerations when using this type of evidence. See annex 8 for sum-
mary details of which forensic identification methods may be able to answer to specific
identification questions.

Wood anatomy

This means of identification is based on visual perception and recognition of macroscopic

and microscopic features that are diagnostic to the specific genus (and occasionally
species) of timber. Inexpensive identification to genus can be performed comparing wood
characters of the timber and comparing them to established reference material.

Considerations:

• The technique must be carried out by a trained and experienced wood anato-
mist following a standardized protocol.
• The technique can reliably determine the genus of timber in most cases, and
the species occasionally.

63
64 Best Practice Guide for Forensic Timber Identification

• The technique cannot determine the provenance of timber, except inasmuch

that genera have finite geographical distributions.
• The technique cannot determine the specific individual or age of timber.

Dendrochronology

Identification through dendrochronology is based on examination of periodic growth

rings which are laid down in most temperate and some tropical tree species. By
comparing the tree-ring series of a sample to reference chronologies from specific
regions, it may be possible to determine whether the pattern is consistent with a
particular area. It may also be possible to determine the minimum age of a tree by
counting its growth rings; if the bark and outermost ring are present, it may be
possible to determine when it was felled. Comparisons of tree ring patterns between
different wood surfaces can also be used to identify individuals; i.e., the pattern on
a log and its associated stump could be positively matched, although this application
is seldom utilized due to the variability of tree ring widths.

Considerations:

• The technique must be carried out by a trained and experienced dendro-

chronologist following a standardized protocol.
• The technique can only be applied to timber that produces growth rings.
• Provenance can only be determined to be consistent (or not) with particular
regions where chronologies have been developed; other areas where no
chronologies exist cannot be excluded.
• When estimating felling date, factors such as loss of bark, wood decay and
lack of ring formation prior to tree death can affect the precision and/or
accuracy of results.
• Individual identification can only be definitively determined where the two
pieces of wood to be matched (i.e. stump and log) were originally adjacent
to one another in the standing tree.

Mass spectrometry

This method of timber identification characterizes extractives laid down during heart-
wood formation using mass spectrometry to generate a chemical profile or finger-
print. Statistical analyses of these profiles can be optimized to cluster together taxo-
nomically related individuals. Mass spectrometry ionizes chemical compounds to
generate charged molecules whose mass-to-charge ratios are measured. Depending
on the natural variation in extractives present in the timber samples, various levels
of identification may be possible, including genus, species and provenance.
Part III. Forensic timber identification evidence in court 65

Considerations:

• The technique must be carried out by a trained and experienced chemist

following a standardized protocol.
• The technique will only be applicable in taxa where there are detectable
diagnostic differences in extractives between groups of interest—more
likely to apply to fragrant woods.
• Discrimination at the level of genera is restricted only to those species
within each genera used as reference material.

Near infrared spectroscopy

Near infrared spectroscopy (NIRS) measures the absorption spectra of material when
exposed to near infrared electromagnetic energy and returns information derived
from both the chemical and physical structure of the wood. Raw spectroscopic
outputs are rarely directly informative and must be used in conjunction with appro-
priate multivariate analyses to obtain meaningful results. NIRS can distinguish
between individuals of different genera, different species within the same genus and
between the same species in different regions.

Considerations:

• The underlying models must be developed by trained and experienced

chemists.
• After model development, the method must be carried out by a trained
analyst following a standardized protocol.
• Discrimination at the level of genera is restricted only to those species
within each genera used as reference material.
• For any given spectral output from an unknown sample, NIRS can only
determine its best fit to a reference set of predetermined groups, such as
potential species. Thus, if the correct species is not part of the model, it
cannot be correctly identified.

Stable isotopes

Chemical compounds synthesized by trees obtain their raw constituent elements

from the surrounding environment. Elements generally have multiple naturally occur-
ring isotopes and by looking at the ratios of relative amounts of these isotopes in
a given area, an isotopic “fingerprint” for that location can often be determined. By
combining multiple stable isotope analyses, the spatial granularity of the isotope
signature can be improved. Stable isotope analysis is a technique that can be useful
66 Best Practice Guide for Forensic Timber Identification

in answering specific compliance questions regarding whether a sample comes from

a specific region. It may provide reliable evidence of a geographic area as a sample’s
source or exclude a geographic area as a source or origin.

Considerations:

• The technique must be carried out by a trained and experienced chemist

following a standardized protocol.
• Multiple isotope testing can greatly improve the predictive power of using
isotopes in provenance studies.
• The assignment of a sample is based on nearest neighbours, which means
that samples with similar isotopic signatures are likely derived from the
same place of origin.
• Assignment is not continuous and sampling efforts of reference material
from certain regions is low or non-existent (thus, certain areas are statisti-
cally inert until comprehensive sampling has been undertaken).
• The utility of stable isotopic signatures derived for one species for identify-
ing the geographic provenance of another has not yet been determined.
• Stable isotopes can be measured separately from different aged tissues and
may provide varying results, due to changes over time in environmental
and physiological processes.

Radiocarbon

Radiocarbon dating may be used to determine the age of timber. By measuring the
ratio of carbon isotopes and comparing to known standards, it is possible to calculate
a “radiocarbon age” of organic material. Where a claim is made regarding the age
of timber, this analysis can be used to support or disprove the claim. Two samples
from different aged tissues (e.g. growth rings) may be required to definitively deter-
mine age.

Considerations:

• The technique must be carried out by a trained and experienced scientist

following a standardized protocol.
• Radiocarbon analysis of timber will produce a year range for age of the
tissue(s) tested; in general, there would be a 95 per cent probability that
the year of growth of that tissue occurred within the determined year range.
• As tree species can live for tens to hundreds of years, the part of the tree
tested for analysis will have a large effect on the resultant age determina-
tion; samples from close to the centre (pith) of the tree will be the oldest;
Part III. Forensic timber identification evidence in court 67

only tissue taken from the outer most tissue of the trunk will reflect the
age of the tree near its felling date.

DNA barcoding

As with almost all biological materials, timber contains DNA that can be recovered
and analysed to aid identification. DNA barcoding is built on the premise that par-
ticular gene regions show sufficient genetic variation to distinguish taxonomic
groups. Two chloroplast gene regions maturase K (matK) and ribulose-bisphosphate
carboxylase (rbcL) are currently the standard markers for plants; however, they are
only able to distinguish approximately 70 per cent of plants and often require local
barcodes (additional gene regions) to facilitate determination to the species level.
Once DNA from timber has been extracted and appropriate barcoding loci amplified,
the resulting DNA sequence is matched against a reference sequence database to
infer the taxonomic origin of an evidence sample.

Considerations:

• The technique must be carried out by a trained and experienced biologist

following a standardized protocol.
• DNA from timber is generally degraded and amplification of long gene
regions is challenging.
• As with any species identification, the sequence should be compared against
that from a known voucher specimen.
• The authenticity of reference data used for comparison needs to be
established.
• Due to sequence variation within species, the DNA sequence of an evidence
item may differ from the reference sequence of that species, without exclud-
ing it from belonging to that species. Similarly, in more highly conserved
gene regions, the DNA sequence of an evidence item may be identical to
the reference sequence of a particular species but instead derive from a
closely related but different species. In such situations, the relative level of
difference between the evidence sequence and different candidate reference
sequences must be considered.

Population genetics and phylogeography

A DNA profile consisting of measurements at multiple DNA markers can be pro-

duced from an individual timber sample. This DNA profile may then be assigned
to probable geographic origin by comparing it with a database of geo-referenced
DNA profiles from individuals of the same species. The data analysis estimates the
geographic origin of the DNA profile.
68 Best Practice Guide for Forensic Timber Identification

Considerations:

• The technique must be carried out by a trained and experienced biologist

following a standardized protocol.
• The DNA profile from the sample must be typed with the same markers
as the DNA profiles in the reference database.
• Analyses conducted between laboratories require that allele calls for all loci
be calibrated to assure that allele calls between laboratories are identical.
• The assignment of a sample is based on differences among DNA profiles
at different locations; it does not take any account of political (national)
boundaries.
• The assignment result is not absolute, but rather gives the best estimate
with the available data.

DNA profiling for individualization

A DNA profile consisting of measurements at multiple DNA markers can be pro-

duced from an individual timber sample. The probability that two trees carry the
same DNA profile can be calculated and should be extremely low, except where the
tree is clonally propagated. DNA profiles can therefore be used to match a timber
sample to a poached timber stump. Counting different DNA profiles allows a mini-
mum count of trees to be made, for example, from numerous processed timber
products.

Considerations:

• The technique must be carried out by a trained and experienced biologist

following a standardized protocol.
• The strength of evidence associated with matching DNA profiles is associ-
ated with the ratio of the probability that the profiles came from the same
tree to the probability that they came from different trees and match by
chance. The higher the ratio, the stronger the evidence for a true match.
• Close relatives have a much higher chance of sharing DNA profiles than
two unrelated trees. This should be considered when matching individual
samples.

19. Overview of key forensic requirements

As a preface to this section, and section 20 below, it is important to bear in mind
that procedural rules, evidentiary limitations and foundation requirements will differ
Part III. Forensic timber identification evidence in court 69

in each jurisdiction. While certain general considerations are most likely to be appli-
cable across jurisdictional boundaries, the existence of significant differences between
different legal systems and traditions cannot be denied. Accordingly, it is imperative
that prosecutors check with the appropriate legal authorities in the jurisdiction where
laboratory analytical results are to be introduced as to the specific requirements of
that jurisdiction with respect to key forensic, evidentiary and procedural
requirements.

It is important that prosecutors and the judiciary be aware of the requirements for
forensic evidence to be admissible in court and some of the key concepts related
to those requirements.

In order for forensic evidence to be admissible, prosecutors must prove that:

• The evidence was legally seized (seizure authority).

• The evidence at trial is the same as the evidence originally seized and
representative of the material at issue (chain of custody and sampling
plan).

• The evidence was in substantially the same condition when tested as when
it was seized (chain of custody).

• The evidence is what the prosecution or defence says it is (forensic

analysis).

Seizure authority, previously discussed in part I, is typically a legal question usually

decided by a judge in advance of trial. In order for forensic evidence to be admitted,
the prosecution must demonstrate that the evidence was lawfully obtained.

Proof of a chain of custody is required when the evidence to be introduced at trial

is not unique (e.g. timber) or where the relevance of the evidence depends on its
analysis after seizure. Proving proper chain of custody requires three types of tes-
timony: (a) testimony that a piece of evidence is what it purports to be; (b) testimony
of continuous possession by each individual who has had possession of the evidence
from the time it is seized until the time it is presented in court; and (c) testimony
by each person who has had possession that the particular piece of evidence remained
in substantially the same condition from the moment that person took possession
until the moment that person released the evidence into the custody of another (for
example, testimony that the evidence was stored in a secure location where no one
but the evidence custodian had access to it).

In some circumstances, it will be impractical to submit all of the evidence for labo-
ratory analysis (e.g. a large timber shipment.) In such circumstances, sampling plans
should be used to ensure that samples collected are representative of the evidence
at issue (further information on sampling plans can be found in part I, sections 5,
6 and 7).
70 Best Practice Guide for Forensic Timber Identification

20. Legal considerations

The judiciary acts as the “gatekeeper” of the evidence presented at trial and deter-
mines whether evidence is admissible. When evaluating a case for prosecution, the
following evidentiary issues should be considered.

Sampling plan

In many instances it is impractical for law enforcement to request forensic testing

of all articles within a shipment. Instead, representative samples of the shipment are
selected for analysis pursuant to a sampling plan.

In assessing the appropriateness of a sampling plan, the issue will be whether there
was a reasonable attempt to obtain a sample that was representative of the object(s)
sampled. In answering that question, a court will consider the following:

• Was the plan reasonable under the circumstances?

• Is there an established sampling plan protocol for timber already recognized
and accepted in the scientific community?
• Did the utilized sampling plan adhere to a recognized sampling plan?
• If there was no recognized sampling plan, did the sampling plan utilized
follow a logical procedure?

Some randomness in the number of samples taken is less important than that the
approach was a good faith effort under the circumstances to obtain representative
samples. For example, when developing a sampling plan for a stack of wood planks,
samples should be taken from each group of wood that differs in size, appearance
and/or location in the load. The sampling plan should not give the appearance that
it was subjectively designed to mischaracterize the contents of the wood shipment
being sampled. See part I, sections 5. 6 and 7 for further information on the imple-
mentation of a sampling plan.

Sampling protocols

Sampling protocols are procedures put in place to ensure that the manner in which
evidence is collected does not contaminate or otherwise taint the collected samples.
In other words, did the procedures used to take the physical samples from the
original shipment allow accurate testing of the material? Or did the method used to
obtain the samples skew the subsequent analyses?

Challenges to sampling procedure frequently focus upon how closely the sampling
protocol used fits the subsequent laboratory method of identification. Basic
Part III. Forensic timber identification evidence in court 71

cross-contamination prevention procedures should always be followed. In some

countries, failure to follow recognized sampling protocols might result in a court’s
rejection of the entire body of evidence that flows from it. In some jurisdictions,
failure to adhere to sampling protocols does not affect admissibility but rather goes
to the weight of the evidence, meaning the evidence can be introduced but the trier
of fact may consider it less persuasive (see part I, section 7 for further information
on sampling protocols).

Shipment of samples

The transportation of samples from the field to the laboratory is another area that
can be the subject of legal scrutiny. In short, was the sample that arrived at the
laboratory the same sample that was obtained at the crime scene? It is strongly
suggested that any sample taken be distinctly marked with a unique number, placed
in a sealed bag, and stored securely. A copy of the chain-of-custody form should
accompany the samples at all times, through storage and shipment (see part I, sec-
tion 7 for further information on shipment of samples).

Chain of custody

All forensic casework should be documented and authenticated throughout the ana-
lytical process. This documentation forms the basis of subsequent forensic reports
and will in most cases be made available to the court and the defence. It should
include details of:

• Investigative request
• Chain of custody (evidence receipt and control in laboratory)
• Analytical methods
• Analytical results
• Results interpretation
• Protocols used
• Persons involved

Most legal challenges to the admission of laboratory analytical results arise from
the failure to document the procedures used, rather than the results themselves.
Therefore, prosecutors should review the forensic case file at the earliest opportunity
to identify any issues that might affect the admissibility of laboratory analytical
results.

Proof of proper chain of custody is one of the most important facts that must be
documented. The custody of samples, like the custody of any other evidence, is a very
72 Best Practice Guide for Forensic Timber Identification

important part of any investigation and serves as proof of who had what in their pos-
session and when. Proof of proper chain of custody is a prerequisite for the admission
of evidence in court. An example of a chain-of-custody form is included in annex 13.

Proof of chain of custody is required for every sample collected that is to be offered
as evidence. It requires the careful, chronological documentation of how the evidence
was collected to establish its connection to the alleged crime. This includes docu-
menting all the details of its collection, custody, control, transfer, analysis and dis-
posal. From the beginning to the end of the forensic process, it is crucial to be able
to demonstrate every single step undertaken to ensure traceability and continuity of
the evidence from the crime scene to the courtroom.

Proper chain-of-custody documentation begins with the person who first collects a
sample at the scene. Thereafter, every time a sample is transferred, the transaction
should be recorded with the date, time and name (typically a signature or initials) of
the persons transferring and receiving the evidence item. A chain-of-custody form
should maintain a running record of custody for every sample collected from the scene
ensuring that the sample is under the control of specified individuals and in a secured
location at all times in order to prevent unauthorized alteration, tampering or loss.

Proof of chain of custody also requires the tracking and documentation of every
sample received and maintained by a laboratory throughout all laboratory testing
procedures.

Attorneys should consider the following chain-of-custody issues when reviewing

laboratory case files:

• Were the samples correctly recorded upon arrival to the testing facility
including details of their condition and whether seals were present/intact?
• If unique laboratory numbers have been assigned to evidence, can the sam-
ples be reliably tracked back their original sample number designations as
provided by the agency responsible for collecting the original evidence?
• Can all subsamples be reliably tracked back the original evidence?
• Can the secure storage of samples be demonstrated at all times whilst the
evidence was being analysed by the laboratory?

The analytical procedure

One legal challenge to the admissibility of laboratory analytical results is the reliabil-
ity of the scientific premise underlying the analysis.2 For example, is microscopic

2
In some countries the analytical methods to be utilized for the identification of a substance are refer-
enced or included in the regulations by the appropriate overseeing government agency. To date there are no
such requirements for wood identification. However, it is important to determine if that condition has changed.
Part III. Forensic timber identification evidence in court 73

wood anatomical identification a reliable method for reaching the conclusion that
the sample is a certain type of timber? Depending upon the jurisdiction, the judici-
ary may consider a number of issues including:

• Has the analytical procedure been codified?

• If not, is this procedural method accepted in the scientific community?
• Are the results capable of being duplicated?
• Is the method reasonable under the circumstances?
• How great is the margin of error?
• Is the method being misapplied (i.e. the scientific method is reliable for
determining a scientific genus, but not a species)?

In common law jurisdictions, this challenge is usually considered a question of law.

Accordingly, it is usually raised in preliminary proceedings and decided by the court
and not a jury. It may be determined at a hearing where testimony and oral argu-
ment is part of the evidence or it may be determined solely through the submission
of papers. The prosecutor should internally raise this issue early on with the inves-
tigation team and be prepared to identify and introduce the appropriate testimony
of expert witnesses, affidavits and/or publications to demonstrate that the analytical
procedure used was accurate and reliable.

Laboratory operating procedures and quality assurance

Another basis to challenge the admissibility of laboratory analysis results is the

conditions under which the testing was done and whether the laboratory followed
its own procedures.

Quality assurance (QA) is the concept of using systems and procedures to control
quality and maintain continuous improvement of a product or service. QA is nor-
mally ensured in a laboratory testing environment through the design and imple-
mentation of a quality management system (QMS). The QMS includes all of the
protocols, standard operating procedures, method validation documents and reporting
criteria that are operated by a laboratory.

In order to demonstrate that a laboratory has established and follows a QMS, the
laboratory may seek accreditation by an external assessment body under one of a
number of international standards. ISO/IEC 17025 is the standard that describes the
requirements for the competence of testing and calibration laboratories, and it is the
main international standard to which laboratories undertaking forensic science testing
services become accredited. However, accreditation is time consuming, expensive
and requires dedicated internal resources that many small wildlife/timber forensic
laboratories may not be able to commit. An alternative to formal accreditation has
74 Best Practice Guide for Forensic Timber Identification

been developed by the Society for Wildlife Forensic Science in the form of Standards
and Guidelines for forensic analysts performing botany identifications using mor-
phology, anatomy, DNA or chemistry (SWFS Standards and guidelines for forensic
botany identification, available from www.wildlifeforensicscience.org/swgwild/
swgwild-work-products).

Regardless of accreditation status, laboratories should have written, standard operat-

ing procedures (SOPs) for each analytical method they employ and most legal chal-
lenges to laboratory procedures will focus on this area.

Attorneys should consider the following standard operating procedural issues when
reviewing laboratory case files:

• For the test methods applied to the evidence, do SOPs exist that precisely
define how a test should be performed and how the results should be ana-
lysed and interpreted, including considerations of possible sources of error
and conditions that may affect the accuracy of the results?
• Were test methods validated prior to use and are the validation protocols
and reports available for inspection? Test methods should ideally be pub-
lished in peer-reviewed scientific journals before use in forensic analysis
and can be accredited.
• Were all sample required preparatory steps undertaken prior to analysis
(e.g. timber samples ground into a powder, mixed with a buffer solution
etc.)?
• Was all equipment used in the analyses appropriately maintained (e.g. cali-
bration and cleaning schedules adhered to and documented)?

Laboratories may or may not be accredited for the particular sampling method or
procedure used for a particular analysis, and lack of accreditation may be used by
the defence to argue that the analysis is unreliable and should not be admitted into
evidence. Laboratory accreditation can be an expensive proposition; hence, in most
cases, a laboratory only obtains accreditation for analytical procedures it does rou-
tinely. Very few laboratories have accreditation for a wide range of procedures.

Cross-examination often focuses upon a laboratory that has employed a procedure

for which it has not obtained accreditation. This is relevant because many timber
identification procedures are relatively new, not routinely applied and accordingly
not accredited. However, lack of accreditation should not be fatal to the case, as
long as the proper procedures required for the particular analysis were followed; it
is simply another area for raising doubt concerning the accuracy of the analytical
results.

One way to counter the argument that the application of a non-accredited procedure
is not valid may be to use procedural analogies. For example, the timber analytical
Part III. Forensic timber identification evidence in court 75

procedure (or part of it) may be similar to the procedure used for a comparable
type of analytical test for which the laboratory is accredited. Therefore, the basic
science is not new; its applicability has simply been broadened. In presenting new
analytical procedures there are usually some factors that are useful in establishing
reliability and providing such evidence should be sufficient to answer most questions
of admissibility based upon reliability of the science objections. Useful information
for establishing reliability may include:

• Evidence of peer review

• Evidence of known error rate
• Evidence of reproducibility of results

Presentation of the laboratory analytical results in a judicial

proceeding

Having satisfied the threshold questions of reliability, integrity and accuracy of

sampling and analysis, the issue next becomes one of interpretation and presentation.
Ultimately, laboratory analytical results need to be interpreted or explained to the
trier(s) of fact (judge and/or jury). This requires an “expert” witness who can testify
about his or her opinion as to the significance of the results when applied to the
facts of the case.

Most witnesses at a trial are “fact” witnesses, meaning that they can only provide
testimony as to what they personally experienced or observed. Expert witnesses, on
the other hand, are permitted to testify as to their professional opinions concerning
facts that they may not have directly experienced, but that they are qualified to
interpret based upon their training, skill, education or experience. In most jurisdic-
tions, a witness has to be qualified as an expert witness before being allowed to
express an opinion. Whether a witness is qualified as an expert is established through
a series of foundation questions regarding the witness’ background.

One of the most common areas of cross-examination of expert scientific witnesses

concerns the witnesses’ degree of certainty in his or her opinion. Most scientists do
not speak of scientific results in terms of 100 per cent accuracy. They are used to
dealing with degrees of certainty and margins of error. However, at a trial accuracy
and certainty are the issues by which all evidence presented is weighed. The less
certain the witness is about their testimony, the greater the probability that it will
be questioned and challenged. Accordingly, it is essential that the attorney and the
scientist spend some time discussing these issues in preparation for trial. Often a
compromise can be reached with which both sides can be comfortable regarding
the manner in which the evidence is presented.
76 Best Practice Guide for Forensic Timber Identification

Checklist of considerations when dealing with forensic

evidence
• Was the evidence legally obtained?
• Was the evidence collected pursuant to an appropriate sampling plan?
• Was proper chain of custody of samples maintained and documented?
• Was analytical testing performed pursuant to proper laboratory SOPs?
• Was a comprehensive forensic case file maintained?
• Was the employed test fit for purpose and did a competent authority approve
it?
• Was the test performed by a competent person with sufficient training and
experience in that type of test?
• Were alternative interpretations of the data considered?
Part IV. International cooperation

The illegal trade in timber transcends national boundaries; its transnational nature
necessitates a common and coordinated global response. Cross-border cooperation
is required to ensure the appropriate identification, investigation and prosecution of
forest offences. International cooperation is required not only within legal authorities
and the scientific community, but between legal and scientific communities as well.

Figure 7. International cooperation stakeholders

Figure 7 illustrates the multitude of stakeholders to be potentially engaged for effec-

tive international cooperation, and facilitates an understanding of the complementa-
rity of actors and areas of expertise, as well as the complexity and need for
cooperation.

77
78 Best Practice Guide for Forensic Timber Identification

The development of this Guide aims to provide support towards achieving a stand-
ardized approach that will underline and facilitate international cooperation in
response to the challenges faced in tackling the illegal trade in timber at the global
level. Part IV covers relevant international legal frameworks, which form the basis
for cooperation between countries and at the global level for regulation, communica-
tion, exchange of information and mutual assistance to tackle transnational organized
crime. Part IV outlines some of the benefits, challenges and opportunities to improve
cooperation, communication and collaboration internationally. In addition, informa-
tion is provided on networks, mechanisms and other tools and services available for
countries and individuals seeking to obtain legal or scientific assistance from another
country.

21. International legal frameworks

For international judicial cooperation or international cooperation between law
enforcement agencies, domestic or international frameworks are required that pro-
vide a legal basis for seeking assistance from another country. Domestic laws detail-
ing the requirements and mechanisms for mutual legal assistance in criminal matters
are available in most jurisdictions. Bilateral agreements can be concluded for general
enforcement issues or for more specific purposes associated with the tackling of
wildlife and forest crime. Instruments such as the United Nations Convention against
Transnational Organized Crime and the United Nations Convention Against Corrup-
tion, can be of assistance, subject to the conditions of their applicability.

Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of

Wild Fauna and Flora

The Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and

Flora (CITES) is a multilateral treaty to protect endangered plants and animals. With
182 Parties, CITES remains one of the world's most powerful tools for biodiversity
conservation through the regulation of international trade in wild fauna and flora.
CITES regulates international trade in over 35,000 species of plants and animals,
including their products and derivatives, ensuring their survival in the wild through
strictly regulating legal trade and combating illegal trade. The degree of monitoring
and protection status given to a species depends on whether the species is listed
under CITES appendix I, II or III. Appendix I-listed species are generally prohibited
from trade, while appendix II is subject to controls and determination of sustainabil-
ity of the species in the wild, and appendix III listings are requests of CITES Parties
for assistance in monitoring trade in species traded from their country.

Although CITES is legally binding on the Parties, it does not take the place of
national laws. Rather it provides a framework to be respected by each Party, which
has to adopt its own domestic legislation to ensure that CITES is implemented at
Part IV. International cooperation 79

the national level. Several strategies have been developed to deal with infractions
by Parties, the most severe under its compliance measures is a recommendation to
suspend trade by the CITES Standing Committee.

An important element of the CITES framework is the creation or identification of

national agencies charged with the administration and execution of CITES obliga-
tions. Article IX, paragraph 1 (a), specifies that each Party to the Convention is
required to designate a domestic agency mandated with the management of CITES.
Its responsibilities include the:

• Authorization and issuing of permits and certificates of approval

• Communication of information to other Parties and the CITES Secretariat
• Reporting on CITES compliance matters

The way in which the Management and Scientific Authorities are designed and
designated is left to the discretion of the individual Party.

United Nations Convention against Transnational Organized

Crime

The United Nations Convention against Transnational Organized Crime—also known

as the Palermo Convention—is the main instrument in the fight against transnational
organized crime, including illegal trade in fauna, flora, and their parts and deriva-
tives. At the time of its adoption, the General Assembly of the United Nations, in
the preamble to its resolution 55/25 of 15 November 2000, recognized the Conven-
tion as “an effective tool and the necessary legal framework for international coop-
eration” in combating such criminal activities as the illegal trafficking of protected
species of wild flora and fauna, in furtherance of the principle of the Convention
on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES).

The Convention against Transnational Organized Crime adopts a flexible approach,

which takes into account the seriousness of the acts it covers, rather than limiting
itself to a predetermined and rigid list of offences. Its broad scope enables its appli-
cation to offences established by it and its Protocols (article 37) and any other
serious crime (as defined in article 2), where the offence is transnational in nature
and involves an organized criminal group (article 3).

Pursuant to article 3, paragraph 2, an offence is transnational in nature if: (a) it is

committed in more than one State; (b) it is committed in one State, but a substantial
part of its preparation, planning, direction or control takes place in another State;
(c) it is committed in one State, but it involves an organized criminal group that
engages in criminal activities in more than one State; or (d) it is committed in one
State but has substantial effects in another State.
80 Best Practice Guide for Forensic Timber Identification

The Convention also defines an “organized criminal group” as a structured group of

at least three persons, existing for a period of time and acting in concert with the aim
of committing one or more serious crimes or offences established in accordance with
the Convention, in order to obtain a financial or other material benefit (article 2).

Pursuant to article 2, paragraph (b), of the Convention, “serious crime” means con-
duct constituting an offence punishable by a maximum deprivation of liberty of at
least four years or a more serious penalty. The definition of serious crime, thus,
does not contain any requirements in relation to the gravity, motivation or content
of the offence, other than the criminal penalty (at least four years of imprisonment)
associated with it. Consequently, the inclusion of the notion of “serious crime” in
the Organized Crime Convention enables the application of the Convention to a
broad range of offences, including illegal trade in fauna, flora, and their parts and
derivatives, in particular for international cooperation.

States may also find that new forms and dimensions of transnational organized crime,
such as that of illegal trade in fauna, flora, and their parts and derivatives, may pose
more challenges to effective investigations and prosecutions, and to international
cooperation than more traditional ones. That is an additional reason for exploring
methodologies to analyse, pursuant to article 28 of the Convention, trends in organ-
ized crime in their territory, the circumstances in which organized crime operates, as
well as the professional groups and technologies involved, and sharing such analytical
expertise with each other and through international and regional organizations.

In the area of international cooperation, the provisions of the Convention against

Transnational Organized Crime are aimed at playing a key role in harmonizing
obligations and addressing legal gaps in the field of international cooperation in
criminal matters. The Convention provides a basis for extradition (article 16) and
mutual legal assistance (article 18), as well as other forms of cooperation, such as
joint investigations (article 19) and controlled deliveries (article 20), in addition to
obligations resulting from other bilateral or multilateral agreements related to inter-
national cooperation in criminal matters into which States Parties have entered.

As of May 2016, the Convention has been ratified, or acceded to, by 186 Member
States in recognition of the seriousness of the problems posed by organized crime,
as well as the need to foster enhanced international cooperation. The Convention
also seeks to streamline the coordination of national legislative, administrative and
enforcement measures relating to transnational organized crime, and to ensure a
more efficient and effective global effort to prevent and suppress it.

United Nations Convention Against Corruption

In order to assess the applicability of the United Nations Convention Against Cor-
ruption is useful to bear in mind that corruption can occur at all stages of a process
of exploitation of natural and other resources—before, during and after.
Part IV. International cooperation 81

The United Nations Convention Against Corruption can provide an important legal
basis for combating forest offences connected with corrupt practices. This Conven-
tion, which is the first global legally binding instrument against corruption, builds
on the precedent of the Convention against Transnational Organized Crime and
incorporates a substantial number of similar provisions. As of May 2016, the United
Nations Convention Against Corruption had 178 States Parties.

The Convention sets out a great range of preventive anti-corruption measures and
measures relating to criminalization and law enforcement, international cooperation,
asset recovery, technical assistance and information exchange.

The Convention contains a comprehensive set of preventive measures aimed at estab-

lishing integrity, transparency and accountability that can help to curb corruption in
the agencies involved in the fight against forest offences, such as law enforcement
agencies, customs, wildlife and forestry departments, but also prosecutors and the
judiciary.

The Convention also includes a comprehensive set of criminalization provisions,

both mandatory and optional, covering a wide range of acts of corruption. By virtue
of article 65, paragraph 2, of the Convention, each State party may adopt more strict
or severe measures for preventing and combating corruption. Therefore, the Conven-
tion does not hinder the adoption and implementation of criminalization measures
with a wider scope, encompassing a much broader range of crimes or offences
against the public administration, or even private interests, related to corruption.

The comprehensiveness of the international cooperation provisions of the Convention

Against Corruption, which build on the precedent of the corresponding provisions
of the Convention against Transnational Organized Crime, provides further added
value. Article 46 of the Convention Against Corruption, on mutual legal assistance,
is a typical example of what may be called a “mini mutual legal assistance treaty”.
In addition, article 44 of the Convention sets a basic minimum standard for enhanc-
ing the efficiency of extradition mechanisms in relation to the offences established
by the two conventions. Furthermore, chapter V (Asset recovery) of the Convention
contains comprehensive provisions laying down specific measures and mechanisms
for cooperation in asset recovery.

Within the context of the first review cycle of the Implementation Review Mecha-
nism of the United Nations Convention Against Corruption, particular attention has
been given to the structure and role of central and/or competent authorities as key
institutions for the effective implementation of chapter IV of the Convention on
international cooperation. Some States Parties give their central authority a purely
administrative role, whereby the authority is only in charge of receiving and sending
mutual legal assistance requests, while in other States parties, central authorities
may be responsible for the execution of requests, the substantive coordination or
the follow-up to the request among national institutions. Those different roles have
an impact on the communication of the central authorities with their foreign
82 Best Practice Guide for Forensic Timber Identification

counterparts and on their participation in regional or international cooperation net-

works that might help to facilitate the mutual legal assistance process.

22. Factors impacting international cooperation

In order to enable effective international cooperation, multiple factors should be
considered. These range from a country’s capacity to respond to major timber sei-
zures, to the benefits of cooperating with other countries and regions, and should
include considerations on support that might be needed as well as any potential
barriers that could be encountered.

National capacity

In considering this Guide, countries should reflect on the following areas considering
the strengths and challenges at the national level to enable streamlined and effective
collaboration and the support required:

• How would my country respond to a major seizure of illegal timber? Does

my country have the forensic and scientific capabilities to follow these best
practices?
• If my country cannot follow these best practices, what assistance can it
obtain from international partners? Where can my country get information
about potential international partners and how should they be approached?
• What is my country’s long-term plan for building the necessary national
capacity? What organizations or institutions could assist in creating and
implementing a long-term plan for training and capacity-building?

The following are some questions for authorities to consider when determining their
country’s national capacity to use forensic methods to combat wildlife and forest
crime:

• Are dedicated crime scene investigation services available?

• Are first responders trained and equipped to isolate and protect scenes of
illegal timber and forest crime?
• Who is called first when a potential offence is discovered?
• Is there a procedure for requesting technical expertise?
• Do investigators have access to crime scene investigation kits and
materials?
• Do investigators preserve crime scenes so that they remain suitable for
forensic examination?
Part IV. International cooperation 83

• Are investigators trained in what to look for and are they aware of the
potential and limitations of forensic examinations and evidence?
• Are investigators familiar with forensic evidence gathering procedures,
­preservation of evidence and chain of custody? If not, can investigators
access crime scene investigation training?
• Do responsible officers have a mechanism for sharing seizure information
with INTERPOL?
• Are there national forensic laboratories and qualified staff to analyse the
samples? If not, are there laboratories in other countries willing to provide
analysis services?
• Which agency facilitates the analyses?
• Do enforcement officers, customs and the police responsible for wildlife
and forest investigations have access to existing forensic laboratory services
and facilities?
• Does the laboratory have a quality-management system in place and does
it work according to accredited or recognized best practice standards?
• Are there external reviews and audits of laboratory work in order to ensure
that techniques are implemented correctly?
• What forensic support is available? (For example, anatomical analysis,
chemical profiling, genetic profiling.)
• Are laboratory personnel trained in the mechanisms of prosecutions and
the presentation of evidence in court?
• Are there national databases for forensic data from wildlife and forest
offences?
• Do national enforcement action plans and budgets make provision for the
collection and submission of samples to designated forensic laboratories?

While the provision of advice on establishing forensic laboratory facilities lies out-
side of the scope of this guide, it is recognized that many countries are still at a
stage of developing such capacity and that this represents a significant investment
in national infrastructure. A number of different models exist for establishing timber
forensic services, from conversion of existing research facilities through to the con-
struction of dedicated laboratories (see [108] for a discussion on the options specifi-
cally for DNA identification laboratories). Sharing forensic service provision across
multiple agencies within a country, or at a regional level between countries should
also be considered. Organizations such as SWFS, ITTO/CITES, UNODC and
TRACE have a mandate to advise on forensic capacity-building, and have extensive
experience in the practicalities of setting up forensic wildlife and timber laboratories.
Consultation with such international expertise should be initiated in the early stages
of laboratory development.
84 Best Practice Guide for Forensic Timber Identification

Benefits of cooperation

“International cooperation should be seen as an opportunity rather than an obstacle”

[109]. Benefits of bilateral cooperation at the regional or international levels include:

• Capacity-building and training from partnerships with advanced research

institutions and crime investigation experts
• Possible financial support for sampling and/or laboratory equipment (instru-
ments and manpower)
• Possible partnerships in research activities
• Mutual support for law enforcement operations to disrupt crime networks
in the country (or countries)
• Assistance to address the challenging seizure event
• Support in protection of forests through joint conservation activities with
relevant organizations and networks

Potential challenges

Officials in a country involved in large-scale timber seizures might encounter a number

of challenges, particularly related to the size of the seizure, which could include:

• Securing the seized timber to preserve evidence

• Adequate, secure storage facilities for the seized exhibits
• Extracting, documenting and processing forensic evidence
• Collecting timber samples for forensic analysis
• Processing samples or shipping them to processing labs
• Adequate financial budgets to cover the costs of storage, handling, shipment
and laboratory analysis
• Subsequent investigations and prosecutions
• Provisions for transit, import, export and re-export of the samples, e.g.
CITES permits
• Deciding about further actions, such as controlled deliveries or dispatch of
targeted law enforcement to identified illegal logging hotspots

Challenges may also arise in connection with forensic method development and
related research projects, including:

• Collecting timber samples for forensic analysis, including documentation

Part IV. International cooperation 85

• Processing samples or shipping them to processing laboratories in other

countries
• Covering the costs of handling, shipment and laboratory analysis
• Provisions for transit, import, export and re-export of the samples, e.g.
CITES permits

While countries can benefit from international cooperation, there are potential bar-
riers that can hinder the process, such as:

• National sensitivities or restrictions to accepting international assistance in

general or from specific countries
• Reluctance to release laboratory results that might be perceived as having
other intellectual property value
• Considerations on export or import of timber as either scientific research
objects or law enforcement exhibits
• Restrictions against releasing material from a crime scene to an institution
in another country for forensic analysis
• Stricter domestic measures on national implementation of CITES adopted
in some countries
• Delayed access to seized timber for forensic analysis
• Sensitivities about loss of control over use of expatriated timber samples
• Concern about destructive sampling of timber
• Restrictions on international information-sharing about crime suspects
• Barriers to the international transfer of physical evidence
• Lack of relevant information related to a specific timber seizure that can
be shared for research activities
• International agreements on the exchange of genetic material that can
become an obstacle to trade samples for scientific research or forensic
work

23. Scientific areas requiring international

cooperation
To increase global capacity in forensic timber identification, a set of priority areas
and associated actions have been identified that should be addressed through inter-
national cooperation and collaboration in science.
86 Best Practice Guide for Forensic Timber Identification

Reference sample collections

The development and application of forensic timber identification methodologies

generally requires access to high quality reference material. For most disciplines,
this is required in the form of timber, similar in character to those materials expected
to be received for casework, e.g. if heartwood is likely to be encountered in trade,
scientists will usually require heartwood reference samples to develop forensic iden-
tification tests. There is a need to improve the quantity, quality, and access to sci-
entific reference materials both nationally and internationally (see section 12 for
more information). Actions towards this goal should include:

• Collaborative reference sample collection efforts, e.g. [110]. Accessing

remote locations usually poses the greatest challenges to collection efforts,
not least due to the expense incurred. By maximizing the suites of species
and kinds of samples and information collected, and curating collections
in a way that allows maximum utilization, greater returns on collection
effort investments can be achieved.
• Streamlining the permit system for the collection, exchange and loaning of
reference material. The collection and sharing of reference materials is
crucial to the development of forensic timber identification technologies,
however the processes in place to facilitate export of samples, especially
for CITES species, are often time and resource intensive, sometimes result-
ing a complete inability to obtain the required reference materials. Stream-
lining of these processes would facilitate more research into forensic timber
identification methods.
• Digitization and online access to collection records. The digitization of
existing records can provide a fast and accurate way to share reference data
without requirements for permits. Although some resources exist (see
annex 16), greater utilization of these resources should be encouraged, both
in terms of using and contributing data. However, great care is required in
curation of data to ensure that they are fit for purpose.

Technical capacity

There is a need to increase the technical capacity of scientists, law enforcement per-
sonnel and industry to identify timber. A greater capacity in this area would improve
correct identification at the point of harvest, increase illegal timber detection and
subsequent prosecution rates, and facilitate the effective exchange of information and
knowledge between entities and authorities. Actions towards this goal should include:

• Wood scientists should be trained for routine identification work.

• Metrics for wood scientists doing identification work should be developed
to improve recognition of their value.
Part IV. International cooperation 87

• Within-forest identification should be improved through training of loggers

(incorporating indigenous local knowledge and parataxonomy). By training
legitimate loggers to better identify trees in the field, harvesting of the
correct species can be increased and species information can more easily
accompany the timber along supply chains.
• Research should be undertaken to support the development of techniques
for identifying the components of wood composite materials (see annex 2).

Forensic science capacity

There is a need to increase the capacity of experts in timber identification to under-

take their work in a forensically sound manner, to ensure that results are appropriate
for use in supporting legal cases. Through international cooperation, approaches can
be standardized to ensure that information can be exchanged meaningfully and that
the quality of results is consistent between jurisdictions. This Guide presents a
significant step forward in this area, and further actions should include:

• Forensic validation studies to be completed for all timber identification

methods
• Coordination of proficiency testing programme(s) in forensic timber
identification
• Increase uptake of suitable forensic standards and guidelines for laboratory
identification work (see SWFS Standards and guidelines for forensic botany
identification, available from www.wildlifeforensicscience.org/swgwild/
swgwild-work-products)

Coordination

There is a need to improve the overall coordination of efforts in the space of forensic
timber identification in order to maximize synergies and collaborative opportunities
and minimize redundant efforts. Greater coordination would improve correct iden-
tification at the point of harvest, increase illegal timber detection and subsequent
prosecution rates, and facilitate the effective exchange of information and knowledge
between entities and authorities. Actions towards this goal should include:

• Support efforts that further integrate major international stakeholders

• Actively engage with the private sector to develop policies and technologies
relevant to timber forensic identification
• Ensure that future work focuses on species of importance within the timber
trade, including both CITES and non-CITES-listed taxa
88 Best Practice Guide for Forensic Timber Identification

24. Legal areas requiring international

cooperation
In investigating and prosecuting timber crimes, legal personnel cannot afford to be
focused only on the law enforcement and scientific tools available within their own
countries. Increasingly, assistance must be sought from other countries to success-
fully investigate and prosecute cases. Criminals engaged in timber crime do not
respect borders. To the contrary, they use geographic boundaries to conceal their
illegal activities and to provide safe havens for themselves and assets derived from
their crimes. Therefore, effective investigators and prosecutors must develop a work-
ing knowledge of foreign laws and legal standards and the tools available to secure
evidence and witness testimony from witnesses in other countries.

For example, prosecution in multiple countries is often necessary to deter both the
supply and demand sides of timber crimes. However, the laws, required evidence,
and burdens of proof necessary to obtain a criminal conviction can vary widely from
country to country. In addition, these prosecutions usually involve the same physical
evidence. Therefore, it is important to understand the legal standards applicable in
each country that may bring a prosecution to ensure that they do not do anything
that might preclude prosecutions in other countries (e.g. destruction of evidence
during testing).

Some areas that frequently require international cooperation include:

• Obtaining documentary evidence
• Witness interviews
• Conducting depositions
• Subpoenas
• Gaining custody of targets
• Recovering assets and proceeds of a crime
• Interpretation of the national laws of an exporting country and of grounds
for violation

Sovereignty issues

Improper efforts by an investigator or prosecutor to investigate crime or gather

evidence in a foreign country can be considered a violation of that country’s sov-
ereignty, which can result in diplomatic protests, denial of access, or even arrest.
Sovereignty is legal concept that holds a government possesses full control over its
affairs within its country, without any interference from outside sources or bodies.
There are several methods that prosecutors and investigators can use to obtain the
aid of a foreign country without raising sovereignty issues.
Part IV. International cooperation 89

Making contact with foreign agencies—informal

Person-to-person contacts are often the quickest way to get information from another
country. Obtaining information in real time can also help a prosecutor determine
whether a more formal request would be useful.

Examples of the sort of useful information that can be obtained through informal
contacts include:

• Identification of targets and witnesses

• Interviews by local police
• Location of assets and property
• Criminal histories

Pre-existing contacts are usually the best way to make informal contact with counter­
parts in other countries as there is already a rapport and basis of trust between the
two parties. Establishing these relationships before a case arises is strongly encour-
aged. By establishing such contacts proactively, through trainings, conferences and
other international capacity-building activities, a prosecutor can ensure that foreign
assistance will be available when needed.

If an investigator or prosecutor does not have a pre-existing contact in a foreign

country, he can also submit a request for assistance via INTERPOL through his
country’s National Central Bureau (NCB). They will then make contact with the
other country’s NCB, who will make sure the request gets to the appropriate agency.

While the informal route is often the quickest way to obtain information, it has one
significant drawback. Evidence obtained informally is usually not admissible in
court, as the rules of evidence in most countries require that testimony and evidence
be offered only through a live witness. In addition, this informal method does not
provide an enforcement mechanism, such as the ability to enforce a subpoena for
a witness to testify in another country. As a result, prosecutors must turn to more
formal methods to obtain admissible evidence and ensure the appearance of wit-
nesses at trial.

Making contact with foreign agencies—formal

Letters rogatory

One formal method of obtaining admissible evidence and testimony involves the
use of letters rogatory. Letters rogatory are requests from courts in one country to
the courts of another country for the performance of an act which, if done without
the sanction of the foreign court, could constitute a violation of that country's
90 Best Practice Guide for Forensic Timber Identification

sovereignty. Letters rogatory may be used to effect service of process or to obtain

evidence if permitted by the laws of the foreign country. They are the customary
means of obtaining judicial assistance from another country in the absence of a
treaty or other agreement.

Before initiating the letters rogatory process, prosecutors should determine whether
the country where they are seeking to serve process or take evidence is a party to
any multilateral treaties on judicial assistance, such as the Hague Service or Evidence
Conventions, or the Inter-American Convention on Letters Rogatory and Additional
Protocol. Streamlined procedures for requesting judicial assistance under these
­conventions greatly reduce the time and burden associated with traditional letters
rogatory. (See below–MLAT requests.)

Typically letter rogatory requests must contain the following information:

• A statement that a request for international judicial assistance is being made

in the interests of justice
• A brief synopsis of the case, including identification of the parties and the
nature of the claim and relief sought to enable the foreign court to under-
stand the issues involved
• The type of case, e.g. civil, criminal, administrative
• The nature of the assistance required, e.g. compel testimony or production
of evidence, service of process
• Name, address and other identifiers, such as corporate title, of the person
overseas to be served or from whom evidence is to be compelled, docu-
ments to be served
• A list of questions to be asked, where applicable, generally in the form of
written interrogatories
• A list of documents or other evidence to be produced
• A statement from the requesting court expressing a willingness to provide
similar assistance to judicial authorities of the receiving State
• A statement that the requesting court or party is willing to reimburse the
judicial authorities of the receiving state for costs incurred in executing the
requesting court's letters rogatory

Unfortunately, the letters rogatory process is lengthy. Execution of letters rogatory

may take a year or more. Letters rogatory are customarily transmitted via diplomatic
channels, a time-consuming means of transmission.

In addition, foreign courts will generally execute letters rogatory in accordance with
the laws and regulations of the foreign country. In compelling evidence, for example,
many foreign courts do not permit foreign attorneys to participate in their court
Part IV. International cooperation 91

proceedings. Not all foreign countries utilize the services of court reporters or rou-
tinely provide verbatim transcripts. Sometimes the presiding judge will dictate his
or her recollection of the witness' responses, which may not be considered competent
evidence in other countries. A further complication is that letters rogatory assistance
is often restricted to securing evidence and testimony only for trial rather than dur-
ing the investigation.

Lastly, letters rogatory are only requests from one court to another. Foreign courts
are not required to provide the requested assistance. For these reasons, prosecutors
may prefer to obtain evidence and testimony through the use of mutual legal assis-
tance treaty requests.

Mutual legal assistance treaties

A mutual legal assistance treaty (MLAT) is an agreement between two or more

countries that allows for the exchange of evidence and information in criminal mat-
ters. MLAT requests are requests for assistance in obtaining evidence for criminal
investigations and prosecutions, such as witness statements and the service of docu-
ments. Such assistance may also take the form of examining and identifying people,
places and things, custodial transfers, and the immobilization of the instruments of
criminal activity.

Unlike letters rogatory, MLAT requests are not made to, or through, the courts.
Instead they are made through the designated “central authority” of each country.
Terms of an MLAT can vary—for example, some MLATs exclude specific types of
crimes. One advantage of MLAT requests is that assistance is usually obligatory.
Another is that MLAT assistance is available during both the investigative and trial
stages of a case.

Summary of international issues and solutions that can

arise in a criminal prosecution
This section has covered just some of the many international issues and solutions that
can arise in a criminal prosecution. The important practice pointers for investigators
and prosecutors are:
• Consider potential adverse consequences their actions might have on related
cases in other countries.
• Become familiar with different tools, both formal and informal, available to
secure evidence and witness testimony from foreign countries.
• Work proactively to develop relationships with relevant international partners
so that they have resources they can access when specific cases arise.
92 Best Practice Guide for Forensic Timber Identification

25. Support available: networks, tools and

communication mechanisms

One of the most effective means of facilitating international cooperation is through

regional and international coordination mechanisms and networks. At the operational
level, regional cooperation arrangements may include the designation of international
cooperation focal points, communication of national requirements and procedures
for cooperation, creation of secure communication channels or platforms, and mech-
anisms for handling cases and sharing experiences between authorities of participat-
ing States. Such activities may focus on the facilitation of formal judicial cooperation
and informal or formal law enforcement cooperation and intelligence-sharing. Those
activities are not necessarily dependent upon a treaty basis and may exist alongside
or in the absence of regional cooperation treaties.

In general, regional cooperation networks can play a significant role in pursuing

transnational or regional approaches to criminal investigations, whether these net-
works comprise of enforcement personnel, scientists or multidisciplinary groups.
Regional networks enhance personal contacts, build mutual trust between practition-
ers and are conducive to forming a better understanding of their respective legal
and scientific procedural and operational requirements.

This section outlines some of the numerous networks, mechanisms and tools cur-
rently available to facilitate regional and international cooperation and communica-
tion, for enforcement and for science. Their functions range from awareness-raising,
capacity-building and best practice implementation to the handling of country- or
region-specific and transnational crime cases. Listing all those available is beyond
the scope of this Guide; however, a selection of those considered most relevant to
tackling timber crime are elaborated below.

International Consortium on Combating Wildlife Crime

Established in 2010, the International Consortium on Combating Wildlife Crime

(ICCWC) is the collaborative effort of the CITES Secretariat, INTERPOL, UNODC,
the World Bank and the World Customs Organization, working to bring coordinated
support to the national wildlife law enforcement agencies and to the subregional
and regional networks that, on a daily basis, act in defence of natural resources (for
more information see www.cites.org/eng/prog/iccwc.php). Improving cooperation is
at the centre of the ICCWC mission “to provide a catalyst for significantly enhanced
global cooperation and capacity to combat wildlife and forest crimes”. The ICCWC
Strategic Programme 2016-2020 identifies improving the use of knowledge and
innovation to inform contemporary approaches to wildlife and forest crime as a
focus area for ICCWC activities. Increasing the use of forensic technology is
Part IV. International cooperation 93

highlighted as a priority area for action in 2016-2020 and ICCWC will offer support
to countries as necessary.3

ICCWC’s collective efforts to promote international cooperation as well as the tools

and support available from the individual partner organizations, are outlined below.

Wildlife Incident Support Team

CITES 16th Conference of the Parties adopted Decision 16.40, paragraph a) on

Enforcement matters calling for the deployment of Wildlife Incident Support Teams
(WISTs), composed of enforcement staff or relevant experts, to be dispatched at the
request of countries affected by significant poaching of CITES specimens, or that
have made large-scale seizures of such specimens, to assist, guide and to facilitate
appropriate follow-up actions in affected countries in the immediate aftermath of an
incident. WISTs can be deployed by ICCWC upon request and subject to available
resources. In particular, such deployments could be mobilized to provide assistance
with investigative support, evidence collection and/or assistance to pursue forensic
analysis.

Requests for the deployment of a WIST can be directed to the CITES Secretariat
or to the INTERPOL General Secretariat via the INTERPOL National Central
Bureau of the country concerned. It is of utmost importance that seizures be treated
as a crime scene and be appropriately preserved until arrival of the international
expert assistance team.

ICCWC Wildlife and Forest Crime Analytic Toolkit

The ICCWC Wildlife and Forest Crime Analytic Toolkit [109] is a technical resource
that assists Member States to complete a national analysis of current preventive and
criminal justice responses related to wildlife and forest crime. The Toolkit assists
in evaluating the following areas relevant to combating wildlife and forest crime:

• Legislation
• Law enforcement matters
• Prosecutorial and judicial capacities
• Factors that drive offences and the effectiveness of preventative
interventions
• The availability and analysis of data and other relevant information

3
See focus area 5 of of the ICCWC Strategic Programme 2016-2020, www.cites.org/sites/default/
files/eng/prog/iccwc/ICCWC_Strategic_Programme_2016-2020_final.pdf
94 Best Practice Guide for Forensic Timber Identification

Using analysis results, ICCWC and relevant authorities identify key areas for
strengthening the national response to wildlife and forest crime. ICCWC uses results
to design specific work plans for national capacity-building and technical
assistance.

CITES Secretariat

The CITES Secretariat has a pivotal role to assist CITES Parties implement the
Convention4 and offers a variety of tools, expertise, documents and training. A
number of these are highlighted below.

Legislative assistance

The Secretariat has developed a template for a model law5 on international trade in
wild fauna and flora that can be used by States Parties in order to develop new, and
analyse existing, legislation. The Secretariat has also issued a legislation checklist6
to review domestic CITES laws. It contains 70 items for review that are based on
resolutions of the CITES Conference of Parties and on the “Guidelines for legisla-
tion to implement CITES”. The checklist contains items relating to the general
design and application of domestic CITES laws; management and scientific authori-
ties; permit requirements; the form and validity of permits and certificates; the revo-
cation, modification and suspension of permits; exceptions to permit requirements;
border controls; the control of consignments and permits; enforcement and penalties;
the disposal of confiscated specimens; the acceptance and refusal of foreign permits;
reports; and financial matters. The Convention’s primary mechanism for encouraging
and assisting Parties’ legislative efforts is through its National Legislation Project,
the aim of which is to ensure that all Parties have a solid legal foundation for regu-
lating international wildlife trade.7

CITES Virtual College

The CITES Virtual College, hosted by the International University of Andalusia, has
become an essential resource in efforts to enhance capacities of Parties, increase
awareness of the Convention and provide learning and training materials on CITES.
It includes a number of interactive courses and training materials online and can be
accessed via the CITES website.8

4
www.cites.org/eng/disc/sec/index.php
5
www.cites.org/sites/default/files/eng/prog/Legislation/E-Model%20law-updated-clean.pdf
6
www.cites.org/sites/default/files/eng/prog/Legislation/ChecklistEN.pdf
7
www.cites.org/legislation
8
www.cites.unia.es/cites/
Part IV. International cooperation 95

Directory of enforcement focal points

National focal points have been identified to improve collaboration and communica-
tion on a number of specific enforcement issues between agencies responsible for
wildlife law enforcement in different countries. The Secretariat has prepared a direc-
tory of wildlife enforcement network focal points and a directory of national enforce-
ment authority focal points, to facilitate increased collaboration at the subregional,
regional and international levels.9

CITES – ITTO Programme

CITES is undertaking significant work in partnership with the International Tropical

Timber Organization (ITTO) to assist countries to implement forensic and non-
forensic timber identification and tracking tools. For more information, please see:
www.itto.int, www.cites.org.

INTERPOL

INTERPOL has a global membership of 190 States, the majority of which have
established a national central bureau (NCB) to act as focal point for cooperation
with its General Secretariat and other NCBs. NCBs can act as points of liaison
between wildlife and forest enforcement units.

INTERPOL can facilitate cross-border law enforcement and assist countries in

gather­ing evidence, locating offenders and their assets. Through its Environmental
­Security Programme, INTERPOL coordinates the actions of multiple countries in
cases with international implications.

INTERPOL Wildlife Crime Working Group

The INTERPOL Wildlife Crime Working Group brings together specialized criminal
investigators from around the world to carry out measures to improve the exchange
of information on:

• Persons or companies involved in the illegal trade in fauna and flora

• Organizations involved in illegal trade in fauna and flora
• Methods of illegal trade in fauna and flora

Participation in the Wildlife Crime Working Group is open to all INTERPOL mem-
ber States and regional representatives; participation is encouraged from

9
www.cites.org/eng/resources/enforcement_focal_points
96 Best Practice Guide for Forensic Timber Identification

environmental experts across the world to maximize the global impact of current
projects and to devise new initiatives.

Ecomessage

The Ecomessage is a structured format for reporting cases related to illegal trade
in endangered species, CITES infractions and other forms of environmental crime
using the secure INTERPOL Global Communication System 24/7 (I-24/7). It is a
tool to facilitate the exchange of information on international environmental crime
cases and to improve the collection, storage, analysis and circulation of such infor-
mation. These messages can be passed from an enforcement agency in one country,
via INTERPOL National Central Bureaus, to the relevant agencies in the other
countries concerned.

Global Communication System 24/7 (I-24-7)

INTERPOL developed the I-24/7 global police communications system to connect

law enforcement officers in member countries. It enables authorized users to share
sensitive and urgent police information with their counterparts around the globe, 24
hours a day, 365 days a year. I-24/7 is the network that enables investigators to
access INTERPOL's range of criminal databases. Authorized users can search and
cross-check data in a matter of seconds, with direct access to databases on suspected
criminals or wanted persons, stolen and lost travel documents, stolen motor vehicles,
fingerprints, DNA profiles and stolen administrative documents. With I-24/7 installed
at all 190 National Central Bureaus, INTERPOL is also working with many countries
on extending access to INTERPOL services beyond the NCB and out to front-line
officers such as customs officials.

Confidential and sensitive law enforcement information related to the illegal trade
in endangered species or other forms of environmental crime can be passed from
an enforcement agency in one country, via INTERPOL National Central Bureaus,
to the relevant agencies in the other countries concerned, using the secure INTER-
POL I-24/7 communications system.

United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime

Established in 1997 through a merger between the United Nations Drug Control
Programme and the Centre for International Crime Prevention, UNODC is a global
leader in the fight against illicit drugs and international crime, operating in all regions
of the world through an extensive network of field offices. UNODC is the guardian
of the United Nations Convention against Transnational Organized Crime and the
United Nations Convention Against Corruption, which are highly relevant to address-
ing wildlife and forest crime.
Part IV. International cooperation 97

UNODC promotes and facilitates formal and informal cooperation between different
types of authorities of countries. UNODC also acts as a liaison between States and
international organizations and facilitates regional networks of cooperation against
organized crime around the world. In May 2014, UNODC launched its “Global
Programme for Combating Wildlife and Forest Crime”. The Global Programme acts
as the overarching umbrella programme for UNODC activities on wildlife and forest
crime.

Sharing Electronic Resources and Laws On Crime

The Sharing Electronic Resources and Laws on Crime (SHERLOC) knowledge

management portal was developed by UNODC to facilitate the dissemination of
information regarding the implementation of the United Nations Convention against
Transnational Organized Crime and its three Protocols. SHERLOC hosts the case
law database, the database of legislation, the bibliographic database; and the direc-
tory of competent authorities. In addition to granting users direct access to individual
laws and cases on wildlife and forest crime, SHERLOC facilitates cooperation in
tackling wildlife and forest crime because it also provides users with:

• National, regional and global overviews of relevant laws that criminalize

wildlife and forest crime
• Relevant jurisprudence on wildlife and forest crime, which countries with
similar legal systems can rely on in court
• Legislative assistance, in that drafters may refer to the manner in which
the criminalization of wildlife and forest crime has been approached by
various countries
• Lessons learned and best practices, as the cases listed in SHERLOC high-
light reasons behind the successes of countries during international
cooperation

Directories of Competent National Authorities

Competent National Authorities under the Convention against Transnational

Organized Crime

This directory lists the competent national authorities designated to receive, respond
to and process requests for mutual legal assistance, extradition, transfer of sentenced
persons, as well as contact points to facilitate international cooperation within the
application of the Organized Crime Convention for the purpose of preventing and
combating trafficking in cultural property. The legal bases for designating these
authorities include the United Nations Convention on Transnational Organized Crime
(articles 16, 17, 18 and 31) and General Assembly resolution 68/186 (paragraph 6).
98 Best Practice Guide for Forensic Timber Identification

The directory can be accessed via the UNODC website here: https://www.unodc.
org/compauth/en/index.html

Competent National Authorities under the United Nations Convention Against

Corruption

This directory lists the competent national authorities designated to receive, respond
to and process requests for mutual legal assistance and asset recovery, as well as
requests for sharing national experience in developing and implementing specific
measures for the prevention of corruption. The legal bases for designating these
authorities are the United Nations Convention Against Corruption (articles 6 and
46), and paragraph 18 of Resolution 4/4 on International Cooperation in Asset
Recovery adopted by the Conference of States Parties to the Convention. The direc-
tory can be accessed via the UNODC website here: www.unodc.org/compauth_
uncac/en/index.html

Mutual Legal Assistance Request Writer tool

As part of its legal assistance services to States to help effectively implement those
instruments, UNODC has developed a Mutual Legal Assistance Request Writer Tool
to help practitioners prepare in a timely manner proper, complete and effective
requests, thus streamlining the MLA process. The Tool is designed to cover all
serious offences, not just those established in accordance with international treaties
or conventions.

The Tool guides practitioners step-by-step through the drafting process, using screen
templates. The drafter selects drop-down menus in each template and fills in the
various data fields provided. These fields can be easily adjusted to meet the legal
and procedural requirements of the Requesting State. The Tool requires drafters to
complete each screen sequentially to avoid incomplete requests and minimize risks
of delay or refusal.

Once the drafter finishes entering the data, the Tool consolidates all data, and gener-
ates a draft request for final editing and signature. All requests written with the Tool
can be saved into a database and accessed at any later time.

If there is uncertainty as to whether the information required from the Requested

State needs the submission of a formal MLA request or, instead, an informal request
suffices, the practitioners in the Requesting State should check in advance with the
central authority of the Requested State whether a formal or informal request is
needed.

The MLA Tool is currently available in English, French, Spanish, Russian, Portu-
guese, Bosnian, Croatian, Montenegrin and Serbian and has been revised to include
Part IV. International cooperation 99

additional elements/modules on asset recovery, digital evidence, transfer of criminal

proceedings, joint investigations, controlled delivery and videoconferencing. It can
be accessed on the UNODC website at: www.unodc.org/mla/en/index.html

Support to Regional Networks

At the regional level, UNODC has continued to support Member States in setting
up informal networks of prosecutors and central authorities to facilitate international
cooperation, such as the Central American Network of Prosecutors against Organized
Crime and the Network of West African Central Authorities and Prosecutors.

UNODC has also been working in promoting the so-called “networking the net-
works” initiative. The initiative is aimed at building stronger cooperation links
between various regional and international law enforcement organizations to ensure
interregional criminal intelligence-sharing and to support multilateral joint or coor-
dinated operations. Moreover, it facilitates the building of contacts and links between
law enforcement, prosecutorial and financial intelligence networks, with a view to
efficiently targeting transnational organized crime.

UNODC’s experience with supporting regional networks suggests that key features
for success include the embedding of the network in an existing institutional struc-
ture, such as the Central American Council of Public Prosecutors in the case of the
REFCO scandal. Clear founding documents, regulations and strategic plans are also
critical to effective network operation. Where networks are based on links between
central authorities, they may include contact point specialization for specific crimes
such as terrorism or corruption, but should seek to address all forms of transnational
crime. This approach can lead to a strengthening of central authorities as a single
contact point for international judicial cooperation in criminal matters. In addition,
whilst some forms of crime require a specific regional focus, transnational crime is
increasingly demanding a global and interregional response. Once established,
regional arrangements must therefore be progressively outward looking, including
through the development of connections between different regional networks. Such
a “networking of networks” approach may offer one route to enhanced global coop-
eration in criminal matters.

UNODC-WCO Container Control Programme

The UNODC-WCO Container Control Programme (CCP) supports countries in the

creation of container profiling inter-agency port units at selected container terminals
in seaports or dry ports to minimize the exploitation of high-risk containers for the
illicit trafficking of drugs and other transnational organized crime activities. In doing
so, emphasis is placed on training customs and law enforcement agencies in the
application of efficient risk profiling and inspections of high risk cargo containers
at sea, land and airports.
100 Best Practice Guide for Forensic Timber Identification

At the core of the CCP is the establishment of Port Control Units (PCUs), comprised
of various law enforcement agencies, which undergo a standardized, phased training
programme. In addition, specialized training programmes and study visits are pro-
vided to the PCUs.

Part of the CCP’s training programme is an increased awareness and knowledge of

the risk indicators of environmental crime. During the theoretical classroom training,
as well as advanced specialized training, sessions are dedicated to CITES and wild-
life crime, of which the issues of illegal timber logging and trade are an integral
part.

Officials of various PCUs have already successfully applied their acquired skills in
the area of timber trafficking, using risk management and inspecting suspicious
containers, which resulted in the seizure of tons of illicit timber and other wildlife
products.

Improved international cooperation and information sharing are the best ways to
increase the capacity of law enforcement agencies to identify high-risk containers.
The PCUs are therefore trained in exchanging information with other PCUs and law
enforcement agencies, including through the use of tailored information systems
such as ContainerCOMM (developed by the World Customs Organization). Such
information shared amongst law enforcement agencies worldwide, provides the vital
data and intelligence that enables the targeting and interdiction of illicit goods. In
addition, study tours to other ports and PCUs are regularly undertaken to exchange
experiences and information. As a result, seizures based on information exchange
through ContainerCOMM have been observed following such visits.

Countries can join the CCP upon request. The CCP team will assess and discuss
national needs and develop an implementation plan with the country concerned (based
on available funding). The Programme is currently operational in 28 countries.

World Customs Organization

The World Customs Organization (WCO) is an independent intergovernmental body

whose mission is to enhance the effectiveness and efficiency of customs administra-
tions. WCO have developed tools to enhance communication between customs offi-
cials, other law enforcement authorities and international organizations.

Customs Enforcement Network

The Customs Enforcement Network (CEN) is a global network for gathering

­customs-related data and information. Operated by WCO, CEN enables customs
officers around the world to exchange information on customs offences and to share
intelligence in a timely, reliable and secure manner with direct access available 24
Part IV. International cooperation 101

hours per day. CEN is Internet-based and uses effective database protection norms,
using encryption technology to protect communication and data transfers.

Tools available on CEN include:

• The CEN database records customs seizures and offences classified under
13 different headings covering the main fields of customs enforcement
activity, including the trade in endangered species of fauna and flora under
CITES. Pictures illustrating concealment methods and X-ray images are
also available. All pictures can be downloaded and used for training
purposes.
• The CEN website contains alerts on enforcement-related issues, as well as
intelligence needed by customs services. It comprises a reference system,
alert messages, situation sheets, dedicated pages for regional liaison offices,
links to other organizations and so forth.
• The communication application is a tool that facilitates the exchange and
use of any information in a timely, reliable and secure manner.

The CEN system electronically links customs administrations through the WCO
network of regional intelligence liaison offices. WCO members and regional intel-
ligence liaison offices can report seizure information to the CEN database. They, in
turn, benefit by being able to use the database to conduct national, regional and
interregional analysis and publish alerts. Each participating WCO member nominates
a national contact point that acts as a hub between the national customs administra-
tion and the relevant regional intelligence liaison offices.

ENVIRONET

ENVIRONET is a global real-time communication tool for use in the fight against
cross-border environment-related offences, operated by WCO. ENVIRONET provides
a secure, Internet-based platform for customs officials, other law enforcement authori-
ties and international organizations, as well as their regional networks, to cooperate
with one another and share information in the course of their daily operations. Infor-
mation related to all commodities that have the potential to damage the environment
and that are covered by trade-related multilateral environment agreements can be
exchanged via ENVIRONET. This includes endangered fauna and flora, and issues
such as ozone-depleting substances, hazardous waste and materials, pesticides, chemi-
cal weapons and living, modified organisms. To increase coordination and streamline
activities, the CITES Secretariat recently integrated its Enforcement Forum with
ENVIRONET. ENVIRONET now includes specific folders on CITES Notifications
on enforcement matters, alerts issued by the CITES Secretariat, CITES sample per-
mits and certificates and other relevant materials and information.10

10
For further information see: www.cites.org/sites/default/files/notif/E-Notif-2015-039.pdf
102 Best Practice Guide for Forensic Timber Identification

Regional Intelligence Liaison Office

The exchange of intelligence at national, regional and international levels is a critical

mechanism employed by customs authorities to create conditions for more efficient
enforcement actions and controls, and to secure the optimum use of available resources.
WCO established the first Regional Intelligence Liaison Office (RILO) in 1987 with
the intent of creating a Global Intelligence Network. Today the RILO network has
grown to 11 offices providing effective coverage throughout all six WCO regions.

Each of the 11 RILO offices covers a number of WCO member States and responds
to their intelligence needs at the regional level. The RILO network also supports its
WCO member administrations by providing them operational support, designing and
implementing target-oriented intelligence analysis projects and regional intelligence-
led operations, facilitating mutual administrative assistance and promoting and main-
taining regional cooperation with other law enforcement agencies and organizations.
The RILO network often uses the CEN database to analyse seizures and develop
regional intelligence products while the CENcomm platform serves to exchange
operational information and facilitate secure communications among members and
partners.

World Bank

World Bank is a vital source of financial and technical assistance to developing

countries around the world and an important partner in the fight against forest crime.

Program on Forests

Well-managed forests have the potential to reduce poverty, spur economic develop-
ment and contribute to a healthy local and global environment. The Program on
Forests (PROFOR) was created in 1997 to support in-depth analysis, innovative
processes and knowledge-sharing and dialogue, in the belief that sound forest policy
can lead to better outcomes on issues ranging from livelihoods and financing, to
illegal logging, biodiversity and climate change. Since 2002, the program has been
managed by a core team based at the World Bank, with support from multiple
donors. PROFOR encourages a big-picture approach to forest conservation and man-
agement in developing countries, with a particular focus on four themes: livelihoods;
financing sustainable forest management; across sectors; and governance. For more
information see: www.porfor.info

Forest Law Enforcement and Governance

Forest Law Enforcement and Governance (FLEG) processes are regional initiatives
coordinated by the World Bank and organized in cooperation with governments and
Part IV. International cooperation 103

consumer countries. Today, regional FLEG initiatives have been developed in Africa,
Europe, Latin America, North Asia, and South-East Asia. The objectives of the
FLEG processes are to improve governance in the forest sector and to foster inter-
national dialogue and cooperation to fight illegal logging and trade between wood
producer and consumer countries by improving linkages and harmonizing regula-
tions. The FLEG processes emphasize support for developing an understanding
between producing and consuming countries and for developing schemes designed
to ensure that only legal timber enters the markets of consumer countries. Imple-
mentation of FLEG in Europe and North Asia has been supported by the European
Union through a collaborative arrangement with national governments and other
stakeholders, the World Bank, the International Union for Conservation of Nature
and the World Wildlife Fund. For more information see: www.worldbank.org/en/
topic/forests/brief/fleg-regional-forest-law-enforcement-governance

Wildlife Enforcement Networks and Groups

Capacity-building and the sharing of resources can be facilitated by dedicated wild-

life enforcement networks (WENs). A number of regional WENs have been estab-
lished to facilitate cross-border cooperation among agencies involved in preventing
and suppressing wildlife crime, including timber crime. Networks have been created
in a number of regions across the world, in Asia, Africa, Europe as well as in South,
Central and North America.

WENs and other wildlife enforcement groups coordinate the regional response to
illegal trade in protected species. They provide a mechanism by which countries
can share information and best practices as well as improve coordination and col-
laboration of law enforcement agencies within the respective regions.

Scientific and Forensic Networks

The Society for Wildlife Forensic Science (SWFS) is an international organization

with the mission of developing wildlife forensic science into a comprehensive, inte-
grated and mature discipline. Membership of SWFS is open to forensic practitioners
and other stakeholders in the wildlife forensics community. SWFS works to ensure
that forensic standards are met and has developed standards and guidelines for
forensic analysts performing botanical identifications, as a method to achieve the
minimum level of quality assurance considered necessary for performing wildlife
forensic casework (see SWFS Standards and guidelines for forensic botany identi-
fication, available from www.wildlifeforensicscience.org/swgwild/swgwild-work-
products). SWFS promotes international cooperation and collaboration between
laboratories and convenes meetings on a biannual or triennial basis. For more infor-
mation see: www.wildlifeforensicscience.org. A regional wildlife forensic network
has been established in South-East Asia, and an African wildlife forensic network
is currently being promoted. For more information see www.tracenetwork.org.
104 Best Practice Guide for Forensic Timber Identification

There are multiple regional forensic networks that do not have dedicated working
groups on timber specifically. However, they are entities that can assist in forensic
scientific issues. The International Forensic Strategic Alliance (IFSA) is a multilat-
eral partnership between the regional networks of operational forensic laboratories.
IFSA represents a cooperative entity comprising the member networks with the aim
to create opportunities for strategic collaboration across the global forensic science
community. IFSA has issued minimum requirements for forensic laboratories starting
with three areas: crime scene, DNA and drugs. Both crime scene and DNA are
relevant to any forensic case with the aim to enhance basic capacity and a standard-
ized approach that enables international cooperation. For more information see:
www.ifsa-forensics.org.

The Global Timber Tracking Network (GTTN) is an open, informal network of

scientists and other stakeholders who are working on technologies and policies to
reduce illegal logging and associated trade worldwide. It is a global platform
bringing together the science, scientists, policymakers and other key players to
­
address the issues in a coordinated and holistic way. For more information see­
www.globaltimbertrackingnetwork.org.
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103. 
Examples of agencies that can provide stable isotope reference standards:
International Atomic Energy Agency, https://nucleus.iaea.org/rpst/reference-
products/ReferenceMaterials/index.htm; US Geological Survey, http://iso-
topes.usgs.gov/lab/referencematerials.html.
104. The Society for Wildlife Forensic Sciences.
105. Evett, I.W. and B.S. Weir, Interpreting DNA evidence: statistical genetics for
forensic scientists. 1998: Sinauer.
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107. Triggs, C.M., J.S. Buckleton, and S.J. Walsh, Forensic DNA evidence inter-
pretation. 2004: CRC Press.
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ogy, 2010. 6(3): p. 172-179.
109. The United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime, ICCWC Wildlife and Forest
Crime Analytic Toolkit. Specifically Part 2.5.7, p.96-98 and Tool II.29, p.97-
98. 2013, Available from: www.unodc.org/documents/Wildlife/Toolkit_e.pdf.
110. 
The AusPlots facility of the Australian Terrestrial Ecosystem Research Net-
work (TERN) is federally funded to collect data and reference materials from
across Australia, and curate these resources for ongoing use by the scientific
community. The collections are considered as "data infrastructure" and by
optimizing collection efforts across a broad suite of species, sample types and
geographic regions, the Australian science community has access to extensive
systematically collected reference materials. See www.ausplots.org for further
information.
Annex 1. Glossary

Accreditation: Specifically for laboratories. A process in which laboratories can

demonstrate their competence through adherence to specific standards, e.g. ISO/
IEC 17025.

Allele: Name for alternative forms of the same gene or locus (same position on
homologous chromosomes).

Annotations: Specifically CITES. Information regarding the specific circumstances in

which the CITES Convention applies for specific species, e.g. may exclude specific
product types or geographical regions.

Appendices: Specifically CITES. Appendices I, II and III to CITES are lists of spe-
cies afforded different levels or types of protection from over-exploitation through
the Convention.

Barcoding: Specifically DNA. Sequencing of short sections of DNA from standard-

ized regions of the genome that can be used to identify different Taxa.

Certification: Specifically for analysts. A process in which analysts can ­demonstrate

their competence through adherence to specific standards, e.g. SWFS Wildlife
­Forensic Scientist Certification.

CO1: Mitochondrial cytochrome oxidase gene region chosen as the standard barcod-
ing region for animals.

Codified: Arranged into a systematic code.

Controlled deliveries: The technique of allowing suspect consignments to pass out

of, through, or into the territory of one or more countries with the knowledge and
under the supervision of their competent authorities, with a view to identifying
persons involved in the commission of offences.

Dendrochronology: The study of tree growth increments. The science of dendrochro-

nology is based on analysis of the periodic, often annual growth increments (tree
rings) formed in most temperate and some tropical tree species.

Forensic: Term used to denote something that is related to or used in courts of law.

113
114 Best Practice Guide for Forensic Timber Identification

Genetic marker: a region of DNA that is known to vary between individuals, e.g.
Microsatellite, Single Nucleotide Polymorphism.

Genus: A principal taxonomic category that ranks above species and below family,
and is denoted by a capitalized Latin name, e.g. Dalbergia.

Groups: Specifically as determined through a timber inventory. A group is a set of

items in a load that share defining characteristics, e.g. unprocessed logs, planks, and
picture frames would all constitute separate groups.

Heartwood: Heartwood is wood nearer the pith of a trunk or branch of a tree,

generally different in colour from sapwood.

Herbarium: A systematically arranged and curated collection of dried plant materials

that is available to the scientific community for study.

HS Code: Harmonized System (HS) Code, or The Harmonized Commodity Descrip-

tion and Coding System of tariff nomenclature is an internationally standardized
system of names and numbers to classify traded products.

Inspection: The act of careful examination of documents, or the contents of a load,

vehicle, or premises in accordance with the legal powers granted to the person
undertaking the inspection. See Search.

Identification: To establish the identity of an unknown material e.g. timber. Compare

with Verification.

Individualization: The process of identifying specific individuals of a species.

Increment core: Wood sample obtained through use of an increment borer or coring
drill. The core typically transects multiple tree rings and facilitates dendrochrono-
logical and radiocarbon analyses.

Law enforcement: Includes police, customs officers, detectives and a range of

­authorities tasked with enforcing laws.

Letters rogatory: The customary means of obtaining judicial assistance from another
country in the absence of a treaty or other agreement. Letters rogatory may be used
to effect service of process or to obtain evidence if permitted by the laws of the
foreign country.

Load: The contents or cargo of any storage facility or means of transport, e.g. a
shipping container, an aircraft hold, a trailer, a shed.

Load map: Diagrammatic representation of the contents of a load, developed by

law enforcement and showing the original locations of items as found in the load,
along with how they were unpacked and which items were sampled for analysis.
Annex 1. Glossary 115

Macroscopic: With specific reference to wood anatomy, the macroscopic structure

is that which can be observed with the naked eye, or minimal magnification such
as a hand lens.

Management authority: Specifically CITES. National management authority desig-

nated in accordance with article IX, CITES.

Mass spectrometry: Ionization of chemical compounds to generate charged mole­

cules and measurement of the mass-to-charge ratios.

matK: maturase K, one of the two chloroplast gene regions chosen as standard
barcoding regions for plants. See also rbcL.

Microsatellite: Also termed Simple Sequence Repeat (SSR) or Short Tandem Repeats
(STR). See Genetic marker.

Microscopic: With specific reference to wood anatomy, the microscopic structure is

that which can only be observed through use of a microscope.

Mutual Legal Assistance Treaty: MLAT. An agreement between two or more coun-
tries that allow for the exchange of evidence and information in criminal matters.

Near Infrared Spectroscopy: NIRS. Measurement of the absorption spectra of materi-

als when exposed to near infrared electromagnetic energy.

Officer: A person holding a position of authority within law enforcement.

Parataxonomy: the use of less-qualified, non-professional taxonomists to undertake

classification work, generally in the field. Parataxonomy utilizes less specialized (but
more readily available) human resources to identify recognizable taxonomic units.
Compare with Taxonomy.

Phylogeography: The study of the historical processes that shape contemporary

geographic distributions of individuals, particularly by considering the geographic
distribution of individuals and their genetics.

Pith: The centre of a tree trunk, around which growth rings emanate. The pith is
the remains of the original stem.

Population genetics: The study of the distribution and change in frequency of alleles
within populations of organisms.

Proficiency testing: A means of assessing the ability of laboratories and analysts to

competently perform specific tests and measurements.

Profiling: Specifically DNA. The method by which an organism is genotyped across

a range of genetic markers to develop their individual genetic “fingerprint”.
116 Best Practice Guide for Forensic Timber Identification

Provenance: Specifically timber. The place of origin. Provenance can refer to mul-
tiple geographic scales, e.g. country, forest, concession, plantation.

Quality assurance: QA. The concept of using systems and procedures to control
quality and maintain continuous improvement of a product or service.

Radiocarbon: Specifically dating. Determining the age of an object using 14

C (a
radioactive carbon isotope).

rbcL: Ribulose-bisphosphate carboxylase, one of the two chloroplast gene regions

chosen as standard barcoding regions for plants. See also matK.

Reference material: Examples of known materials (e.g. timbers of particular species)

that can be used to develop and calibrate identification tests.

Sample: Analytically, equivalent to Specimen, it is a representative portion of the

whole material to be tested. Statistically, it is a set of data obtained from a population.

Sapwood: The softer outer layers of recently formed wood between the Heartwood
and the bark of a tree.

Search: The act of careful examination of the contents of a load, vehicle, or premises
in accordance with the legal powers granted to the person undertaking the search.
See Inspection.

Shipment: A specific kind of load that will be transported through shipping.

Single Nucleotide Polymorphism: SNP. See Genetic marker.

Species: The principal natural taxonomic unit, ranking below a genus and denoted
by a Latin binomial, e.g. Dalbergia nigra. Most restrictions on the trade of plants
and animals are concerned with the species level of identification; under CITES, the
term includes any species, subspecies or geographically separate population thereof.

Specimen: Analytically, equivalent to Sample. In the context of this Glossary, any

biological material for examination, study or analysis. Under CITES, any animal or
plant, whether alive or dead. In the case of a plant: for species included in appendix
I, any readily recognizable part or derivative thereof; and for species included in
appendices II and III, any readily recognizable part or derivative thereof specified
in appendices II and III in relation to the species.

Stable isotopes: Elements can have multiple isotopes, meaning they have the same
number of protons and electrons, but a different number of neutrons, and thus a dif-
ferent atomic mass. The ratios of the various stable isotopes fluctuate in nature and
are often correlated with various climatological, biological and geological variables.
Annex 1. Glossary 117

Stem disk: A cross-sectional portion of a tree trunk.

Taxonomy: The classification of organisms. See also parataxonomy.

Taxa: From Taxonomy. Taxonomic groups of any rank, e.g. species, genus.

Timber: Wood prepared or intended for use in building and carpentry. Timber is
generally the heartwood and sometimes sapwood of a tree. It does not include the
bark, although this is often intact on raw logs in trade.

Timber inventory: Documentation by law enforcement of the exact contents of a

timber load, including the quantities, dimensions and weight. Where samples are
taken for analysis, the timber inventory (in conjunction with a load map if relevant)
can be used to indicate exactly from where samples originated.

Validation: Specifically Forensic. The performance of laboratory tests to verify

that a particular methodology is working properly. Validation experiments typically
­examine precision, accuracy, and sensitivity, which relate to the reliability, repro-
ducibility and robustness of the methodology. Validation is a requirement for all
forensic testing.

Verification: To verify whether a declaration or claim is correct, e.g. the authentic-

ity of documents, the claimed identity of a material such as timber. Compare with
Identification.

Wood anatomy: Wood anatomy involves the study of the structure of timber at the
micro- and macroscopic levels.

Xylarium: A systematically arranged and curated collection of wood specimens that

is available to the scientific community for study.
Annex 2. Non-timber forest products and
identification considerations
This annex, along with annex 3, is intended provide information about products in
trade that are made from timber as a raw material, but do not necessarily have the
features or qualities required to facilitate identification via the methods described
in this guide. This annex is aimed at people interested in understanding more about
the various wood product types available in trade, how they differ from solid tim-
ber with respect to treatment and processing, and how these factors can impact the
applicability of forensic timber identification methodologies. Further inquiries about
the specific options for forensic identification of non-timber forest products should
be directed to an appropriate expert in wood anatomy. Details of global curated
wood collections and wood anatomy contacts can be found in annexes 9 and 15,
which may assist in locating a suitable expert.

Introduction

This guide is concerned with the applicability of various scientific forensic tech-
niques to timbers, which are sufficiently large, sound, solid pieces of stem wood
such that they don’t impose any artificial limitations on the application of the sci-
ence. Such specimens represent only a part of the trade and are not representative
of many of the wood-based products on the international market. Because of this,
there are a number of factors that must be considered when determining the suit-
ability of a technique for a specific piece of evidence.

The primary considerations are (a) the form of the wood in the product; (b) its
original position within the tree; (c) the degree to which it has been physically,
chemically or biologically altered; and (d) how the wood product was produced and
finished. A critical secondary concern is the degree of damage that is permissible
during examination and analysis. For example, some components of a musical instru-
ment may have been steam-bent, some glued together, others stained or painted, and
for all of these components it may not be possible to sample in such a way as to
expose unmodified wood for analysis. In such cases, the total range of techniques
that could be applied is narrower.

This annex contains a short discussion of each of the limits imposed by conditions
and product types and is followed at the end by a table for quick reference, which
details the applicability of various forensic methods to the various product types.

119
120 Best Practice Guide for Forensic Timber Identification

Product condition

Surface contamination

Regardless of the product type and the nature of wood in the product, the general
condition of the product can influence the range of applicable techniques. For exam-
ple, surface contamination (paint, tar, finish, wax, dirt, debris, etc.) can obscure the
features necessary for any of the rapid-field-identification techniques, and penetra-
tion of these materials into the wood itself can limit even laboratory tests, unless it
is possible to remove enough contaminated wood to expose uncontaminated good
quality wood beneath.

Moisture content

Moisture content is the fraction of the total weight of a piece of wood at a certain
set of conditions relative to the oven-dry weight of the product. In wood, these
values can range from zero (completely dry, which will never be found in trade)
to 200 per cent or more, for lower density timbers that are green (never dried) or
other products that have been saturated with water. Anatomical techniques are not
appreciably affected by moisture content, but other approaches such as near-infrared
spectroscopy (NIRS) are. The kind of drying in wood processing (air drying, kiln-
drying, microwave drying) can influence the extractives present in products or could
alter the quality of DNA extractable from wood, thus influencing the applicability of
these techniques. High moisture content in wood products also establishes conditions
suitable for biological contamination.

Biological contamination

Biological contamination of wood can include mould, bacteria, blue-stain fungi,

decay fungi and a range of insect pests. While insect pests are a profound global
phytosanitary concern, their effect on wood with regard to wood forensics is typi-
cally limited. The larger concerns are bacterial and fungal growth. Both bacteria and
fungi can metabolize many extractives, possibly changing chemical profiles of wood.
Bacteria and most fungi, including moulds, lack the biochemical machinery to truly
degrade the wood substance itself, but can result in significant contamination and
degradation of DNA. Mould and mildew fungi are typically restricted to the surface
of wood and wood products, and so they can be easily removed by exposing the
uncontaminated wood underneath. Wood-inhabiting fungi, however, cannot be so
readily removed. Both blue-stain fungi (which do not eat the wood substance) and
decay fungi (which do) grow inside the wood cells and colonize the wood in an
ordered fashion, first eating the contents of the living cells. Their growth can extend
from millimetres to metres from the surface, and the damage to the wood (especially
chemical damage and DNA degradation) can be severe. Specimens that are thought
Annex 2. Non-timber forest products and identification considerations 121

to be decayed should be clearly noted as such so that forensic staff can examine
them and determine the best application of effort given the likely limitations.

Biological position of wood from within the tree

Another biological consideration is the portion of the tree from which the wood for
a given product was derived. Some aspects of tree structure, chemistry and DNA
quantity/quality change from one part to another (e.g. stem to branch, pith to bark,
heartwood to sapwood, normal wood to reaction wood, juvenile wood to mature
wood) so the origin of the wood within the original tree can influence the applica-
bility of techniques. At the point of inspection and specimen selection, there is no
control over this, but notes and images should be taken about the apparent position
of specimens with respect to its origin in the tree, if such information is known.

Wood processing and product types

Processing of wood raw material as an input to a product (sawn, veneered, glued,

chipped, flaked, ground, powdered, crushed, pulped, milled) directly affects the range
of forensic techniques applicable to the product.

Solid wood

For our purposes, solid wood is timbers, boards, pieces or components of wood,
the smallest dimension of which typically exceeds 8 mm and which are typically
produced by sawing. In this way, a product such as an engineered floorboard could
have both solid wood (the top wear layer, which might exceed 8 mm in thickness)
and a plywood base, with individual plies perhaps only 2-4 mm each in thickness.
A wider range of techniques could be applied to the solid wood surface layer than
to the thin plies beneath.

Veneers

Veneers are thin sheets, rolls, or strips of wood in which two dimensions are typi-
cally on the order of centimetres to metres, and the smallest dimension is generally
between 0.25 mm and 8 mm. Veneers are typically produced either by removing a
long, continuous sheet of tangentially oriented wood (peeled veneers) or by cutting
a veneer flitch with a large knife and removing individual sheets of wood (sliced
veneer). In both cases, it is common for logs to be boiled, steamed, or otherwise
heated with moisture to make the wood easier to cut. Heating wood can drive off
volatile extractives, and heat may also damage DNA quality or cause other chemical
changes. Loose veneers that have not been glued together to form plywood or to
some other substrate may be more like solid wood, especially thicker veneers. Once
122 Best Practice Guide for Forensic Timber Identification

glued into products (often at high temperature and pressure), the expected range of
applicable techniques is diminished.

For both solid wood and veneers, individual pieces may be glued together into larger
composite products (e.g. laminated veneer lumber, parallel strand lumber, finger-
jointed moulding, plywood, etc.). It is becoming more common to find chemically
altered solid wood products, such as acetylated wood, in some high-value forest prod-
ucts, and other common products are often chemically treated (e.g. ­creosote-treated
railroad cross ties, preservative-treated building timbers). All of these chemically
altered products should be considered unknown territory until techniques developed
on solid wood are vetted for each product and application.

Comminuted wood (chips and flakes, particles, flour)

Many wood products are made by re-forming small pieces of wood, often with glues,
binders, waxes, plastics or other non-wood components, into larger products. The three
classes of comminuted wood are “chips and flakes”, “particles” and “wood flour”. Com-
minuted wood is typically generated mechanically by breaking the wood into smaller
pieces. For “chips and flakes”, individual pieces often have their longest two dimensions
in the order of centimetres and their smallest dimension in the order of millimetres.
Individual chips and flakes are mechanically weaker than solid wood pieces of the same
size, which limits the ease with which they can be prepared for microscopy, but does
not otherwise much alter the structure or chemistry of the material.

“Particles” are many times smaller than “flakes and chips” generally ranging from
0.5-8 mm in a single maximum dimension, but with the other two dimensions from
0.5-2 mm. Although there is no appreciable chemical modification of the wood when
“particles” are made, it is extremely common that even a small volume (e.g. 50 cm3)
would contain wood from many different individual trees, and even many species.
Because of this, most identification techniques other than traditional wood anatomy
are not suited to forensic analysis of “particles”. For traditional wood anatomy,
every “particle” is a distinct specimen too large for direct analysis, instead requiring
individual sectioning and preparation; thus, the labour burden even to survey the
woods in a “particle” product is significant.

“Wood flour” is wood powder or dust formed by grinding and sieving wood. Indi-
vidual “wood flour” particles are measured in microns and cannot be processed
individually. Because many different trees, possibly from many different species,
are likely to be present in “wood flour”, only traditional wood anatomy is likely to
be applicable in most contexts.

Fiberized wood

Fiberized wood can be generated using chemical, mechanical or combined chemi-

mechanical methods. The fiberization process can be completed, reducing wood to
Annex 2. Non-timber forest products and identification considerations 123

its component cells as in chemical pulping to make pulp and paper products, or it
can generate individual cells, broken cell fragments, and clusters of many cells, as
in most mechanical or chemi-mechanical processes. Depending on the chemistry and
physical properties of the wood fibre, the material could be used to make paper,
cardboard or a range of fibreboard products. Such products can be made with vari-
ous binders, filling agents, resins, waxes, or with no additives, and may involve
the application of high temperatures and pressures (e.g. some fibreboards) or may
occur largely at ambient temperature (some papermaking processes). For chemically
pulped wood fibre, DNA will have been destroyed, extractives are removed or sig-
nificantly modified, and cell-to-cell positional relationships that are the foundation of
most anatomical identification are gone. Fibre identification by means of traditional
wood anatomy is thus a reduced case of solid wood identification, generally to a
less specific end result. Other forensic techniques applied to mechanically-processed
wood fibre are likely to show the same limits as to wood particles or wood flour
for similar reasons of wood mixing in the process.

Industrial processes to generate the product itself (heating, extracting,

gluing, pressing, drying, painting, etc.)

Regardless of the product condition or the wood processing and product type, the
industrial processes to form a final wood product can either fail to alter or can
reduce the range of forensic techniques applicable. Many products, as noted above,
require heating, gluing, finishing, treating, or otherwise physically and/or chemically
altering the wood substance. High pressures, and typically high temperatures and
moisture contents are involved in the production of panel products such as plywood,
chip- and flakeboards, and fibreboards. Wood-plastic composites require high tem-
peratures and complete encasement of the wood components in plastic, often in a
molding or extrusion process. Even the painting, staining or gluing of solid wood
products can influence the applicability of forensic techniques. Be mindful of the
likely limitations imposed by industrial processing, and don’t hesitate to contact
your forensic expert for clarification.

Quick-reference table of wood, products and forensic

techniques

Table A2.1 provides a quick-reference table of wood, products and forensic tech-
niques. The various types of wood (heartwood, sapwood) or sizes of wood after
processing are shown as rows, and the forensic techniques and context (i.e. to
determine botanical identity or provenance) are shown as columns. In each cell
is a short description of the applicability of the technique to the product in that
particular context.

Note that the table includes a section on the material necessary to develop a refer-
ence dataset to be used in forensic applications. This is included for the sake of
124 Best Practice Guide for Forensic Timber Identification

completeness and highlights one of the benefits of DNA-based techniques, specifi-

cally that destructive sampling is not required (i.e. the tree can remain standing),
which is particularly important for rare, threatened or endangered species. Where
the term “frequently” is used, it denotes that a given technique often works in those
circumstances but sometimes does not, depending on the specific technique or test,
biological variability or changes to the wood during processing (e.g. DNA techniques
will frequently but not always work with solid wood heartwood). Where the term
“rarely” is used, it means that in most cases, a technique will not be applicable.
The term “maybe” indicates that currently scientists do not know whether a tech-
nique will work but expect that sometimes it will (e.g. with machine vision and
determination of provenance, no one has yet tried, but genus/species resolution is
high, so there is an expectation that it will work at least sometimes for provenance).

Further inquiries about the specific options for forensic identification of non-timber
forest products should be directed to an appropriate expert in wood anatomy. Details
of global curated wood collections and wood anatomy contacts can be found in
annexes 9 and 15, which may assist in locating a suitable expert.
Table A2.1 A quick-reference table of wood, products and forensic techniques

Genus/species  identification  of  wood   Determination  of  provenance  of  wood  

Objective   Materials  used  in  the   Wood/   Wood   Machine   Dendro-­‐ Stable   Mass   NIR   Wood   Machine   Dendro-­‐ Stable   Mass   NIR  
Genetics   Genetics  
of  analysis   analysis   Product   anatomy   vision   chronology   isotopes   spectrometry   spectroscopy   anatomy   vision   chronology   isotopes   spectrometry   spectroscopy  

Heartwood   Yes   Yes   Frequently   Yes   Yes   Maybe   Yes   Yes   Frequently   Yes   Yes  
Solid  wood  
Nature   Sapwood   Yes   Yes   Yes   No   No   Maybe   Yes   Yes   Yes   No   No  
Reference  
of  
database   Leaves,  
material   Non-­‐wood   flowers,  
fruits,  bark   No   No   Yes   No   No   No   No   No   Yes   No   No  
Heartwood   Yes   Yes   Frequently   Yes   Yes   Maybe   Rarely   Yes   Frequently   Yes   Yes  
Solid  wood   Sapwood   Yes   Yes   Yes   Frequently   No   Maybe   Rarely   Yes   Yes   Frequently   No  
Veneers   Yes   Maybe   Frequently   Yes   Yes   Maybe   No   Yes   Frequently   Yes   Yes  
Chips/Flakes   Yes   No   Frequently   Yes   Maybe   No   No   Yes   Frequently   Yes   Maybe  
Comminuted  
wood   Particles   Yes   No   Maybe   Frequently   Maybe   No   No   Maybe   Maybe   Frequently   Maybe  
Nature   Wood  flour   Yes   No   Maybe   Maybe   Maybe   No   No   Maybe   Maybe   Maybe   Maybe  
of  wood  
material   Mechanical  
fibres   Yes   No   Maybe   Frequently   Maybe   No   No   Maybe   Maybe   Frequently   Maybe  

Fiberised   Chemi-­‐ No   No   No  
wood   mechanical  
fibres   Yes   No   No   No   No   No   No   Maybe   No   No   No  
Forensic  
Chemical  
application  
pulp   Yes   No   No   No   No   No   No   Maybe   No   No   No  
Solid  wood   Solid  wood   Yes   Yes   Frequently   Yes   Yes   Maybe   Rarely   Yes   Frequently   Yes   Yes  
Plywood/LVL   Yes   Maybe   Maybe   Yes   Yes   Maybe   No   Yes   Maybe   Yes   Yes  
Annex 2. Non-timber forest products and identification considerations

OSB/  
Flakeboard   Yes   No   Maybe   Yes   Maybe   No   No   Maybe   Maybe   Yes   Maybe  
Type  of   Wood  
composites   Particleboard   Yes   No   Maybe   Yes   Maybe   No   No   Maybe   Maybe   Yes   Maybe  
wood  
product   Fibreboards   Yes   No   No   Maybe   Maybe   No   No   Maybe   No   Maybe   Maybe  
Wood-­‐Plastic  
Composites   Yes   No   No   Maybe   Maybe   No   No   No   No   Maybe   Maybe  
Pulp  and   Paper   Yes   No   No   Maybe   Maybe   No   No   Maybe   No   Maybe   Maybe  
paper   Pulp   Yes   No   No   Maybe   Maybe   No   No   Maybe   No   Maybe   Maybe  
 
125
Annex 3. Non-timber forest products of CITES-
listed species
This annex, along with annex 2, is intended provide information about products in
trade that are made from timber as a raw material, but do not necessarily have the
features or qualities required to facilitate identification by the methods described in
this guide. This annex is aimed at people interested in specific information about
a selection of CITES-listed tree species that are commonly used to produce non-
timber products. The information contained here is not necessarily exhaustive; other
CITES-listed tree species may also be used to produce non-timber wood products.
Further inquiries about the specific options for forensic identification of non-timber
forest products should be directed to an appropriate expert in wood anatomy. Details
of global curated wood collections and wood anatomy contacts can be found in
annexes 9 and 15, which may assist in locating a suitable expert.

Description of CITES-protected timber that is mainly used for

non-timber forest products

This information has been taken from the reference databases CITESwoodID and
macroHOLZdata (see references).

Aniba rosaeodora (Pau rosa): CITES II

Family: LAURACEAE. Synonym(s): Aniba duckei; A. rosaeodora var. amazonica.

Further trade and local names: Pau rosa verdadeiro, pau rosa imbaúba, pau rosa
itaúba, pau rosa mulatinho (BR); bois de rose (FR); cara-cara (GY); bois de rose
femelle (GF).

This species grows in the tropical rain forests of the Amazon basin, primarily in
Brazilian territory, but in smaller quantities also in neighbouring countries such as
Peru, Columbia, Ecuador, Venezuela, in the Guyanas and Surinam.

The most important product prepared from this plant is a highly priced essential oil
used in the perfume industry and occasionally for therapeutic purposes. There are,
however, indications that solid wood is also traded occasionally for use in furniture
manufacturing, parquet flooring, and for turned decorative objects.

127
128 Best Practice Guide for Forensic Timber Identification

Aquilaria spp., Gyrinops spp. (Adlerholz, eaglewood): CITES II

Family: THYMELAEACEAE.

Further trade and local names: Trâm huong, dó bâu (VN); aloewood, agarwood
(GB, US); bois d’aigle, bois d’aloès (FR); karas, kayu garu (MY); gaharu mengkaras
(MY-SWK); akyau (MM); tanduk, udúr (IN); kaju alim, kaju gaharu (ID); Chan
krasna (KH); tengala (BN).

The geographic distribution of the two genera Aquilaria (19 species) und Gyrinops
(9 species) extends over large parts of South and tropical Southeast Asia, from
northern India to the island of New Guinea. Species of both genera have in com-
mon the presence of included phloem, visible on transverse sections as diffusely
distributed, tangentially extended islands.

The light weight and light coloured normal wood is not traded. Only small and dark,
oleoresin impregnated fragments are important for commerce; they result from a
traumatic reaction of the living tree to injury and subsequent fungal infection. This
abnormal wood is traded either as entire fragments, as chips or ground powder, or
as extracted oleoresin.

Bulnesia sarmientoi (Palo santo): CITES II

Family: ZYGOPHYLLACEAE.

Other trade relevant species: Bulnesia arborea (the wood of this species, commonly
traded as “vera”, cannot be distinguished from B. sarmientoi as regards colour,
weight and macro structure. However, it is available in higher quantities and more
common in the market).

Further trade and local names: Ibiocaí (AR); Paraguay lignum-vitae (trade).

Bulnesia sarmientoi is naturally distributed in the Chaco region in nothern Argentina,

Paraguay and southern Bolivia (Plurinational State of). It is employed for engraving
work and for the making of durable turnery, mortars and pestles, etc. From its wood,
also, a type of oil known as oil of guaiac (or guayacol) is produced, to be used
as an ingredient for soaps and perfumes. Its resin can be obtained by means of
organic solvents and is employed to make varnishes and dark paints.

Guaiacum spp. (Pockholz, Lignum Vitae): CITES II

Family: ZYGOPHYLLACEAE.

Other trade relevant species: important trade species: G. officinale, G. sanctum, G.

coulteri. Further trade and local names: guajak (CZ, RU, HU); gaiac (FR); guaiacum
Annex 3. Non-timber forest products of CITES-listed species 129

wood (GB); pockhout (NL); gwajak (PL); guaiac (RO); guayacan (ES, VE); palo
santo, guayacancillo (CU, MX); Domingo- Jamaika- Panama Pockholz, Franzosen-
holz (DE).

Geographic distribution: Mexico and Central America to Caribbean to tropical South

America. The wood is usually marketed as blocks (billets) or planks up to 3 m long
and is particularly suitable for: tool handles, sports items, wheelwright’s shop (sole
of wooden planers, bowling balls), turnery, mortars and pestles, (specialty timber
for ship propeller bushings and bearings). The extractives are used for medicinal
purposes and essences (colour, fragrance) in the manufacture of alcoholic beverages.

Prunus africana (African cherry, bitter almond, pygeum, red

stinkwood): CITES II

Family: ROSACEAE.

Further trade and local names: Afrikaans (rooistinkhout); Amharic (tikur inchet);
English (red stinkwood, iron wood, bitter almond); Luganda (ntasesa, ngwabuzito);
Swahili (mueri, mkomahoya, kiburraburra).

The geographic distribution extends over large regions of tropical Africa: Angola,
Cameroon, Congo basin, Equatorial Guinea, Ethiopia, Kenya, Madagascar,
Malawi, Mozambique, Sudan, Uganda, United Republic of Tanzania, Zambia and
Zimbabwe.

Prunus africana is mainly used for medicinal purposes and traded in the form of
bark chips or powdered bark impeding a wood anatomical identification. The liquid
extracts from the bark are used in the treatment of benign prostatic hyperplasia and
prostate gland hypertrophy. The by-product “wood” is locally manufactured into
furniture, flooring, turnery, mouldings, poles and mortars.

Pterocarpus santalinus (Red sanders): CITES II

Family: FABACEAE-FABOIDEAE.

Further trade and local names: Kaliaturholz, rotes Sandelholz (D); red sandalwood,
India sandalwood (GB); sandal rouge (FR); sandalo rosso (IT); chandaman, panaka
(IN).

This species, not to be mistaken for the “true” sandalwood Santalum album, is
endemic to the Indian subcontinent and the island of Sri Lanka. The timber has a
long tradition as a precious wood for high-end cabinetwork in China and Japan, as
a dyewood for textiles, colouring agent for tinctures and liqueurs, and also for
diverse applications in medicine and cosmetics. Nowadays the small quantities of
130 Best Practice Guide for Forensic Timber Identification

heartwood still available are mainly marketed as chips or wood powder. There are,
however, some indications that solid wood is still traded for manufacturing luxury
furniture as well as for parts of musical instruments and turned decorative objects.

Taxus spp. (Eibe, yew): CITES II

Family: TAXACEAE.

Of the presently recognized nine species of the genus Taxus, four are distributed
in North America, one in Europe and the Middle East, and four in Asia. Only the
latter (T. cuspidata, T. fuana, T. sumatrana and T. wallichiana with three varieties)
are subject to CITES annex II regulations. The European yew (Taxus baccata) has
been placed on the Red List of endangered plants by Germany, Austria, Poland,
Czech Republic, Slovakia, Romania and the Russian Federation and is protected
under the pertinent national regulations. In the United States of America, the Florida
yew (Taxus floridana) is listed as critically endangered on the IUCN red list and
as endangered by the State of Florida. In Canada, specifically in the Province of
Prince Edward Island, regulations exist concerning the Canada yew, also known as
“ground hemlock” (Taxus canadensis).

The wood is particularly suitable for decorative veneers (for high priced furniture,
especially for corpus parts of keyboard instruments), furniture, tool handles, sports
items, wheelwright’s shop (competition bows and arrows), turnery, other applications
(measuring instruments, inlaying). Certain compounds found in the bark of yew
trees were discovered to have efficacy as anti-cancer agents. The precursors of
the chemotherapy drug paclitaxel (taxol) can be synthesized easily from the extracts
of the leaves of other yew species, which is a more renewable source than the bark
of the Pacific yew.

References

1. Richter, H.G., Gembruch, K., and Koch, G. CITESwoodID: descriptions, illus-

trations, identification, and information retrieval (2014 onwards). Version: 16th May
2014. In English, German, Spanish and French. Available at delta-intkey.com/citesw.

2. Richter, H., and M. Oelker. 2002 onwards. macroHOLZdata, Commercial tim-

bers: descriptions, illustrations, identification, and information retrieval. Version:
2014. In English and German. Available for purchase from the Thünen Institute
www.ti.bund.de/en/hf/.
Annex 4. List of common risk indicators for
trafficking of illegal timber and
timber products

This annex is intended to provide information that may be useful for risk-profiling
purposes when dealing with shipments of timber and timber products. High-risk
consignments represent only a very small proportion of the total amount of freight
passing through international borders. Therefore, it is necessary to apply a selec-
tion process in order to identify these high-risk shipments for examination. Agencies
responsible for determining which shipments should be subject to further scrutiny
may find this information relevant. Not every point listed on its own will neces-
sarily identify a risk on which it is worth taking further action, but cumulatively
these could indicate increased possibility of a shipment containing illegal timber or
timber products. These indicators are primarily relevant for import/export-related
risks. The risks listed are not exhaustive and are intended to augment rather than
replace existing risk profiling strategies.

Agencies are advised to consult:

• World Customs Organization (WCO)

–– WCO Customs Enforcement Network (CEN): Global database of
­customs enforcement information
–– WCO Iris: Tool which aggregates open source customs information
–– WCO I2C: Information and intelligence centre which facilitates
communication and coordination on customs compliance and law
­
enforcement-related matters

• International trend alerts

–– The International Criminal Police Organization (INTERPOL) Purple
Notices: Notices which seek or provide information on modus oper-
andi, objects, devices and concealment methods used by criminals.
–– The Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild
Fauna and Flora (CITES) Alerts: Documents containing illicit trade
intelligence obtained through analyses of data supplied to the CITES
Secretariat’s Trade Infraction and Global Enforcement Recording
­System (TIGERS)

131
132 Best Practice Guide for Forensic Timber Identification

• Existing international, national and local resources as appropriate

–– Risk assessments
–– Risk profiles
–– Intelligence reports
–– Seizure notifications
• Annexes 4 and 5 to the Guide, for information on CITES-listed tree spe-
cies, their native distributions and some known areas of cultivation.

Claimed load/goods

• Known to be used as cover loads for smuggled goods (e.g. waste paper,
scrap plastic, tea, coffee beans, charcoal, foodstuffs, handicrafts, used tyres)
• Suitable for smuggling and load density not susceptible to control without
considerable delay (unloading takes a lot of time).
• Heavier weight than is normal for the declared commodities
• High shipping costs for declared low value consignment

Routing

• Loads/goods coming from high-risk countries of origin or of transit. For

further information, see WCO resources listed in the introduction, also
www.forestlegality.org/risk-tool and www.timbertradeportal.com
• Use of unusual or new routing (in order to avoid customs intervention,
criminals can use unusual routes and change them regularly)

Importer/exporter

• Fictitious names/incomplete details (name/address)

• First time import
• History of import (e.g. changes in business type)
• Identity hijacking of well-known importer/exporter
• Use of a new or first time use of a shipping agent
• Shipment is inconsistent with the importers declared business
• Fraudulent use of genuine company details
• Unsubstantiated requests for urgent clearance through border controls
Annex 4. List of common risk indicators for trafficking of illegal timber and timber products 133

Certain industries/users are high risk for certain timber species,

for example:

• Antique restoration
• Ships and yachts
• Musical instruments
• Furniture
• Flooring
• Perfumery
• Wood carving
• Health medications

Examples of illegal timber trading modus operandi:

• Counterfeited or fraudulent use of certification, e.g. Forest Stewardship

Council (FSC) and Programme for the Endorsement of Forest Certification
(PEFC)
• Counterfeited or fraudulent use of CITES export permit system
• Fraud in customs declarations, e.g. in relation to using different Harmonized
System (HS) codes, especially codes with a lower rate of customs import
duty
• Illegal timber hidden in a shipment of legal timber, e.g. CITES-listed ramin
(Gonystylus spp.) within a shipment of non-CITES-listed meranti (Shorea
spp.)
• Mislabelled packaging
• Timber species identifying features concealed by painting, varnishing or
staining.
• Poorly packed load within the container
• Use of incorrect tradenames
• Use of incorrect scientific names
• Use of incorrect country of origin
• Use of incorrect CITES appendix
• Use of incomplete information
• CITES permit not endorsed at export
• CITES permit used after validity date expired.
134 Best Practice Guide for Forensic Timber Identification

• Shipments weight is greater than declared

• Incorrect use of weight conversion codes (e.g. weight declared in kilograms
on invoice, CITES permit in m3)
• Lack of required official documentation
• Timber processed to end product and declared as product not timber, e.g.
billiard cues made of CITES-listed ramin (Gonystylus spp.)
• Abuse of CITES annotation, i.e. claiming non-annotated CITES timber
products as annotated products
• Use of fictitious address/fictitious name
• Use of permit issues by incorrect authority
• Fraudulent use of timber concession information
• Shipment of timber is used as a cover load for concealing narcotics or
cigarettes
• Pallets or packing material made from restricted timber species
Annex 5. Information on CITES-listed tree species
This annex is intended to provide information on the tree species listed in the
appendices to the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild
Fauna and Flora (CITES) as of Conference of the Parties (CoP) 16, held in 2013.
The most accurate listings can be found on the CITES website www.cites.org/eng/
app/appendices.php and the Species+ website, www.speciesplus.net, which should
be consulted wherever possible. Species listed in these appendices are subject to
trade controls and may require export and/or import permits. This annex includes
a table that presents each listed tree species, grouped into families and notes some
common names (table A5.1). The relevant CITES appendix is indicated along with
information on any relevant annotations. Specific risk indicators and other perti-
nent information are also given. Readers should also note that not all tree species
listed here are used for timber. This annex may be of interest to anyone seeking to
verify whether a particular tree species and product is restricted by CITES. Further
information on the native distributions and some known areas of cultivation of the
CITES-listed tree species can be found in annex 6.

Annotations

When a species is included in CITES appendix I, II or III, all parts and derivatives
of the species are also included in the same appendix unless the species is annotated
to indicate that only specific parts and derivatives are included. An explanation of the
CITES annotations can be found in CITES Resolution Conf. 10.13 (Rev. CoP15):
“Implementation of the Convention for timber species” available at www.cites.org/
eng/res/10/10-13R15.php. In the context of these annotations, the term “extract”
refers to any substance obtained directly from plant material by physical or chemi-
cal means regardless of the manufacturing process. An extract may be solid (e.g.
crystals, resin, fine or coarse particles), semisolid (e.g. gums, waxes) or liquid (e.g.
solutions, tinctures, oil and essential oils). The term “woodchips” refers to wood
that has been reduced to small pieces.

Notes on annotations as described in table A5.1

#1 Designates all parts and derivatives, except:

(a) Seeds, spores and pollen (including pollinia);

135
136 Best Practice Guide for Forensic Timber Identification

(b) Seedling or tissue cultures obtained in vitro, in solid or liquid media,

transported in sterile containers;
(c) Cut flowers of artificially propagated plants; and
(d) Fruits and parts and derivatives thereof of artificially propagated plants
of the genus Vanilla.

#2 Designates all parts and derivatives, except:

(a) Seeds and pollen; and

(b) Finished products packaged and ready for retail trade.

#3 Designates whole and sliced roots and parts of roots, excluding manufactured
parts or derivatives, such as powders, pills, extracts, tonics, teas and confectionery.

#4 Designates all parts and derivatives, except:

(a) Seeds (including seedpods of Orchidaceae), spores and pollen (includ-

ing pollinia). The exemption does not apply to seeds from Cactaceae spp.
exported from Mexico, and to seeds from Beccariophoenix madagascarien-
sis and Neodypsis decaryi exported from Madagascar;
(b) Seedling or tissue cultures obtained in vitro, in solid or liquid media,
transported in sterile containers;
(c) Cut flowers of artificially propagated plants;
(d) Fruits and parts and derivatives thereof of naturalized or artificially
propagated plants of the genus Vanilla (Orchidaceae) and of the family
Cactaceae;
(e) Stems, flowers, and parts and derivatives thereof of naturalized or
artificially propagated plants of the genera Opuntia subgenus Opuntia and
Selenicereus (Cactaceae); and
(f) Finished products of Euphorbia antisyphilitica packaged and ready
for retail trade.

#5 Designates logs, sawn wood and veneer sheets.

#6 Designates logs, sawn wood, veneer sheets and plywood.

#7 Designates logs, woodchips, powder and extracts.

#8 Designates underground parts (i.e. roots, rhizomes): whole, parts and powdered.

#9 All parts and derivatives except those bearing a label “Produced from Hoodia
spp. material obtained through controlled harvesting and production in collaboration
with the CITES Management Authorities of Botswana/Namibia/South Africa under
Annex 5. Information on CITES-listed tree species 137

agreement no. BW/NA/ZA xxxxxx”.

#10 Designates logs, sawn wood, veneer sheets, including unfinished wood articles
used for the fabrication of bows for stringed musical instruments.

#11 Designates logs, sawn wood, veneer sheets, plywood, powder and extracts.

#12 Designates logs, sawn wood, veneer sheets, plywood and extracts. Finished
products containing such extracts as ingredients, including fragrances, are not con-
sidered to be covered by this annotation.

#13 Designates the kernel (also known as “endosperm”, “pulp” or “copra”) and
any derivative thereof.

#14 Designates all parts and derivatives, except:

(a) Seeds and pollen;

(b) Seedling or tissue cultures obtained in vitro, in solid or liquid media,
transported in sterile containers;
(c) Fruits;
(d) Leaves;
(e) Exhausted agarwood powder, including compressed powder in all
shapes; and
(f) Finished products packaged and ready for retail trade, this exemption
does not apply to beads, prayer beads and carvings.
Table A5.1. Information on tree species listed in the appendices to CITES as of CoP 16, held in 2013
138

Family Species Annotation CITES Common name Risk indicators Particulars

ANACARDIACEAE Operculicarya II Jabihy Live plants, charcoal Endemic to Madagascar,
decaryi often grown as bonsai trees
Operculicarya II Jabihy Live plants, charcoal Endemic to Madagascar,
hyphaenoides often grown as bonsai trees
Operculicarya II Tabily Live plants, charcoal Endemic to Madagascar,
pachypus often grown as bonsai trees
ARAUCARIACEAE Araucaria I Chili pine, Seeds, paperpulp, All populations (Endemic
araucana Monkey puzzle wood Chile, Argentina)
BERBERIDACEAE Podophyllum #2 II Himalayan Rare in timber, more common
hexandrum may-apple in pharmaceuticals
CARYOCARACEAE Caryocar #4 II Ajillo Very difficult to discriminate
costaricense from other species within
genus
CUPRESSACEAE Fitzroya I Alerce, lahuán, Pre-Convention Endemic to Chile and
cupressoides lahuen stock (2014/002; Argentina
Cites.org)
Pilgerodendron I Pilgerodendron, Boats, furniture, Endemic to Chile and
uviferum Ciprès poles, bridges Argentina
DICKSONIACEAE Dicksonia spp. #4 II Tree ferns Only American population
DIDIEREACEAE DIDIEREACEAE #4 II Alluaudias, Only Madagascar population
spp. didiereas
EBENACEAE Diospyros spp. #5 II Ebonies Only Madagascar population
FAGACEAE Quercus #5 III (Russian Mongolian oak Only Russian Federation
mongolica Federation)
JUGLANDACEAE Oreomunnea #4 II Gavilan, Aniba Essential oil
Best Practice Guide for Forensic Timber Identification

pterocarpa duckei, Pau rosa

Family Species Annotation CITES Common name Risk indicators Particulars
LAURACEAE Aniba #12 II Brazilian
rosaeodora rosewood
LEGUMINOSAE Caesalpinia #10 II Brazilwood, Violin bow
echinata Pernambuk
Dalbergia #5 II Thailand Mainly from
cochinchinensis rosewood Cambodia, Lao
People’s Democratic
Republic, Thailand
and Viet Nam
Dalbergia #2 III (Panama)
darienensis
Dalbergia #6 II Granadillo Mostly musical instruments
granadillo rosewood
Dalbergia nigra I Rio palisander, Pre-convention Rosewood, antique restorers
Annex 5. Information on CITES-listed tree species

Brazilian specimens
rosewood
Dalbergia #6 II Cocobolo Mostly musical instruments
retusa
Dalbergia spp. #5 II Madagascar Shipments via Only Madagascar population
palisander, United Republic of
Madagascar Tanzania and Kenya
rosewood to Far East
Dalbergia #6 II Honduras Mainly from Belize, Mostly musical instruments,
stevensonii ­palisander, Guatemala, Mexico tone wood
Honduras
rosewood
Dalbergia #6 III Yucatan
tucurensis (Nicaraqua) rosewood
Dipteryx III (Costa Rica/ Almendro
panamensis Nicaragua)
139
Table A5.1. Tree species listed in the appendices to CITES as of CoP 16, held in 2013 (continued)
140

Family Species Annotation CITES Common name Risk indicators Particulars

Pericopsis elata #5 II Afrormosia Mainly from Dem.
Rep of Congo and
Cameroon.
Platymiscium #4 II Cristóbal,
pleiostachyum ñambar
Pterocarpus #7 II Red sanders, red Also pharmaceuticals
santalinus sandalwood,
agaru
MAGNOLIACEAE Magnolia #1 III (Nepal) Balukhat,
liliifera var. Branthuri, Safan
obovata
MELIACEAE Cedrela fissilis #5 III (Bolivia) Cedar, cedrela,
cédrat, etc.
Cedrela lilloi #5 III (Bolivia) Cedar, cedrela,
cédrat, etc.
Cedrela #5 III (Bolivia Spanish cedar, Also planted in Côte d’Ivoire,
odorata (Pluri­ cedar, cedrela, plantation stock are still
national etc. CITES controlled.
State of,
Brazil,
Columbia,
Guatamala,
Peru)
Best Practice Guide for Forensic Timber Identification
Family Species Annotation CITES Common name Risk indicators Particulars
Swietenia #4 II Honduras Antique restoration,
humilis mahogany musical instruments,
furniture, ship
builders/restorers

From America to
EU/Far East
Swietenia #6 II Brazilian Antique restoration, Also planted in Far East,
macrophylla mahogany, musical instruments, plantation (NON CITES)
Bigleaf furniture, ship
Endemic to neotropics
mahogany builders/restorers

From America to
EU/Far East
Swietenia #5 II Cuban Antique restoration,
mahagoni mahogany musical instruments,
Annex 5. Information on CITES-listed tree species

furniture, ship
builders/restorers

From America to
EU/Far East
OLEACEAE Fraxinus #5 III (Russian Manchurian ash
mandshurica Federation)
PALMAE Beccariophoenix #4 II Manarano Endemic to Madagascar
madagascariensis
Rare in timbers
Chrysalidocarpus I Butterfly palm Rare in timbers
decipiens
Lemurophoenix II Hovitra varimena Rare in timbers
halleuxii
Marojejya II Ravimbe Rare in timbers
darianii
141
Table A5.1. Tree species listed in the appendices to CITES as of CoP 16, held in 2013 (continued)
142

Family Species Annotation CITES Common name Risk indicators Particulars

Neodypsis #4 II Triangle palm Rare in timbers
decaryi
Ravenea II Lakamarefo Rare in timbers
louvelii
Ravenia II Gora Rare in timbers
rivularis
Satranala II Satranabe Endemic to Madagascar
decussilvae
Rare in timbers
Voanioala II Voanioala Endemic to Madagascar
gerardii
Rare in timbers
PINACEAE Abies I Guatemalan fir Charcoal, shingles,
quatemalensis tools, wood
carvings, Christmas
trees
Pinus koraiensis #5 III (Russian Korean nutpine Paper pulp, rail-
Federation) ways, bridges,
flooring, plywood
PODOCARPACEAE Podocarpus #1 III (Nepal) Yellow wood
neriifolius
Podocarpus I Parlatore’s
parlatorei podocarp
ROSACEAE Prunus africana #4 II African cherry Also in pharmaceuticals and
food supplements
RUBIACEAE Balmea I Ayugue, Balmea El Salvador, Guatemala,
Best Practice Guide for Forensic Timber Identification

stormiae stormae Mexico

Martínez
Family Species Annotation CITES Common name Risk indicators Particulars
SANTALACEAE Osyris #2 II (Burundi, East African
lanceolata Ethiopia sandalwood
Kenya,
Rwanda,
Uganda,
Tanzania
TAXACEAE Taxus chinensis #2 II Chinese yew
Taxus cuspidata #2 II Japanese yew
Taxus fuana #2 II Tibetan yew
Taxus #2 II Sumatran yew
sumatrana
Taxus #2 II Himalayan yew
wallichiana
Annex 5. Information on CITES-listed tree species

THYMELAEACEAE Aquilaria spp. #14 II Agarwood,

Gaharu
Gonystylus spp. #4 II Ramin
Gyrinops spp. #14 II Agarwood
TROCHODEN- Tetracentron #1 III (Nepal)
DRACEAE sinense
ZYGOPHYLLACEAE Bulnesia #11 II Gayak, Holy Guaiac oil from
sarmientoi wood Paraguay to Europe
Guaiacum spp. #2 II Lignum-vitae
143
Annex 6. Native geographic distributions and
known areas of cultivation of CITES-
listed tree species
This annex is intended to provide information on native distributions and known
areas of cultivation of the tree species listed in the appendices to the Convention
on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES)
as of Conference of the Parties (CoP) 16, held in 2013 (table A6.1). Additionally,
some species that do not appear on the CITES appendices are controlled by the
EU Wildlife Trade Regulations (species marked with an asterisk (*) in table A6.1).
The most accurate species listings can be found on the CITES website www.cites.
org/eng/app/appendices.php and the Species+ website, www.speciesplus.net, which
should be consulted wherever possible. Species listed in these appendices are subject
to trade controls and may require export and/or import permits. Information in this
annex details where these CITES-listed tree species grow naturally and where they
are currently known to be cultivated outside of their natural range. New areas of
cultivation may be developed at any time so this list should not be taken as neces-
sarily complete. Readers should also note that not all tree species listed here are
used for timber. The information in this annex may be of interest to law enforcement
agencies as well as the scientific community.

145
Table A6.1 Information on native distributions and known areas of cultivation of the tree species listed in the appendices
146

to CITES as of CoP 16, held in 2013: The Americas

Continent: The Americas

Peru
Chile

Brazil

Belize

Mexico
Guyana

Panama
Amazon

Paraguay

Colombia

Honduras
Nicaragua
Argentina

Costa Rica

Guatemala
El Salvador

North America
South America

Central America
Tropical South America

Tropical Central America

Bolivia (Plurinational State of)

Venezuela (Bolivarian Republic of)

Caribbean (Cuba, Haiti, Dominican

Republic, Aruba, Curaçao, Bonaire)
Species
1 Operculicarya decaryi
2 Operculicarya hyphaenoides
3 Operculicarya pachypus
4 Araucaria araucana X X X X
5 Podophyllum hexandrum
6 Caryocar costaricense X X X X X
7 Fitzroya cupressoides X X
8 Pilgerodendron uviferum X
10 DIDIEREACEAE
11 Cibotium barometz
12 Diospyros spp.
Best Practice Guide for Forensic Timber Identification
13 Quercus mongolica
14 Oreomunnea pterocarpa X X X X X X X
15 Aniba rosaeodora X
16 Caesalpinia echinata X
17 Dalbergia cochinchinensis
18 Dalbergia darienensis X
19 Dalbergia granadillo X
20 Dalbergia louvelii
21 Dalbergia monticola
22 Dalbergia nigra X
23 Dalbergia normandii
24 Dalbergia purpurascens
25 Dalbergia retusa X
26 Dalbergia spp.
27 Dalbergia stevensonii X X X X X
28 Dalbergia xerophila
Annex 6. Native geographic distributions and known areas of cultivation

29 Dipteryx panamensis X X
30 Pericopsis elata
31 Platymiscium pleiostachyum X X X
32 Pterocarpus santalinus
33 Magnolia liliifera var.
obovata
34 Cedrela fissilis X X
35 Cedrela lilloi X X
147

36 Cedrela odorata X X X X
Table A6.1 Native distributions and known areas of cultivation of the tree species listed in the appendices to CITES as of
148

CoP 16, held in 2013: The Americas (continued)

Continent: The Americas

Peru
Chile

Brazil

Belize

Mexico
Guyana

Panama
Amazon

Paraguay

Colombia

Honduras
Nicaragua
Argentina

Costa Rica

Guatemala
El Salvador

North America
South America

Central America
Tropical South America

Tropical Central America

Bolivia (Plurinational State of)

Venezuela (Bolivarian Republic of)

Caribbean (Cuba, Haiti, Dominican

Republic, Aruba, Curaçao, Bonaire)
Species
37 Cedrela montana* X
38 Cedrela oaxacensis* X
39 Cedrela salvadorensis* X
40 Cedrela tonduzii* X
41 Swietenia humilis X X X X X X X
42 Swietenia macrophylla X X X X X X X X X X
43 Swietenia mahagoni X
44 Fraxinus mandshurica
45 Beccariophoenix
madagascariensis
46 Chrysalidocarpus decipiens
Best Practice Guide for Forensic Timber Identification
47 Neodypsis decaryi
48 Ravenea louvelii
49 Ravenea rivularis
50 Satranala decussilvae
51 Voanioala gerardii
52 Abies guatemalensis X X X X
53 Pinus koraiensis
54 Podocarpus neriifolius
55 Podocarpus parlatorei X X X X X
56 Prunus africana
57 Balmea stormiae X X X X X
58 Osyris lanceolata
59 Taxus chinensis
60 Taxus cuspidata
61 Taxus fuana
62 Taxus sumatrana
Annex 6. Native geographic distributions and known areas of cultivation

63 Taxus wallichiana
64 Aquilaria spp. X
65 Gonystylus spp.
66 Gyrinops spp.
67 Tetracentron sinense
68 Bulnesia sarmientoi X X X
69 Guaiacum spp. X X X X
149
Table A6.2 Native distributions and known areas of cultivation of the tree species listed in the appendices to CITES as of
150

CoP 16, held in 2013: Asia

Continent: Asia

Asia
India

Tibet

China
Japan
Nepal
Bhutan

Thailand
Malaysia
Myanmar

Viet Nam

Indonesia
Cambodia
Himalayas
Philippines

Bangladesh

Lao People’s

South-East Asia
Russian Federation

­Democratic Republic
Species
1 Operculicarya decaryi
2 Operculicarya hyphaenoides
3 Operculicarya pachypus
4 Araucaria araucana
5 Podophyllum hexandrum X X X X X
6 Caryocar costaricense
7 Fitzroya cupressoides
8 Pilgerodendron uviferum
10 DIDIEREACEAE
11 Cibotium barometz X X
12 Diospyros spp.
13 Quercus mongolica X
14 Oreomunnea pterocarpa
15 Aniba rosaeodora
Best Practice Guide for Forensic Timber Identification
16 Caesalpinia echinata
17 Dalbergia cochinchinensis X X X X X
18 Dalbergia darienensis
19 Dalbergia granadillo
20 Dalbergia louvelii
21 Dalbergia monticola
22 Dalbergia nigra
23 Dalbergia normandii
24 Dalbergia purpurascens
25 Dalbergia retusa
26 Dalbergia spp.
27 Dalbergia stevensonii
28 Dalbergia xerophila
29 Dipteryx panamensis
30 Pericopsis elata
31 Platymiscium pleiostachyum
Annex 6. Native geographic distributions and known areas of cultivation

32 Pterocarpus santalinus X
33 Magnolia liliifera var. obovata X
34 Cedrela fissilis
35 Cedrela lilloi
36 Cedrela odorata (X)
37 Cedrela montana*
38 Cedrela oaxacensis*
39 Cedrela salvadorensis*
151
Table A6.2 Information on native distributions and known areas of cultivation of the tree species listed in the appendices
152

to CITES as of CoP 16, held in 2013: Asia (continued)

Continent: Asia

Asia
India

Tibet

China
Japan
Nepal
Bhutan

Thailand
Malaysia
Myanmar

Viet Nam

Indonesia
Cambodia
Himalayas
Philippines

Bangladesh

Lao People’s

South-East Asia
Russian Federation

­Democratic Republic
Species
40 Cedrela tonduzii*
41 Swietenia humilis
42 Swietenia macrophylla
43 Swietenia mahagoni (X)
44 Fraxinus mandshurica X
45 Beccariophoenix madagascariensis
46 Chrysalidocarpus decipiens
47 Neodypsis decaryi
48 Ravenea louvelii
49 Ravenea rivularis
50 Satranala decussilvae
51 Voanioala gerardii
52 Abies guatemalensis
53 Pinus koraiensis X X
54 Podocarpus neriifolius X X
Best Practice Guide for Forensic Timber Identification
55 Podocarpus parlatorei
56 Prunus africana
57 Balmea stormiae
58 Osyris lanceolata
59 Taxus chinensis X
60 Taxus cuspidata X
61 Taxus fuana X
62 Taxus sumatrana X
63 Taxus wallichiana X X X X
64 Aquilaria spp. X X X
65 Gonystylus spp. X X X X
66 Gyrinops spp. X X
67 Tetracentron sinense X X X X X X
68 Bulnesia sarmientoi X X X X X X X X
69 Guaiacum spp.
Annex 6. Native geographic distributions and known areas of cultivation
153
Table A6.3 Information on native distributions and known areas of cultivation of the tree species listed in the appendices
154

to CITES as of CoP 16, held in 2013: Africa

Continent: Africa

Africa
Kenya

Ghana
Congo
Uganda
Burundi

Rwanda

Ethiopia
Tanzania

the Congo

West Africa

Madagascar
Cote d’Ivoire
Central Africa
United Republic of

Democratic Republic of
Species
1 Operculicarya decaryi X
2 Operculicarya hyphaenoides X
3 Operculicarya pachypus X
4 Araucaria araucana
5 Podophyllum hexandrum
6 Caryocar costaricense
7 Fitzroya cupressoides
8 Pilgerodendron uviferum
10 Didiereaceae X
11 Cibotium barometz
12 Diospyros spp. X X
13 Quercus mongolica
14 Oreomunnea pterocarpa
Best Practice Guide for Forensic Timber Identification
15 Aniba rosaeodora
16 Caesalpinia echinata
17 Dalbergia cochinchinensis
18 Dalbergia darienensis
19 Dalbergia granadillo
20 Dalbergia louvelii X
21 Dalbergia monticola X
22 Dalbergia nigra
23 Dalbergia normandii X
24 Dalbergia purpurascens X
25 Dalbergia retusa
26 Dalbergia spp. X
27 Dalbergia stevensonii
28 Dalbergia xerophila X
29 Dipteryx panamensis
30 Pericopsis elata X X X X X
Annex 6. Native geographic distributions and known areas of cultivation

31 Platymiscium pleiostachyum
32 Pterocarpus santalinus
33 Magnolia liliifera var. obovata
34 Cedrela fissilis
35 Cedrela lilloi
36 Cedrela odorata (X)
37 Cedrela montana*
38 Cedrela oaxacensis*
155
Table A6.3 Information on native distributions and known areas of cultivation of the tree species listed in the appendices
156

to CITES as of CoP 16, held in 2013: Africa (continued)

Continent: Africa

Africa
Kenya

Ghana
Congo
Uganda
Burundi

Rwanda

Ethiopia
Tanzania

West Africa

Madagascar
Cote d’Ivoire
of the Congo
Central Africa
United Republic of

Democratic Republic
Species
39 Cedrela salvadorensis*
40 Cedrela tonduzii*
41 Swietenia humilis
42 Swietenia macrophylla
43 Swietenia mahagoni (X)
44 Fraxinus mandshurica
45 Beccariophoenix madagascariensis X
46 Chrysalidocarpus decipiens X
47 Neodypsis decaryi X
48 Ravenea louvelii X
49 Ravenea rivularis X
50 Satranala decussilvae X
51 Voanioala gerardii X
52 Abies guatemalensis
53 Pinus koraiensis
Best Practice Guide for Forensic Timber Identification
54 Podocarpus neriifolius
55 Podocarpus parlatorei
56 Prunus africana X X
57 Balmea stormiae
58 Osyris lanceolata X X X X X X X
59 Taxus chinensis
60 Taxus cuspidata
61 Taxus fuana
62 Taxus sumatrana
63 Taxus wallichiana
64 Aquilaria spp.
65 Gonystylus spp.
66 Gyrinops spp.
67 Tetracentron sinense
68 Bulnesia sarmientoi
69 Guaiacum spp.
Annex 6. Native geographic distributions and known areas of cultivation
157
Annex 7. Guidance for search of containers,
freight vehicles and premises
This annex provides general guidance for all types of evidentiary search and more
specific guidance for searches of containers, freight vehicles and premises. The
information here is intended for law enforcement agencies and officers who may
undertake searches in connection with suspected illegal timber. The information
may also be of interest to prosecutors and the judiciary involved in the prosecution
of timber-related crimes. The information here has been adapted from the United
Kingdom Border Force Enforcement Handbook (unpublished), is for reference only
and is not intended to replace or nullify any existing protocols or procedures in
place. Before adopting any of the suggested procedures, consultation with appropri-
ate experts and authorities is recommended to ensure procedures comply with all
local requirements.

Introduction

The power to search containers, vehicles and premises is an essential evidence gath-
ering tool. The procedures described here must be followed, otherwise the whole
examination could become valueless.

Physical examination should always be carried out methodically and thoroughly with
the expectation of discovering prohibited or undeclared goods and other irregularities.

When examining, use your own senses of sight, smell, touch and hearing, for they
are invaluable.

If damage is caused during the search, it must be recorded and the driver or owner
must be informed and told of his rights to complain or to compensation.

Legality

Before conducting a search, officers must be:

• Certain of the provision under which they intend to search

• Aware of any requirements or limitations which those provisions impose
upon the exercise of the power of search

159
160 Best Practice Guide for Forensic Timber Identification

• Certain of the authority they need to execute the search, and

• Absolutely satisfied that any necessary authority has been obtained

Failure to do so could render any evidence discovered during that search inadmis-
sible. This may also leave the department and the officer open to criticism in court
and liable to claims for compensation.

It is important that the use of any power to search is proportionate to the suspected
offence and that there are sufficient grounds to authorize and “invade” a person’s
privacy.

Risk assessments/health and safety

Officers should be aware of the physical and environmental risks when searching.
Health and safety are of paramount importance to you and your colleagues but also
to bystanders.

The officer in overall charge of the case must ensure that risk assessments are in
place for each operation. All managers should have a comprehensive set of generic
risk assessments to deal with all operational activities.

All officers involved in the search must have access to a copy of the risk assess-
ment at the pre-operational briefing prior to deployment. This will ensure that offic-
ers are fully aware of any risks as well as their responsibilities. The assessment
should be attached to the briefing sheet or a copy issued to each officer. If this
is not practicable, officers must be orally briefed on its contents. Officers should,
where a risk assessment supports this, comply with all decisions to wear personal
protective equipment (PPE) (e.g. hard hats, gloves, goggles) in specific operational
circumstances.

Shed floors and examination areas should be clean and there should be adequate
space to store goods removed from containers and for use of X-ray equipment.
Officers should be wary of other obstacles in sheds, e.g. tugs, forklifts, etc. and
always:

• Wear the PPE provided

• Remove all jewellery and tie back hair

• Be aware of the location of fire extinguishers and of first aid boxes

• Have vaccinations against tetanus, hepatitis, etc.

• Try to keep the examination areas tidy to prevent the risks of accidents
Annex 7. Guidance for search of containers, freight vehicles and premises 161

Equality and diversity

Where operationally possible, officers conducting searches should give due regard
to the declared ethnic or religious status of the building or the person linked with
the vehicle or premises being searched.

However, officers should not be put off searching items merely because it is claimed
they have religious significance, especially where there are indications or suspicion
that the said item or area is being used to facilitate a smuggling offence or to conceal
evidence of an offence. Finally, officers should also be mindful that in some cultures
it may be felt inappropriate for a male officer to question a female.

Security

In view of the highly sensitive nature of operations, it is imperative that any detection
made is not discussed other than with those persons directly involved in the case.

Remember, someone may be watching you.

As soon as possible, the goods should be transported to the storage warehouse. It

is recommended that the detecting officer (who will be exhibiting the goods in his
witness statement) accompany them in order to clearly maintain the chain of custody.

If in doubt when doing something, officers must seek the assistance of colleagues
or expert advice.

Records

It is essential that notebooks are maintained at the time of the examination so that
the best evidence can be presented at any subsequent proceedings, including but not
limited to the following information:

• Date of the search

• Address of premises searched, when applicable
• Times of entry and exit
• Officers present
• Other persons present (e.g. specialists such as locksmiths, engineers, etc.)
• Dogs used
• A sketch plan of the layout of the premises to enable the exact location of
the property uplifted to be accurately identified, when applicable. Number
the rooms on the plan from left to right and top to bottom, when applicable.
162 Best Practice Guide for Forensic Timber Identification

(Whatever method is employed it is essential that consistency is maintained

throughout officers’ notebooks)
• Small amounts of cash counted (including a list of the denominations of
the notes)
• Persons present during specific parts of the search (e.g. when drugs are
found or cash is counted)
• Witness statements
• Any existing damage to the containers, vehicles or premises
• Any damage caused by officers or the owner during the search
• Any complaint made by the occupants of the premises and any other details
officers deem relevant

Guidance for search of containers

Container selection

When examining containers, the method (door check, partial or full unloading) can
vary according to the reason for the examination.

This is a non-exhaustive list of reasons to search:

• Random check, e.g. statistically selected percentage

• Local parameters
• Officers decision
• Special criteria, e.g. risk analysis
• Nature, quantity, origin or value of the goods
• Country whence consigned
• High freight cost
• Previous history, e.g. known containers
• Suspect operations
• Intelligence from other areas of Her Majesty’s Revenue and Customs,
­customs authorities, or other national and international agencies
• Freight selection hubs
• Joint targeting teams
• Profiling
Annex 7. Guidance for search of containers, freight vehicles and premises 163

• Search theory
• Irregularities in documentation

General

Scanning a picture of the load may point to areas of anomaly and may also be use-
ful in identifying additional health and safety issues such as a shifted load leaning
against the doors. Be aware the load may have shifted whilst being moved from
the scanner site to the examination site.

When a container is first produced for examination, the following questions should
be considered:

• How many people are required for the search?

• Is a dog available?
• Is there relevant documentation (bill of lading, import-export or transit
declarations)? If the documentation indicates a hazardous load, you should
consider obtaining specialist advice or assistance.
• Is a specialist required (locksmith, engineer, etc.)?
• What equipment is necessary to carry out the exam (X-ray, probe, etc.)?

Officers should be nominated for the operation of equipment, such as X-ray van,
camera, bolt-croppers, etc.

Be aware of fumigation stickers and signs. All containers should be gas checked
for the presence of fumigants. Vent container if any doubt until nil reading is given.

In cases where the container has been approved for transport under customs seal,
care must be taken to avoid breaching the standards of that approval, when drilling
or otherwise physically altering the structure of the container. If such a container is
found to be “innocent”, any repair which is necessary must be made in accordance
with the Container Convention Rules.

Loading and unloading of containers

Goods in containers should normally be removed and repacked by the appropriate

company or wharfinger on behalf of the importer. Only in exceptional circumstances
(i.e. for anti-smuggling purposes) and with management approval should this be done
by customs officers, taking into account manual handling considerations.

If nothing is found during the examination, the container should be repacked by the
wharfinger and resealed as soon as possible.
164 Best Practice Guide for Forensic Timber Identification

Action if irregularities are detected

The aim is to apprehend and successfully prosecute all offenders concerned in the
illegal importation.

On making a detection of prohibited or uncustomed goods as a result of a container

examination, the following action should be taken: stop the examination immediately.

The detecting officer should remain with the prohibited items for chain-of-custody
purposes whilst another officer notifies HQ of the detection. HQ will notify an
investigation team for further action. The officer should then wait to receive further
instructions.

The examining officer will still play an important part in the investigation. The inves-
tigators will probably require photographic evidence of the method of concealment.
It is therefore crucial that examining officers do not tamper with the consignment
without specific instructions from the investigating team or case officer.

On discovery of a suspected concealment only a small sample of the substance

should be removed for field testing. At this stage items should only be handled
by one person wearing gloves as there may be a need for fingerprinting and other
forensic analysis.

The detecting officer and possibly other examining officers will be required to write
witness statements.

It is important to share basic information about seizures with detection and intel-
ligence colleagues in other container ports, as this may enable them to identify
similar consignments which may be imminent or already unloaded.

Guidance for search of freight vehicles

Vehicle selection

The criteria for container selection are also applicable for vehicle selection (see
section above).

General

Due to their size, heavy goods vehicles are made up of a number of natural and
adapted spaces that can be used to smuggle goods. Through training and experi-
ence officers will learn how to identify where these voids and spaces are and how
to access them safely.
Annex 7. Guidance for search of containers, freight vehicles and premises 165

Officers should establish what normal is and challenge the abnormal.

The following lists of reminders are not definitive.

Always:

• Ensure the parking brake has been applied.

• Chock the wheels of the tractor unit (preferably the rear wheels on the
driver’s side).
• Ensure the driver is out of the cab and the keys are removed from the ignition
prior to commencing the search. The officer leading the search should control
the driver and ask them to open any padlocks, trailer locks and lockers.
• Take care when entering and leaving the cab, always exiting backwards.
• Let your colleagues know if you are going to examine underneath the trailer.
Where practicable, prior to commencing the search ask the driver to apply
the trailer park brake.
• Ask the driver to open any doors and lockers.
• Vent trailers before entering.
• Ask the driver to switch off the fridge motor when dealing with refrigerated
trailers.
• Attempt to examine air bags. Where in doubt consult more experienced
colleagues or experts.
• Beware of moving vehicles and the driver’s limited vision, especially when
reversing on to the examination bays or sheds.
• Beware of the trailer’s cargo and how it is loaded and the potential risks
including poorly stacked pallets and hanging garments.
• Beware of dangerous goods within the cargo. Do not open packages of
chemicals but seek expert advice.
• Beware of dust within cargo; fine dusts are invisible and easily inhaled and
can cause respiratory problems.
• Beware of inflammable dust and liquid that could easily ignite.
• Beware of electronically operated vehicles such as forklift trucks.
• Beware of green loads (vegetables) that absorb oxygen within a refrigerated
trailer.

Never:

• Smoke near vehicles and examination areas.

• Put your hands into areas where you cannot see.
166 Best Practice Guide for Forensic Timber Identification

• Touch any sensitive electrics in the cab.

• Use equipment for which you have not been trained or authorized to use.
• Touch the parking brake.
• Stand too close to trailer doors when they are being opened.
• Attempt to examine air bags. Where in doubt consult more experienced
colleagues or experts.
• Climb on to vehicles, use the approved steps provided.
• Go under the tractor unit cab until it is fully tilted.
• Go under the fuel tanks of the tractor unit (the air suspension on the rear axles
may Lower as the air pressure drops and there is a danger of being crushed).
• Touch frozen metal with your bare hands.
• Touch burnt vehicles or plastic (hydrofluoric acid is produced when certain
plastics are burnt, which is very corrosive to skin and flesh).
• Go into confined spaces.
• Walk behind hydraulic rams in glass carriers.
• Climb on top of vehicles and tankers without first conducting a health and
safety risk assessment.
• Open the hatches of liquid tankers (due to the build-up of pressure).

Search procedure

1. Initial questioning of the driver

The following non-exhaustive list of questions may be useful when making an

assessment of the vehicle or load:

• What route did the vehicle take?

• Did the driver see the goods loaded?
• Was the driver present when the vehicle was loaded?
• Has the vehicle stopped anywhere?
• Is the load a regular collection or delivery?
• Who owns the vehicle?
• Has the vehicle been left unattended for any length of time?
• Has the vehicle been subject to any repair work recently?
Annex 7. Guidance for search of containers, freight vehicles and premises 167

Officers should observe the driver’s demeanour and response to questioning. Behav-
ioural indicators that may give rise to suspicion could include:

• Avoiding eye contact

• Sweating
• Being evasive when questioned
• Being overhelpful or uncooperative

Officers should ask to see all paperwork in support of the load. Based on the initial
assessment, officers should consider:

• What action is necessary

• Whether the vehicle requires further examination (to varying depths) until
satisfied
• Enhanced credibility checks of the documentation

2. Search of interior of cab

Before commencing a search of the cab interior, officers must establish whether all
the contents of the vehicle belong to the driver and are reminded that the cab is the
driver’s living area as well as their workplace.

Officers must not:

• Remove their boots, but offer to protect the seats and floor by using e.g.
disposable covers.
• Wear dirty overalls when searching the cab.

Officers must:

• Always enter the cab forwards and exit backwards using the handrails.
• Search the cab systematically ensuring that all areas are checked until
satisfied.

It is good practice to wear gloves in order to protect the driver’s personal belong-
ings and officer’s personal safety. Should a detection be made, officers must wear
gloves in accordance with the guidance.

Most modern tractor units are fitted with high-tech equipment such as airbags and
GPS receivers. Computers and electronics are now commonplace in operating the
vehicle. With training and experience officers will be able to identify where the
spaces are and how to access them safely.
168 Best Practice Guide for Forensic Timber Identification

When examining the cab officers must consider examining the following areas in
this non-exhaustive list:

• Driver’s baggage
• Lockers
• Cubby holes
• Top bunk
• Under the bed or bunk
• Seats and backrests
• Side wall trims and panels
• Foot wells
• Fridges
• Dashboard

3. Search of exterior (tractor unit and trailer) and interior (trailer

and load)

Before commencing the search, officers should always check the wheel of the tractor
unit, preferably the rear wheel on the driver’s side. Officers should systematically
search the exterior starting at a fixed point on the vehicle, either at the front or
the back. Subsequently the interior of the trailer and the load should be checked.

Action if irregularities are detected

The same actions should be taken as when irregularities are detected in containers.

Guidance for search of premises

The main difference between searching containers and vehicles, and premises, is
that premises are never randomly selected for search. This type of search requires
significantly more planning and additional manpower. Search of premises is a sen-
sitive issue and it can be an unpleasant experience for the person whose premises
are being searched.

Preparation before a search of premises or crime scene

During the course of an investigation it may be necessary to conduct a search of

premises for evidence of an offence or for goods liable to forfeiture.
Annex 7. Guidance for search of containers, freight vehicles and premises 169

The case officer should be clear about the purpose and reasons for the search, the
likely extent of the search, the practicalities involved and what might be found on
the premises.

Search teams

The case officer or case manager in consultation with the officer in overall charge
of the investigation should nominate an officer who is in charge of the search at
each premises or crime scene. Ideally this should be an officer from the case team.

Officers conducting the search have to be carefully briefed as to the nature of the
material for which the search is to be made, and how the material is thought to
relate to the investigation. This will give them a better understanding and help them
conduct the search more effectively.

Designated property control point and property officer

The case officer or case manager in consultation with the officer in overall charge
of the investigation should designate a property control point where property will
be brought following the search. In practice, this should be a locked room in the
building from which the case team operates, where property can be securely stored
and access to it controlled.

Scenes of crime examination

You should consider at an early stage whether to invite a forensic adviser to the
pre-knock meeting since they can give advice on the type of evidence that may be
available at the scene of a crime and how best to preserve it. The use of forensic
support at this stage may avoid evidence being compromised or reduce the resources
required to prove the crime at a later stage. For example, it may be possible to
uniquely mark documents, consignments, etc. in the build-up to the knock. During
the search, the use of scientific support to assist in the early assessment and inter-
pretation of evidential materials can greatly speed up and enhance the investigation.
The crime-scene examination officer may also need to remove items to the laboratory
to apply more sophisticated techniques for the recovery of marks, etc. in order to
obtain the best evidence.

Digital forensics group

If premises are known to contain computers or computer equipment or if it is

suspected that relevant material may be stored on computer, you should consider
whether it is necessary for a member of the digital forensics group to:
170 Best Practice Guide for Forensic Timber Identification

• Give advice to officers at briefings on procedures and how to deal with

specific items, etc.
• Be available to provide technical advice over the telephone to officers on
the ground.
• Accompany the search team to ensure proper interrogation of the computer
records.

Procedures for dealing with cash

If it is anticipated that cash will be found in premises, officers should be briefed

on procedures to follow.

Interpreters

If it is anticipated that language could pose a challenge, an interpreter should accom-

pany the search team if possible. If officers plan to take an interpreter with them
to a search of premises, it should be included on the search warrant application if
required by legislation.

Additional resources

This may include, for example, the number of officers necessary to complete the
search, the need for an accompanying arrest team, backup or reserve team, dog
handlers, photographer, police presence or armed response team/tactical team, fire
brigade, custody officer and equipment such as knock kits, handcuffs, gloves, search
documentation, plastic bags/tamper evidence bags, seals and specialist tools, etc.

Briefings before the search

A formal briefing should precede every search of premises once authority has been
granted. Where time does not permit this, an informal briefing must be carried out.
While the case officer can provide guidelines concerning the search, (for example,
the legal basis on which entry and search is to take place), it is the search officers
who are responsible for complying with the law and ensuring that they do not go
beyond the statutory limitations imposed. The officer in charge of the search must
ensure that both the extent and limits relating to the search, and to the seizure of
items are fully understood by the search team.

Third parties attending the search

If it is necessary for a third party (e.g. a lawyer from the solicitor’s office, a police
officer, an interpreter) to accompany the team conducting a search using a search
Annex 7. Guidance for search of containers, freight vehicles and premises 171

warrant, the person concerned must be identified by name or designation on the war-
rant and the reasons given for their attendance, in the information. Failure to do so
may result in a claim of trespass and any evidence obtained being ruled inadmissible.

Third parties attending a crime scene should not be placed in a position where their
safety may be compromised.

Before the search begins

A search of premises must be made at a reasonable hour unless this might be detri­
mental to the purpose of the search.

The officer in charge must first attempt to communicate with the occupier or any
other person entitled to grant access by explaining the authority under which entry
to the premises is sought and ask the occupier to allow access, unless:

• The premises to be searched are known to be unoccupied.

• The occupier and any other person entitled to grant access are known to
be absent.
• There are reasonable grounds for believing that to alert the occupier or any
other person entitled to grant access by attempting communication would
impede the object of the search or endanger the officers concerned or other
persons.

Where the premises are occupied, officers and people accompanying them must
identify themselves. Where an interpreter is present a brief statement is to be made
in the search officer’s notebook confirming that the interpreter explained the purpose
of the search and the occupier’s rights.

If the occupier wishes a third party to witness the search, that person must be allowed
to act as a witness unless the officer has reasonable grounds for believing that the
presence of the person asked would seriously hinder the investigation or endanger
the officers concerned or other people. A search need not be unreasonably delayed
for this purpose. If the officer in charge of the search refuses the occupier’s request,
the reasons for doing so must be entered on the search record.

Searches involving forced entry

Where the statutory power allows, reasonable and proportionate force may be used,
if necessary, to enter the premises where:

• The occupier or any other person entitled to grant access has refused a
request to allow entry to the premises.
172 Best Practice Guide for Forensic Timber Identification

• It is impossible to communicate with the occupier or any other person

entitled to grant access.
• The premises to be searched are known to be unoccupied.
• The occupier and any other person entitled to grant access are known to
be absent, or
• There are reasonable grounds for believing that to alert the occupier or any
other person entitled to grant access by attempting communication would
impede the object of the search or endanger the officers concerned or other
persons.

Before any forced entry is made, the officer in charge of the search must be satis-
fied that one of the conditions above is met and that the address is that which is
specified in any warrant.

If there is a risk of serious injury to officers or members of the public during the
execution of forced entry, officers trained in method of entry (MOE) using the appro-
priate equipment and protective clothing should be deployed. Only in exceptional
circumstances, and with proper authority, may untrained officers without specialist
equipment conduct forced entry procedures.

Conduct of the search

Premises may be searched only to the extent necessary to achieve the purpose of
the search, having regard to the size and nature of whatever is sought.

A search may not continue under:

• A warrant’s authority once all the things specified in that warrant have been
found, and
• Any other power once the object of that search has been achieved.

No search may continue once the officer in charge of the search is satisfied, whatever
is being sought is not on the premises. This does not prevent a further search of the
same premises if additional grounds come to light supporting a further application
for a search warrant or exercise or further exercise of another power, e.g. when, as
a result of new information, it is believed articles previously not found or additional
articles are on the premises.

Leaving premises

If premises have been entered by force, before leaving the officer in charge of the
search must make sure they are secure by:
Annex 7. Guidance for search of containers, freight vehicles and premises 173

• Arranging for the occupier or their agent to be present, or

• Any other appropriate means.

Any significant occurrence including damage to premises or use of an occupier’s

property should be recorded in a notebook and countersigned by the occupier.

Search team responsibilities

The officer in charge of the search team is responsible for the search and:

• Ensuring that the premises are controlled.

• Any persons present are under control.
• Checking for any items that might cause harm and ensuring that these are
dealt with properly, and
• Ensuring all property is returned to the designated property control point
and that any items such as drugs, cash, firearms or ammunition or other
valuables or high value goods are brought to the attention of the property
officer. If firearms are found they should not be touched and assistance
sought from the police.

The officer in charge of the search must ask the occupier (if present) before the
search commences if there are any drugs, firearms, cash or valuables on the prem-
ises. These items should be secured and recorded in the presence of the owner or
occupier before they are removed to limit the claim of theft, etc. and to prevent any
possible discrepancies that might occur at a later date.

Each member of the search team is responsible for the continuity of the evidence.
Officers should be objective and take their time about the property they uplift. They
should try to sift property on the premises and uplift what is relevant based on the
knowledge of the case, rather than sweep up material. In case of doubt, officers
should consult members of the case team. This will reduce the problem of irrelevant
material being uplifted which may have disclosure or resource implications later on.

Post search de-briefing

A formal de-briefing should be conducted following the search with the aim of
highlighting any good or bad practices identified.
Annex 8. Forensic identification method
capabilities, approximate costs
and lead times
This annex provides information on which forensic identification test may be able
to answer to specific identification questions when undertaken by an expert scientist
trained in the application of the method (table A8.1). Also listed are approximate
cost ranges for the different techniques and minimum lead times based on the time
required to complete the laboratory tests (table A8.2). Not all methods will be able
to find answers in every circumstance, due to the progress of development of these
approaches for different species in different areas. Instead, the information here
refers to what the methods can achieve given all the required reference information.
These cost and time ranges are correct as of time of publication, however costs can
fluctuate in both directions due to improvements in efficiencies and general inflation.
Exact costs should be confirmed with the service provider. The information here
may be of interest to law enforcement officers as a first step when assessing which
forensic identification test may be suitable for their investigations. The scientific
community may find this information useful when considering which methods may
be complementary, and prosecutors and the judiciary may find the information use-
ful for assessing the suitability of the testing undertaken and whether further testing
may strengthen a case.

175
Table A8.1 Method capabilities
176

Identification Wood Machine Dendro- Mass Near infrared Stable Radiocarbon Genetics
need anatomy vision chronology spectrometry spectroscopy isotopes

Genus Yes Yes No Yes Yes No No Yes

Species Occasionally Occasionally No Yes Yes No No Yes

Provenance Occasionally Unknown Occasionally Yes Yes Yes No Yes

Individuals No No Yes No No No No Yes

Age No No Yes — with No No No Yes No

growth rings
Best Practice Guide for Forensic Timber Identification
Annex 8. Forensic identification method capabilities, approximate costs and lead times 177

Table A8.2 Method costs and lead times

Forensic identification Approximate cost per Minimum time required

method sample including for process
expertise (US$)
Wood anatomy (including <$100 Minutes–days
machine vision/
dendrochronology
Mass spectrometry <$1–$100 Minutes–days
Near infra-red spectroscopy <$1–$50 Minutes–days
Stable isotopes $100–$400 Several days
Radio-carbon $300–$400 Several days
Genetics $100–$300 Several days

References

1. Dormontt, E.E., et al., Forensic timber identification: it’s time to integrate

­disciplines to combat illegal logging. Biological Conservation, 2015. 191: p. 790-798.
Annex 9. Resources to assist rapid-field
identification of timber and
timber products

Initial proficiency with rapid-field identification of timber should be attained through

training by professional wood anatomists. This annex is intended to provide refer-
ences for resources that may assist with the ongoing work of trained field identifiers
of timber and timber products. Anyone trained in the rapid identification of timber
may find these useful, including but not limited to front-line law enforcement agen-
cies, customs, competent authorities, management authorities, foresters, scientists,
certification bodies, auditors and the general public. The resources are organized into
(a) manuals, books and publications; (b) interactive reference databases; (c) ­posters;
(d) websites; and (e) a list of curated wood collections and wood anatomy contacts.
This annex is not exhaustive and is intended only to indicate potentially useful
resources, not to endorse any particular product or to recommend the use of these
resources to the exclusion of others.

Manuals, books and publications

Coradin, V. T. R., J. A. A. Camargos, L. F. Marques, and E. R. Silva-Junior. Madeiras

similares ao mogno (Swietenia macrophylla King): chave ilustrada para iden-
tificação anatômica em campo (2009). Brasília: Serviço Florestal Brasileiro/
LPF. 28 p.il color. In Portuguese.
Chalk, L. Identification of Hardwoods: A Lens Key. Forest Products Research Bul-
letin No. 25 (1952). 334-334. In English.
Dyer, S. A description of the macroscopic characteristics of a number of well-known
indigenous and exotic timber species in South Africa and a key to their iden-
tification (1989). South African Forestry Research Institute, Forestry Branch,
Department of Environment Affairs. In English.
Groves, M. and C. Rutherford. CITES and Timber: A guide to CITES-listed tree
species (2015). Kew Publishing, Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew. Available at
www.kew.org/data/CITES_User_Guides/CITES-and-Timber.pdf.
Ilic, J. The CSIRO macro key for hardwood identification (1990). CSIRO, Highett,
Victoria, Australia. In English.

179
180 Best Practice Guide for Forensic Timber Identification

Ilic, J. CSIRO Atlas of hardwoods (1991). CSIRO, Springer-Verlag. In English.

Miller, R., and A. Wiedenhoeft. CITES Identification Guide - Tropical Woods: Guide
to the identification of tropical woods controlled under the Convention on
International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (2002).
An Initiative of Environment Canada. In English, French, Spanish, Polish and
Chinese. Chinese version available at www.traffic.org/forestry-reports/traffic_
pub_forestry16.pdf.
Mississippi State University. Basic guide to identification of hardwoods and soft-
woods using anatomical characteristics (2010). Available at msucares.com/
pubs/publications/p2606.pdf.
Ruffinatto, F., A. Crivellaro and A.C. Wiedenhoeft. Review of macroscopic features
for hardwood and softwood identification and a proposal for a new character
list. IAWA Journal 36 (2015), 208-241.
Ruffinatto, F., A. Crivellaro and A.C. Wiedenhoeft. Aula magna - Lista dei caratteri
macroscopici per l’identificazione dei legni. Supplemento a Sherwood - Foreste
ed Alberi Oggi n. 216 (2015). In Italian.
Safdari, V., M. Ahmed, J. Palmer and M.B. Baig. Identification of Iranian com-
mercial wood with hand lens. Pakistan Journal of Botany 40, no. 5 (2008):
1851-1864. In English.
Wiedenhoeft, A. C. Identificación de las especies maderables de Centroamerica
(2011). Forest Products Society. In Spanish and English.
Wiedenhoeft A.C. and Kretschmann D.E. Species identification and design value
estimation of wooden members in covered bridges. General Technical Report
FPL-GTR-228 (2014). Madison, WI: United States Department of Agriculture,
Forest Service, Forest Products Laboratory.

Interactive reference databases

Forest Products Laboratory of Brazilian Forest Service and Amazon Scientific

Research Institute - Sinchi. Electronic identification key of commercially rep-
resentative Amazonian timber species (2014). GIZ, OTCA. Version 1.0. In
English, Portuguese and Spanish.
Coradin, V. T. R., J. A. A. Camargos, T. C. M. Pastore, and A. G. Christo. Brazilian
commercial timbers: interactive identification key based on general and mac-
roscopic features. Serviço Florestal Brasileiro, Laboratório de Produtos Flo-
restais: Brazil. In English and Portuguese. Available at www.florestal.gov.br/
i n f o r m a c o e s - f l o r e s t a i s / l a b o r a t o r i o - d e - p r o d u t o s - f l o r e s t a i s / i n d ex .
php?option=com_k2&view=item&layout=item&catid=109&id=955.
Richter, H.G., Gembruch, K., and Koch, G. CITESwoodID: descriptions, illustra-
tions, identification, and information retrieval (2014 onwards). Version: 16th
Annex 9. Resources to assist rapid-field identification of timber and timber products 181

May 2014. In English, German, Spanish and French. Available at delta-intkey.

com/citesw.
Richter, H., and M. Oelker. 2002 onwards. macroHOLZdata, Commercial timbers:
descriptions, illustrations, identification, and information retrieval. Version:
2014. In English and German. Available for purchase from the Thünen Institute
www.ti.bund.de/en/hf/.

Posters

Groves, M. Ramin ... is it in the frame? (2003). Poster for use by United Kingdom
Customs and Excise, Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew. In English.
White, L., A. Fraser, M. Mustard, M. Groves, P. Gasson, and N. McGough.. Out of
Africa... Pericopsis elata (2003a). Poster for use by United Kingdom Customs
and Excise, Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew. In English.
White, L., M. Mustard, M. Groves, P. Gasson, and N. McGough. Coming to a port
near you ... Swietenia macrophylla (2003b). Poster for use by United Kingdom
Customs and Excise, Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew. In English.
Hinds, P., Stumped? (2011). Poster on colour correct examples of various commer-
cial woods. Available for purchase at www.woodposter.com.
The Wood Database Store. Periodic table of wood (accessed 2016). Poster featuring
118 high-resolution wood pictures arranged geographically; includes common
name and average dried weight. Available for purchase at www.cafepress.com/
wooddbstore.630934941.

Websites

CITES Wiki Identification Manual. Website providing descriptions of CITES species

to aid in identification. Available in English, French and Spanish citeswiki.unep-
wcmc.org/IdentificationManual/tabid/56/language/en-US/Default.aspx

CITESwoodID. Website providing descriptions, illustrations, identification, and

information on CITES wood species and various lookalike species. Available in
English, German, Spanish and French delta-intkey.com/citesw

The Gymnosperm Database. Website providing information on the classification, descrip-

tion, ecology and uses of gymnosperms (group of seed-producing plants that includes
conifers, cycads, Ginkgo, and Gnetales). In English. Available at www.conifers.org

Hobbit House Wood ID Site. Website to help with colour matching of wood as well
as basic guides to macroscopic wood anatomy www.hobbithouseinc.com/personal/
woodpics
182 Best Practice Guide for Forensic Timber Identification

Identificação Anatômica de Madeiras. Video on wood identification. In Portuguese.

Available from www.youtube.com/watch?v=94QP-zc05kg

The International Association of Wood Anatomists (IAWA). Website of the society

containing links to relevant information associated with the study of wood anatomy.
May assist in locating an expert that can undertake wood identification services.
Available at iawa-website.org

The International Tropical Timber Organization (ITTO) Lesser Used Species Atlas.
Website designed to inform on the properties, uses and availability of lesser-used
tropical timber species. In English, French, Spanish and Portugese. Available at
www.tropicaltimber.info

Tervuren Xylarium Wood Database. Website providing images of trees, wood sam-
ples and wood anatomy of selected species, predominantly from Central Africa.
In English. Available at www.africamuseum.be/collections/browsecollections/
naturalsciences/earth/xylarium

The Wood Database. Website detailing the appearance, qualities and geographic
distributions of around 500 species of traded woods www.wood-database.com

Wood Identification from the Forest Research Institute Malaysia (FRIM). Website
providing and introduction to macroscopic wood anatomy and an identification key
to 54 timber species commonly available in Malaysia. Available in English from
info.frim.gov.my/woodid

List of curated wood collections (museums of wood, or

“xylaria”) and wood anatomy contacts

Index Xylariorum 4.1. Online document detailing global wood collections both his-
toric and current. May assist in locating institutions that can provide expert wood
identification services. Available at www.iawa-website.org/downloads.html

List of wood anatomical experts around the world. An excel file contains a number
of IAWA members who are interested to share their wood anatomical expertise
to solve problems related to illegal logging. Available at www.iawa-website.org/
downloads.html
Annex 10. CITES-listed timbers and lookalikes
documented in CITESwoodID
This annex provides information, in the form of lists and a table (A10.1), on CITES-
listed timbers and lookalikes documented in the macroscopic wood identification
computerized database CITESwoodID [1]. The common names listed are not neces-
sarily exhaustive. This information may be useful to law enforcement officers inter-
ested in understanding which CITES timber species and lookalikes can be identified
using macroscopic wood anatomy. Additionally, law enforcement agencies may find
this information useful when considering whether or not to invest in training staff on
the use of these resources, which can serve as a rapid-field-identification tool. Annex
11 provides similar information on the most important traded (but not necessarily
CITES-listed) timbers. See annex 9 for more information on resources available to
aid rapid-field identification of timber.

List of 28 traded CITES-listed timbers documented in CITES-

woodID (update 2015) in alphabetical order according to the
botanical/scientific names

1. Aniba rosaeodora (Pau rosa) - CITES Annex II(B)

2. Aquilaria spp., Gyrinops spp. (Adlerholz, eaglewood) - CITES Annex II(B)
3. Araucaria araucana (Pehuén, pino araucano) - CITES Annex I(A)
4. Bulnesia sarmientoi (Palo santo)- CITES Annex II(B)
5. Caesalpinia echinata (Pau Brasil, Fernambuc) - CITES Annex II(B)
6. Cedrela odorata (Cedro) - CITES Annex III(C)
7. Dalbergia cochinchinensis (Burma rosewood) - CITES Annex II(B)
8. Dalbergia nigra (Rio Palisander, Brazilian rosewood) - CITES Annex I(A)
9. Dalbergia retusa, D. granadillo (Cocobolo) - CITES Annex II(B)
10. Dalbergia spp. Madagascar (Palissandre de Madagascar) - CITES Annex II(B)
11. Dalbergia stevensonii (Honduras rosewood) - CITES Annex II(B)
12. Dalbergia tucurensis (Korallen-Palisander, Guatemalan rosewood) - CITES
Annex III(C)

183
184 Best Practice Guide for Forensic Timber Identification

13. Diospyros spp. Madagascar (Ébène de Madagascar) - CITES Annex II(B)

14. Dipteryx oleifera (Almendro) - CITES Annex III(C)
15. Fitzroya cupressoides (Alerce) - CITES Annex I(A)
16. Fraxinus mandshurica (Mandschurische Esche, Manchurian ash) - CITES
Annex III(C)
17. Gonystylus spp. (Ramin) - CITES Annex II(B)
18. Guaiacum spp. (Pockholz, Lignum Vitae) - CITES Annex II(B)
19. Osyris quadripartita (Ostafrikanisches Sandelholz, Eastafrican sandalwood)
- CITES II Annex II(B)
20. Pericopsis elata (Afrormosia, Kokrodua) - CITES Annex II(B)
21. Pilgerodendron uviferum (Ciprés de las Guaitecas) - CITES Annex I(A)
22. Pinus koraiensis (Korea-Kiefer, Korean pine) - CITES Annex III(C)
23. Platymiscium spp. (Granadillo) - (CITES II p.p.) CITES Annex II(B); or not
protected
24. Podocarpus spp. (Podo, Maniu) - CITES I + III CITES Annex I(A); or CITES
Annex III(C)
25. Pterocarpus santalinus (Red sanders) - CITES II listed in Annex II(B)
26. Quercus mongolica (Mongolische Eiche, Mongolian oak) - CITES III CITES
Annex III(C)
27. Swietenia spp. (Echtes Mahagoni, True Mahogany) - CITES II Annex II(B)
28. Taxus spp. (Eibe, yew) - CITES Annex II(B)
Annex 10. CITES-listed timbers and lookalikes documented in CITESwoodID 185

List of 34 lookalike species which are also documented in the

database CITESwoodID (update 2015) in alphabetical order
according to the botanical/scientific names

Acosmium spp. (Lapachillo, Lapachín) lookalike: “Afrormosia”

1. 
not protected
Agathis spp. (Kauri, Damar-minyak)
2.  lookalike: “Pehuén, pino araucano”
not protected
Alstonia spp. - section Alstonia (Pulai) lookalike: “Ramin“
3. 
not protected
Antiaris spp. (Ako) not protected
4.  lookalike: “Ramin“
Araucaria angustifolia (Parana pine)
5.  lookalike: “Pehuén, pino araucano”
not protected
Brosimum rubescens Taub. (Satiné) not lookalike: “Pau Brasil, Fernambuc”
6. 
protected
Caesalpinia spp. (Chakté viga) not
7.  lookalike: “Pau Brasil, Fernambuc”
protected
Carapa guianensis (Andiroba) not
8.  lookalike: “True Mahogany”
protected
Chlorocardium rodiei (Greenheart) not lookalike: “Lignum Vitae, Palo
9. 
protected santo”
10. Chrysophyllum spp. (Aningré blanc) lookalike: “Ramin“
not protected
11. Cordia glabrata (Louro preto) not lookalike: “Brazilian rosewood, D.
protected etc.”
Dalbergia cearensis (Kingwood) not
12.  lookalike: “Brazilian rosewood, D.
protected etc.”
Dalbergia latifolia (Indian rosewood) lookalike: “Brazilian rosewood, D.
13. 
not protected etc.”
Dalbergia spruceana (Amazonas
14.  lookalike: “Brazilian rosewood, D.
rosewood) not protected etc.”
Dyera costulata (Jelutong) not
15.  lookalike: “Ramin“
protected
Endospermum spp. (Sesendok) not
16.  lookalike. “Ramin“
protected
Entandrophragma angolense (Tiama) lookalike: “True Mahogany”
17. 
not protected
186 Best Practice Guide for Forensic Timber Identification

Entandrophragma cylindricum (Sapeli) lookalike: “True Mahogany”

18. 
not protected
Entandrophragma utile (Sipo, Utile)
19.  lookalike: “True Mahogany”
not protected
Guarea spp. (Bossé) not protected
20.  lookalike: “True Mahogany”
Handroanthus spp. (Ipê, Lapacho)
21.  lookalike: “Afrormosia”
not protected
Khaya spp. (Khaya, African Mahog- lookalike: “True Mahogany”
22. 
any) not protected
Machaerium scleroxylon (Santos
23.  lookalike: “Brazilian rosewood”
Palisander) not protected
Neolamarckia cadamba (Kadam) not lookalike: “Ramin“
24. 
protected
Ocotea rubra (Louro vermelho,
25.  lookalike: “True Mahogany”
Wane) not protected
Pterocarpus macrocarpus (Amboina)
26.  lookalike: “Red sanders”
not protected
Pterocarpus soyauxii (African
27.  lookalike: “Red sanders”
Padouk) not protected
Pterygota spp. (Kasah, Koto) not
28.  lookalike: “Ramin“
protected
Sequoia sempervirens (Redwood) not lookalike: “Alerce”
29. 
protected
Simarouba amara (Simaruba,
30.  lookalike: “Ramin“
Marupá) not protected
Tectona grandis (Teak) not protected
31.  lookalike: “Cedro“
Terminalia superba (Limba) not
32.  lookalike: “Ramin“
protected
33. Thuja plicata (Western Red Cedar) lookalike: “Alerce”
not protected
34. Toona spp. (Suren, Toon) not lookalike: “Cedro“
protected
Annex 10. CITES-listed timbers and lookalikes documented in CITESwoodID 187

Table A10.1 Alphabetical list of CITES timbers (in bold print) and respective
similar timbers

Botanical name Status

Aniba rosaeodora CITES
Aquilaria spp., Gyrinops spp. CITES
Araucaria araucana CITES
Araucaria angustifolia similar
Agathis spp. similar
Bulnesia sarmientoi CITES
Bulnesia arborea similar
Chlorocardium rodiei similar
Guaiacum spp. (CITES) similar
Tabebuia spp. similar
Caesalpinia echinata CITES
Caesalpinia spp. similar
Brosimum rubescens similar
Cedrela odorata CITES
Swietenia spp. (CITES) similar
Tectona grandis similar
Toona spp. similar
Dalbergia cochinchinenesis CITES
Dalbergia nigra CITES
Cordia glabrata similar
Dalbergia latifolia similar
Dalbergia madagascariensis similar
Dalbergia spruceana similar
Dalbergia stevensonii (CITES) similar
Machaerium scleroxylum similar
Platymiscium spp. (CITES p.p.) similar
Dalbergia retusa, D. granadillo CITES
Dalbergia spp. Madagascar I CITES
Dalbergia stevensonii CITES
Dalbergia latifolia similar
Dalbergia cearensis similar
Dalbergia spruceana similar
Platymiscium spp. (CITES p.p.) similar
Diospyros spp. Madagascar CITES
Fitzroya cupressoides CITES
188 Best Practice Guide for Forensic Timber Identification

Sequoia sempervirens similar

Thuja plicata similar
Gonystylus spp. CITES
Alstonia spp. similar
Antiaris spp. similar
Chrysophyllum spp. similar
Dyera costulata similar
Endospermum spp. similar
Neolamarckia cadamba similar
Pterygota spp. similar
Simarouba amara similar
Terminalia superba similar
Guaiacum spp. CITES
Bulnesia spp. (CITES p.p.) similar
Chlorocardium rodiei similar
Tabebuia spp. similar
Pericopsis elata CITES
Acosmium spp. similar
Tabebuia spp. similar
Podocarpus spp. CITES
Pterocarpus santalinus CITES
Pterocarpus macrocarpus similar
Pterocarpus soyauxii similar
Swietenia spp. CITES
Carapa guianensis similar
Cedrela odorata (CITES) similar
Entandrophragma angolense similar
Entandrophragma cylindricum similar
Entandrophragma utile similar
Guarea spp. similar
Khaya spp. similar
Ocotea rubra similar
Taxus spp. CITES

References

1. Richter, H.G., Gembruch, K., and Koch, G. CITESwoodID: descriptions, illus-

trations, identification, and information retrieval (2014 onwards). Version: 16th May
2014. In English, German, Spanish and French. Available at delta-intkey.com/citesw.
Annex 11. One hundred important traded timbers
documented in macroHOLZdata
This annex provides information on the 100 most important traded timbers docu-
mented in the macroscopic wood identification computerized database macroHOLZ-
data [1]. The common names listed are not necessarily exhaustive. This information
may be useful to law enforcement officers interested in understanding which com-
monly traded timbers can be identified using macroscopic wood anatomy (although
there are many more that are less commonly traded, which can be identified by
an expert in wood anatomy). Additionally, law enforcement agencies may find this
information useful when considering whether or not to invest in this resource, which
can assist in rapid-field identification of these timbers. Annex 10 provides similar
information on CITES-listed timbers and lookalike species. See annex 9 for more
information on resources available to aid rapid-field identification of timber.

List of 100 traded timbers documented in macroHOLZdata in

alphabetical order according to the common German names

1. Abachi, obeche (Triplochiton scleroxylon)

2. Afzelia, doussié (Afzelia spp.)
3. Ahorn, maple, sycamore (Acer spp.)
4. Angelim vermelho (Dinizia excelsa)
5. Angélique, basralocus (Dicorynia guianensis)
6. Balau, bangkirai (Shorea spp., section Shorea)
7. Balsa (Ochroma pyramidale)
8. Berangan (Castanopsis spp.)
9. Bilinga, opepe (Nauclea diderrichii)
10. Bintangor (Calophyllum spp., Asia)
11. Birke, birch (Betula spp.)
12. Birnbaum, pear (Pyrus communis)
13. Bongossi, azobé, ekki (Lophira alata)

189
190 Best Practice Guide for Forensic Timber Identification

14. Brasilkiefer, Parana pine (Araucaria angustifolia)

15. Bubinga, kevazingo (Guibourtia spp.)
16. Buche, European beech (Fagus sylvatica)
17. Cedro (Cedrela odorata, Cedrela fissilis, Cedrela spp.)
18. Eiba, fromager (Ceiba pentandra)
19. Cumarú (Dipteryx odorata)
20. Douglasie, Douglas fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii)
21. Eastern redcedar (Juniperus virginiana)
22. Ebenhölzer, gestreift; East Indian ebony (Diospyros spp.)
23. Ebenhölzer, schwarz; black ebony (Diospyros spp.)
24. Edelkastanie, chestnut (Castanea sativa, Castanea spp.)
25. Eibe, yew (Taxus baccata)
26. Erle, alder (Alnus glutinosa, Alnus spp.)
27. Esche, ash (Fraxinus spp.)
28. Eukalyptus, eucalyptus (Eucalyptus grandis, Eucalyptus saligna)
29. Fichte, Norway spruce (Picea abies)
30. Framiré, idigbo (Terminalia ivorensis)
31. Garapa, grapiá (Apuleia leiocarpa)
32. Gonçalo alves (Astronium spp.)
33. Hainbuche, common hornbeam (Carpinus betulus)
34. Hard pines (Pinus spp.; section Taeda)
35. Hemlock, western (Tsuga heterophylla)
36. Hevea, rubberwood (Hevea brasiliensis)
37. Hickory (Carya spp.)
38. Ipê, lapacho (Tabebuia spp.)
39. Iroko, kambala (Milicia excelsa)
40. Itaúba (Mezilaurus itauba)
41. Jatobá (Hymenaea spp.)
42. Kapur (Dryobalanops spp.)
43. Kasai, taun (Pometia pinnata)
44. Khaya, African mahogany (Khaya spp.)
Annex 11. One hundred important traded timbers documented in macroHOLZdata 191

45. Kedondong (Canarium spp.)

46. Keruing (Dipterocarpus spp.)
47. Kiefer, Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris)
48. Kirschbaum, cherry (Prunus spp.)
49. Kosipo, omu (Entandrophragma candollei)
50. Koto, Kasah, Farinha-seca (Pterygota spp.)
51. Lärche, larch (Larix decidua)
52. Limba, afara (Terminalia superba)
53. Louro faia (Roupala spp.)
54. Louro vermelho, wane (Ocotea rubra)
55. Machang (Mangifera spp.)
56. Mahagoni, echtes; American mahogany (Swietenia macrophylla)
57. Mandioqueira (Qualea spp.)
58. Mangium (Acacia mangium)
59. Marupá (Simarouba amara)
60. Massaranduba (Manilkara bidentata)
61. Medang (Cinnamomum spp.)
62. Melina (Gmelina arborea)
63. Mengkulang (Heritiera spp.)
64. Merbau (Intsia spp.)
65. Merpauh (Swintonia spp.)
66. Nussbaum, walnut (Juglans regia, Juglans nigra)
67. Nyatoh (Palaquium spp.)
68. Okan (Cylicodiscus gabunensis)
69. Ovengkol (Guibourtia ehie)
70. Padouk (Pterocarpus soyauxii, Pterocarpus osun)
71. Pappel, Espe; poplar, aspen (Populus spp.)
72. Paulownia, kiri (Paulownia spp.)
73. Platane, plane (Platanus spp.)
74. Pockholz, lignum vitae (Guaiacum spp.)
75. Punah (Tetramerista glabra)
192 Best Practice Guide for Forensic Timber Identification

76. Radiata pine (Pinus radiata)

77. Ramin (Gonystylus bancanus)
78. Red Meranti (Shorea spp., section rubroshorea)
79. Palisander, rosewood (Dalbergia spp.)
80. Robinie, robinia (Robinia pseudoacacia)
81. Roteiche, red oak (Quercus rubra, Quercus spp.)
82. Sapelli, sapele (Entandrophragma cylindricum)
83. Schima (Schima wallichii)
84. Sen (Kalopanax septemlobus)
85. Sipo, utile (Entandrophragma utile)
86. Soft pines (Pinus spp.; section Strobus)
87. Spießtanne, Chinesische; China fir (Cunninghamia lanceolata)
88. Tanne, silver fir (Abies alba)
89. Tatajuba (Bagassa guianensis)
90. Teak (Tectona grandis)
91. Tembusu (Fagraea fragrans)
92. Tiama, gedu nohor (Entandrophragma angolense)
93. Ulme, elm (Ulmus spp.)
94. Weißeiche, white oak (Quercus(w) spp.)
95. Wengé (Millettia laurentii)
96. Western red cedar (Thuja plicata)
97. Whitewood, yellow poplar (Liriodendron tulipifera)
98. White seraya, gerutu (Parashorea spp.)
99. Zebrano, zingana (Microberlinia brazzavillensis, Microberlinia bisulcata)
100. Zeder, echte; cedar (Cedrus spp.)

References

1. Richter, H., and M. Oelker. 2002 onwards. macroHOLZdata, Commercial tim-

bers: descriptions, illustrations, identification, and information retrieval. Version:
2014. In English and German. Available for purchase from the Thünen Institute
www.ti.bund.de/en/hf/.
Annex 12. Methods currently under development
for rapid-field identification of timber
This annex provides information on two automated methods that are currently
under development to assist in the rapid-field identification of timber. At the time
of publication, these methods were not widely available for use by front-line law
enforcement officers but it is hoped that in the coming years they will be. This
information may be of interest to law enforcement agencies and scientists. For the
latest information on these techniques, readers should consult the relevant peer-
reviewed scientific literature and/or contact the institutions undertaking the research
and developing the tools.

Automated macroscopic wood anatomical identification

Timber identification through the use of a handheld machine which

compares the wood structure to a reference database and returns the
most likely match.

“Machine vision” technology has potential for use as a handheld timber identifica-
tion device (1). The system captures images under conditions of strict light control
through its camera, and it uses signal processing approaches to extract information
and then analyse in a way that establishes a classification scheme. A prototype device
has been developed, which has been utilized in two field situations to test multi-
ple specimens in real time. The potential accuracy of this method is excellent—as
good, if not sometimes better, than that which can be achieved by a trained expert,
due in part to the increased sensitivity to light of the optical receptors employed in
the system when compared to the human eye. The skill level required to operate a
functional system at the front line to obtain an identification is minimal, and com-
parable to that required to take macroscopic photographs suitable for off-site expert
identification. However, the technology is at the prototype stage and has been tested
on a limited number of species, so is not widely available at present.

193
194 Best Practice Guide for Forensic Timber Identification

Near infrared spectroscopy

Timber identification through the use of a handheld machine which

compares the wood structure and chemistry to a reference database
for that area and returns the most likely match.

Near infrared spectroscopy (NIRS) is applied to timber by use of a small handheld

spectrometer device and returns information derived from both the chemical and
physical structure of the wood. The returned spectrum of a sample is analysed to
determine the likely taxon when compared with reference datasets, and the result
is obtained in real time. This technology has the potential to return accurate results
with minimal skills required of the operator and is currently at the pilot stage (2).
Current research is focusing on how the methodology can be optimized for use in the
field e.g. through the introduction of variables such as humidity and cutting direction
in the discrimination model. Results obtained in the field have shown that correct
identification of family and species is possible. Provenance has also been correctly
identified, differentiating Brazilian mahogany wood from Mexico, Honduras, Peru
and Venezuela. The technology is not currently widely available.

References

1. “Machine Vision” is being developed at the Center for Wood Anatomy Research
of the US Forest Products Laboratory (CWAR-FPL).

2. Near infrared spectroscopy (NIRS) is being developed for timber identification

purposes in the Forest Products Laboratory of the Brazilian Forest Service and
University of Brasília.
Annex 13. Example chain-of-custody form
This annex provides an example evidence chain-of-custody form. When evidence is
collected, in order for it to be admissible in court proceedings, intact chain of custody
must be demonstrated. The location of evidence must be known and recorded at all
times, and a chain of responsible custodianship proved to exist from initial sample
collection, through analyses and eventually to court where necessary. Law enforce-
ment agencies may find this example form useful, as may forensic scientists who
need to record sample chain of custody in the laboratory. Most organizations who
deal with evidence on a regular basis will have their own standard chain-of-custody
form. The information presented here is for reference only and is not intended to
replace or nullify any existing protocols or procedures in place. If choosing to utilize
this form, consultation with appropriate experts and authorities is recommended to
ensure chain-of-custody procedures comply with all local requirements.

195
196 Best Practice Guide for Forensic Timber Identification

AGENCY: CHAIN-OF-CUSTODY RECORD CASE #

DATE AND TIME OF REGION: EVIDENCE/PROPERTY SEIZED BY:
SEIZURE:

SOURCE OF CASE TITLE AND REMARKS:

­EVIDENCE/PROPERTY
(person and/or
location):

☐ TAKEN FROM:

☐ RECEIVED FROM:

☐ FOUND AT:

ITEM OR SAMPLE DESCRIPTION OF EVIDENCE/PROPERTY (include seizure tag

NO: numbers and any serial numbers):

ITEM OR SAMPLE FROM: RELEASE RELEASE DATE DELIVERED

NO: (PRINT NAME, SIGNATURE VIA:
AGENCY)
☐ MAIL

☐ IN PERSON

☐ OTHER:
TO: RECEIPT RECEIPT DATE
(PRINT NAME, SIGNATURE
AGENCY)
Annex 13. Example chain-of-custody form 197

ITEM OR SAMPLE FROM: (PRINT RELEASE RELEASE DATE DELIVERED

NO: NAME, SIGNATURE VIA:
AGENCY)
☐ MAIL

☐ IN PERSON

☐ OTHER:

TO: (PRINT RECEIPT RECEIPT DATE

NAME, SIGNATURE
AGENCY)

ITEM OR SAMPLE FROM: RELEASE RELEASE DATE DELIVERED

NO: (PRINT NAME, SIGNATURE VIA:
AGENCY)
☐ MAIL

☐ IN PERSON

☐ OTHER:
TO: RECEIPT RECEIPT DATE
(PRINT NAME, SIGNATURE
AGENCY)

ITEM OR SAMPLE FROM: RELEASE RELEASE DATE DELIVERED

NO: (PRINT NAME, SIGNATURE VIA:
AGENCY)
☐ MAIL

☐ IN PERSON

☐ OTHER:
TO: RECEIPT RECEIPT DATE
(PRINT NAME, SIGNATURE
AGENCY)

ITEM OR SAMPLE FROM: RELEASE RELEASE DATE DELIVERED

NO: (PRINT NAME, SIGNATURE VIA:
AGENCY)
☐ MAIL

☐ IN PERSON

☐ OTHER:

TO: RECEIPT RECEIPT DATE

(PRINT NAME, SIGNATURE
AGENCY)
Annex 14. Timber inventory and sampling data
collection
This annex is intended to provide guidance on data collection for timber load
inventories and associated sample collections. An inventory is an important step in
detailing what is present in a timber load that may be the subject of a subsequent
investigation. It can also form part of the justification for how samples were selected
for testing (the sampling plan), allowing the results of any analytical services to be
tracked back to the exact item and location in the original load. Agencies involved in
inspecting timber loads may find this information useful and complementary to any
existing policies and procedures in place. Depending on protocol and jurisdictional
requirements, timber inventory and sampling information may be best recorded in
a notebook or similar recording device, or on separate forms.

This annex is comprised of three parts: part A lists the kinds of information that
should be recorded as part of a timber inventory and for the collection of samples
for testing; part B provides an example timber inventory form; and part C provides
an example sampling data collection form.

Part A. Information to be recorded in an inventory of a ­timber

load and for the collection of samples for testing

The information recorded in a timber inventory is specifically about the contents

of the load in question, and is in addition to other information required as part of
a case. In addition to the timber inventory, information about the samples taken for
analysis also require recording. The following list details information to be recorded
in a timber inventory and when samples are taken for forensic analysis, but should
not be considered necessarily exhaustive. Consultation with appropriate experts and
authorities is recommended to ensure procedures comply with all local requirements.

List of important information to be recorded in an inventory of a

timber load

Case title/number
Date of seizure
Location of seizure

199
200 Best Practice Guide for Forensic Timber Identification

Seized by (name, agency, contact information)

Date of inventory
Inventory taken by (name, agency, contact information)
Details of container or shipment e.g. vehicle registration number, container number,
bill of lading number
Description of timber items, organized into numbered groups of items of the same
kind
e.g. #G001 unprocessed logs, #G002 planks, #G003 picture frames
Quantity of items in each of the item groups
e.g. 2 unprocessed logs, 100 planks, 50 picture frames
Combined weight of each item group
e.g. 3 tonnes of unprocessed logs, 1 tonnes of planks, 150 kg of picture frames
Average dimensions of each item group
e.g. unprocessed logs approx. length 5 m, approx. diameter 1 m;
planks length 3 m, width 10 cm, depth 3 cm;
picture frames length 40 cm, width 20cm, depth 5 cm
Volume of each item group (can be calculated by dimensions and quantity)
e.g. unprocessed logs [quantity x length x area of the round face of the log
calculated as πr2 where r is the radius (equal to half of the diameter)] = 2 x
5 x π x 0.52 = 7.85 m3
planks [quantity x length x width x depth] = 100 x 3 x 0.1 x 0.03 = 0.9 m3
picture frames [quantity x length x width x depth] = 50 x 0.4 x 0.2 x 0.05 =
0.2 m3
Combined weight of load
e.g. 4.150 tonnes
Combined volume of load
e.g. 8.95 m3
Additional observations and remarks (where relevent)
e.g. Handwritten code in blue permanent marker present on each log reads
“XAX26”

Important notes:

1. Measurements can be recorded in whatever units are appropriate given the situ-
ation. However, when calculating combined/total weights or volumes, it is essential
that the units used are consistent, or that an appropriate conversion factor is incor-
porated into the calculations.

2. Ensure that any handwritten markings or codes written on items are carefully
recorded—this information is particularly important and must be documented exactly
Annex 14. Timber inventory and sampling data collection 201

as it can sometimes provide information regarding the origin or destination of the

wood as well as the individuals or groups involved. Markings should also be pho-
tographed where possible, using only approved equipment, file storage and transfer
methods.

List of important information to be recorded when samples are taken

from the load for forensic analysis:

• Item group number

e.g. G001 (Group 001) may represent the first group of items, which are
all unprocessed logs in the load.
• Unique item number of sampled item
e.g. iUL02 (item Unprocessed Log 02) could represent the specific log
within G001 that was chosen for sampling. If applicable, this should be
the number that was written on, affixed to, or otherwise assigned to the
item as they were unpacked and through the development of a load map.
If no numbers have previously been assigned. Assign a new number.
• Unique sample number
e.g. S001 (Sample 001), every sample collected as evidence should have a
completely unique identifying number to avoid any ambiguity regarding the
origin of the sample.
• Description of the sample
e.g. Small wood core drilled from long edge of log.
• Location of sample in original load (refer to load map and/or photo-
graphs)
e.g. Location “A” on load map. Photograph “a111.jpg”
• Dimensions and weight of the item (information should have already been
collected as part of the timber inventory)
e.g. Weight, and length, width, depth, circumference (as appropriate) of the
item
Important Note: Once samples are taken for analysis they require strict chain-
of-custody recording. See the Guide part I, section 8 and annex 13 for further
information.

Part B. Example timber inventory form

This form is an example template that may be used to record information collected
as part of an inventory of a timber load and should be used in conjunction with
the information provided in part A of this annex (and optionally part B). The exact
format of the inventory is less important than the information is contains. Depending
on protocol and jurisdictional requirements, timber inventory information may be
202 Best Practice Guide for Forensic Timber Identification

best recorded in a notebook or similar recording device, or on a separate inventory

form such as the example provided here. The information presented in this example
form should not be considered necessarily exhaustive and consultation with appropri-
ate experts and authorities is recommended to ensure inventory procedures comply
with all local requirements.
Case information

Case title/
number:
Date of
seizure:
Location of
seizure:
Seized by: Name:
Agency:
Contact information:
Details of Container number (where applicable):
load:
Bill of lading number (where applicable):
Annex 14. Timber inventory and sampling data collection

Vehicle registration number (where applicable):

Inventory Name:
taken by:
Agency:
Contact information:
203
Timber information with example data
204

Dimensions (average)
Item Description of Weight Additional observations
Quantity Width (or Depth (if Volume
group # item group (combined) Length and remarks (optional)
diameter) applicable)
G001 Unprocessed logs 2 3 tonnes 5 m 1 m n/a 7.85 m3 Handwritten code in blue
permanent marker present
on each log reads “XAX26”
G002 Planks 100 1 tonne 3 m 10 cm 3 cm 0.9 m3
G003 Picture frames 50 150 kg 40 cm 20 cm 5 cm 0.2 m3

Total weight of load Total volume of load

Important note: Measurements can be recorded in whatever units are appropriate given the situation. However, when calculating
combined/total weights or volumes it is essential that the units used are consistent, or that an appropriate conversion factor is incor-
porated into the calculations.
Best Practice Guide for Forensic Timber Identification
Annex 14. Timber inventory and sampling data collection 205

Part C. Example timber sampling data form

This form is an example template that may be used to record information on sam-
pling from timber loads and should be used in conjunction with the information
provided in part A of this annex (and optionally part B). It is essential that data
regarding the sampling procedure (i.e. a sampling plan) be recorded exactly to ensure
that any resulting forensic timber identification results can be reliably linked back
to the original timber load. The exact format of the data capture is less important
than the information it contains. Depending on protocol and jurisdictional require-
ments, details of sampling may be best recorded in a notebook or similar recording
device, or on a separate form such as the example provided here. The information
presented in this example form should not be considered necessarily exhaustive
and consultation with appropriate experts and authorities is recommended to ensure
procedures comply with all local requirements.
Case information
206

Case title/number:
Date of seizure:
Location of seizure:
Seized by: Name:
Agency:
Contact information:
Details of Container number (where applicable):
load: Bill of lading number (where applicable):
Vehicle registration number (where applicable):
Inventory Name:
taken by: Agency:
Contact information:

Sampling information with example data

Date of sampling:
Location of sampling:
Samples Name:
taken by: Agency:
Contact information:
Data Name:
recorded by: Agency:
Contact information:
Best Practice Guide for Forensic Timber Identification
 Item group # Description of Unique item # of Unique Description of Location of sample Chain-of-custody
item group sampled item sample # sample in original load record initiated?
(refer to load map
and/or photographs)
G001 Unprocessed logs iUL02 S001 Small wood core Location “A” on load ü
drilled from long map. Photograph
edge of log “a111.jpg”
G002 Planks iPL005 S002 Small block sawn Location “B” on load ü
from end of plank map. Photograph
“a222.jpg”
G003 Picture frames iPF20 S003 Small wood core Location “C” on load ü
drilled through map. Photograph
corner of frame “a333.jpg”

Important Note: Once samples are taken for analysis, they require strict chain-of-custody recording. See the Guide part I, section 8
and annex 13 for further information.
Annex 14. Timber inventory and sampling data collection
207
Annex 15. Resources to assist microscopic
identification of timber and timber
products
This annex is intended to provide references for resources that may assist in the
identification of timber and timber products through the study of microscopic wood
anatomy. Wood anatomy is a highly skilled profession and it is not anticipated that
non-experts will utilize these resources frequently. Consultation with an experienced
wood anatomist should be undertaken to verify any conclusions drawn as to the
identity of timber by non-expert users. The resources are organized into (a) ­manuals,
books and publications; (b) interactive reference databases; (c) websites; and (d) a list
of curated wood collections and wood anatomy contacts. This annex is not exhaus-
tive and is intended only to indicate potentially useful resources, not to endorse any
particular product or to recommend use of these resources to the exclusion of others.

Manuals, books and publications

Benkova, V.E. and F. Schweingruber. Anatomy of Russian Woods (2004) Verlag

Paul Haupt, Bern - Stuttgart - Wien. In English and Russian.
Crivellaro, A. and F.H. Schweingruber. Stem Anatomical Features of Dicotyledons
- Xylem, Phloem, Cortex and Periderm Characteristics for Ecological and
Taxonomical Analyses. (2015) Kessel Publishing House. In English.
Gregory M. Wood identification: an annotated bibliography. IAWA Bull. n.s. 1
(1980): 3–41.
Gregory M. Bibliography of systematic wood anatomy of Dicotyledons. IAWA Jour-
nal, Supplement 1. (1994) Leiden. 265 pp.Tropical Woods Keys. In English.
Greguss, P. Identification of living gymnosperms on the basis of xylotomy (1955).
Akademiai Kiado, Budapest. In English.
Ilic, J. CSIRO Atlas of hardwoods (1991). CSIRO, Springer-Verlag.
Kribs, D.A. Commercial foreign woods on the American market; a manual to their
structure, identification, uses, and distribution (1950). Edwards Brothers, Ann
Arbor, MI. In English.
Miller, R.B. and M.C. Wiemann. Separation of Dalbergia nigra from Dalbergia
spruceana. Research Paper FPL-RP-632 (1955). Madison, WI: US. Department
of Agriculture, Forest Service, Forest Products Laboratory. In English. Avail-
able at www.fpl.fs.fed.us/documnts/fplrp/fpl_rp632.pdf

209
210 Best Practice Guide for Forensic Timber Identification

Neumann, K., W. Schoch, P. Détienne and F. Schweingruber. Woods of the Sahara

and the Sahel (2001), Verlag Paul Haupt, Bern - Stuttgart - Wien. In English,
French and German.
Phillips, E.W.J. Identification of softwoods by their microscopic structure. Forest
Products Research Bull. No. 22 (1948). HMSO Department of Scientific and
Industrial Research. In English.
Ravaomanalina, B. H., A. Crivellaro, and F. H. Schweingruber. Stem anatomy of
Dalbergia and Diospyros from Madagascar with special focus on wood iden-
tification (2016). Springer Verlag, Germany. In English.
Richter, H. G., D. Grosser, I. Heinz, and P. E. Gasson. IAWA list of microscopic
features for softwood identification. IAWA Journal, 25(1) (2004): 1-70.
Wheeler, Elisabeth A, Pieter Baas and Peter E Gasson. IAWA list of microscopic
features for hardwood identification. IAWA Bulletin, New Series 10(3) (1989):
219-332.
Yale University School of Forestry. Tropical Woods Keys: Keys focused on the
microscopic wood identification of Neotropical taxa, published in the journal
Tropical Woods predomiantly in the first half of the 20th century. In
English.

Interactive reference databases

Richter, H. G., and M.J. Dallwitz. Commercial timbers: descriptions, illustrations,

identification, and information retrieval (2000 onwards). In English, French, German,
Portuguese, and Spanish. Version. Available at delta-intkey.com/wood/index.htm

Wheeler, E. A. InsideWood - a web resource for hardwood anatomy. IAWA Journal

32(2) (2011): 199-211. Available at insidewood.lib.ncsu.edu (2004 onwards)

Websites

InsideWood. A web resource for hardwood anatomy (2004-onwards). Available at

insidewood.lib.ncsu.edu

Commercial timbers. Descriptions, illustrations, identification and information

retrieval (2000 onwards). Available at delta-intkey.com/wood/index.htm

The International Association of Wood Anatomists (IAWA). Website of the society

containing links to relevant information associated with the study of wood anatomy.
Available at iawa-website.org

Tervuren Xylarium Wood Database. Website providing images of trees, wood sam-
ples and wood anatomy of selected species, predominantly from Central Africa.
Annex 15. Resources to assist microscopic identification of timber and timber products 211

In English. Available at www.africamuseum.be/collections/browsecollections/

naturalsciences/earth/xylarium.

List of curated wood collections (museums of wood, or

“xylaria”) and wood anatomy contacts

Index Xylariorum 4.1. Online document detailing global wood collections both his-
toric and current. Available at www.iawa-website.org/downloads.html

List of wood anatomical experts around the world. An excel file contains a number
of IAWA members who are interested to share their wood anatomical expertise
to solve problems related to illegal logging. Available at www.iawa-website.org/
downloads.html
Annex 16. Online resources for the acquisition
of reference data
This annex provides information and links regarding the acquisition of scientific
reference data for timber species (table A16.1). During the development of forensic
timber identification methodologies, scientists may require access to existing refer-
ence data. The list of resources presented here is not necessarily exhaustive, and
the reliability of the data obtained through such means should be independently
assessed on a case-by-case basis.

Table A16.1 Links for the acquisition of scientific reference data for timber
species

Identification Resource Link Comment

method
Visual International www.iawa-website.org/ The IAWA keeps
Association of links up-to-date links to
Wood Anatomists online resources
InsideWood insidewood.lib.ncsu.edu Wood anatomical
descriptions and
pictures of many
timber species
International www.ncdc.noaa.gov/ Tree-ring
Tree-Ring Database data-access/paleoclimatol- ­chronologies from
ITRDB ogy-data/datasets/tree-ring all continents that
can be used to
cross-date and
match against
Chemical Integrated kanaya.naist.jp/knapsack_ Extensive plant
Metabolite–Plant jsp/top.html database ­containing
Species Database over 101,000
species-metabolite
relationships

213
214 Best Practice Guide for Forensic Timber Identification

Genetic National Center www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov Sequence and

for Biotechnology genotyping
­Information (NCBI) ­information for a
databases wide range of
organisms. Not
DNA Data Bank of www.ddbj.nig.ac.jp
taxonomically
Japan
validated as a
European Nucleo- www.ebi.ac.uk/ena matter of course.
tide Archive Exercise extreme
caution when
utilizing these data
Barcode of Life www.boldsystems.org Sequence
Database (BOLD) ­information for
more rigorously
taxonomically
validated reference
material
Evolution of trees http://www.evoltree.eu Sequence and
as drivers of genotyping
terrestrial information for a
­biodiversity selection of tree
(EVOLTREE) species using more
rigorously
­taxonomically
validated reference
material
 300

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