Experiment no.

1: Measurements
Introduction
Measurement

In physics and engineering field, measurement is defined as the scientific process to

determine the physical quantities such as dimensions, mass, speed, force and etc.
Measurement is significant in experimental science and engineering field as it allows for
the accurate and precise determination of physical characteristics and properties of
materials, systems, and processes. This information is then used to design, develop, and
optimize products and systems to meet specific requirements and standards.

Measurement also plays an important role in quality control and quality assurance,
ensuring that products and systems meet the desired specifications and perform as
intended. Additionally, measurement is used to monitor and control processes,
troubleshoot problems, and make data-driven decisions. Overall, measurement is a
fundamental tool that enables engineers to design, develop, and maintain safe and
effective products and systems.

Measurement can be done in many ways, including using instruments such as rulers,
scales, thermometers, or more sophisticated devices such as sensors, transducers, and
analyzers. The goal of measurement is to obtain accurate and precise information about
the thing being measured, which can then be used for various purposes such as design,
quality control, troubleshooting, and decision-making.

Errors in Measurements

In reality, no physical measurement is ever exact, most of the time when measuring
properties, it is common to encounter an error. Errors in measurement refer to the
deviation of the measured value from the true value of the quantity being measured.
These errors can occur for a variety of reasons, including limitations in the measuring
instrument, operator error, environmental factors, and the inherent variability of the
quantity being measured.

To describe errors, we used the term Uncertainty, uncertainty in measurements means

two things, inexact and inconsistent. These two terms refer to accuracy and precision
respectively. Accuracy defined as how close a measurement is to the standard value.
While, Precision refers to the repeatability of the measurement using a given measuring
tools. To understand more about accuracy and precision, let’s take analyze the figure
below.
In general, there are two types of errors: systematic and random errors.

1. Systematic errors, are caused by a consistent bias in the measurement process. This
is often caused by a faulty instrument, operator error, or poor experimental design. These
errors can be reduced by identifying and correcting the source of the bias.

2. Random errors are caused by unpredictable variations in the measurement process

and tend to cancel each other out when multiple measurements are taken. They can be
reduced by taking a larger number of measurements and averaging the results. Random
errors can be minimized by using statistical treatment.

In analyzing data in any experiment, we need the following statistical parameters to

describe the random errors:

A. Arithmetic Mean ( 𝒙
̅ ). This represents the best value that can be obtained from a set
of measurements. To get ( 𝒙̅ ), we can use the equation 1.1

∑𝑥
̅=
𝒙 (1.1)
𝑛

Where ∑ x = sum of the measurement readings and n = number of trials.

B. Deviation (d). This is the difference between experimental value and the arithmetic
mean. The deviation formula is depicted in equation 1.2.

𝒅 = |𝒙
̅ − 𝑥| (1.2)

C. Variance (S2). Variance is the measure of the precision of the experimental value. This
shows closeness of your data to one another. Equation 1.3 described the S2

∑(𝑑2 )
𝑺𝟐 = (1.3)
𝑛−1

D. Standard deviation (σ). The standard deviation is another statistical parameter that
also describe the precision of the experimental vale. It measures the amount of variation
of experimental data. Standard deviation is given by equation 1.4.

σ = √𝑆 2 (1.4)
E. Best Estimated Value. The best estimated value is the final result in your experimental
data. This can be computed using equation 1.5.

𝐁𝐞𝐬𝐭 𝐞𝐬𝐭𝐢𝐦𝐚𝐭𝐞𝐝 𝐯𝐚𝐥𝐮𝐞 = 𝐱̅ ± 𝛔 (1.5)

For numerical data analysis and interpretation, you may also determine the percentage
error of your results. The percentage error indicates how much from the 100 parts of your
numerical data is in error.

|𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑑𝑎𝑟𝑑 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒−𝑒𝑥𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒|

𝑃𝑒𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑒𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑟 (%) = x 100 %
𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑑𝑎𝑟𝑑 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒

However, if there is no available standard value,

|𝐷𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑏𝑒𝑡𝑤𝑒𝑒𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑡𝑤𝑜 𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒𝑑 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒|

𝑃𝑒𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝐷𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 (%) = x 100 %
𝐴𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑡𝑤𝑜 𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒𝑑 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒𝑠

It is important to understand and quantify measurement errors, as they can affect the
accuracy and reliability of the results. Engineers use various techniques such as error
analysis, statistical methods, and quality control to identify and minimize measurement
errors. It is also important to report the measurement error along with the measured value,
as it gives an idea of how uncertain the measured value is.

Example: Your group performed a measurement experiment where you determined the
diameter of a metal sphere using a vernier caliper. The group took five trials. The results
of the experiment are listed on the table below:

Trials Diameter (mm)

1 1.25
2 1.22
3 1.27
4 1.25
5 1.29

Determine the (a) arithmetic mean (b) deviation, (c) average deviation, (d) standard
deviation, and (e) best estimated value.

Solution.

(a). Arithmetic mean. Using equation 1.1.

 ∑𝑥
̅=
𝒙
𝑛
Where n = 5.

1.25 + 1.22 + 1.27 + 1.25 + 1.29

̅=
𝒙
5

̅ =1.256 mm
𝒙

(b) Deviation. Use equation 1.2.

𝒅 = |𝒙
̅ − 𝑥|
𝒅𝟏 = |1.256 − 1.25| = 0.006
𝒅𝟐 = |1.256 − 1.22| = 0.036
𝒅𝟑 = |1.256 − 1.27| = 0.014
𝒅𝟒 = |1.256 − 1.25| = 0.006
𝒅𝟓 = |1.256 − 1.29| = 0.034

(c) Variance. Use equation 1.3.

𝟐
∑(𝑑 2 )
𝑺 =
𝑛−1

∑(0.0062 + 0.0362 + 0.0142 + 0.0062 + 0.0342 )

𝑺𝟐 =
5−1

𝑺𝟐 = 0.00068

(d) Standard deviation. Use equation 1.4.

σ = √𝑆 2
σ = √0.00068

σ = 0.026

(e) Best estimated value. Use equation 1.5.

𝐁𝐞𝐬𝐭 𝐞𝐬𝐭𝐢𝐦𝐚𝐭𝐞𝐝 𝐯𝐚𝐥𝐮𝐞 = 𝐱̅ ± 𝛔

𝐁𝐞𝐬𝐭 𝐞𝐬𝐭𝐢𝐦𝐚𝐭𝐞𝐝 𝐯𝐚𝐥𝐮𝐞 = 𝟏. 𝟐𝟓𝟔 ± 𝟎. 𝟎𝟐𝟔 𝐦𝐦

Objectives:
1. To understand the uncertainty of measurements and how errors are propagated
throughout the experimental process.
2. To learn how to measure dimensions using vernier caliper and compare to other
measuring tools.

Materials:
Meterstick, Vernier Caliper, Density Solid Sets, and Triple Beam Balance.

Set-Up:

Figure 1: Measuring Diameter of Spherical Object Using Vernier Caliper. Photo courtesy by Physics
Laboratory, Colegio De Muntinlupa.

Procedure:
1. Using a meterstick, measure the dimension (Length, width, and height for object C,
diameter and height for object M and diameter for object V). Take 5 observations/trials.
Record the measurements on the table provided.

2. Determine the mass of each object using triple beam balance (Procedure in using Triple
beam balance, see Appendix A.1).

3. Repeat procedure 1, this time, use vernier caliper

4. Calculate the volume of each object.

For object C (Rectangular object);

Volume = LxWxH
L =Length
W = Width
H= Height

For object M (Cylindrical object);

Volume = 𝜋𝑟 2 ℎ
r= radius
h =height

For object V (Spherical object)

4
Volume = 3 𝜋𝑟 3

5. Calculate density for each trial;

density = mass/volume (unit: g/cm3)

6. Calculate the mean, deviation, variance, standard deviation, best estimated value of
density and percentage error. To get percentage error, use arithmetic mean as
experimental value.
 GROUP LAB REPORT
COURSE TITLE:
EXPERIMENT TITLE:
EXPERIMENT NO:
SECTION:
GROUP NO:
DATE SUBMITTED:
PROFESSOR:
GRADES/SCORES:

NAME SIGNATURE
Data and Results
Dimensions:

Object C (Rectangular Solid): Mass: _______________g

Meterstick Vernier
Meterstick Vernier Caliper Caliper
Trials
Length Width Height Length Width Height Volume Volume
(cm) (cm) (cm) (cm) (cm) (cm) (cm3) (cm3)
1
2
3
4
5

Trials Meterstick (Density) Vernier Caliper Density

g/cm3 g/cm3
1
2
3
4
5
Mean
Variance
Deviation
Standard Deviation
Best Estimated +
Value -

Standard Density = 2.66 g/cm3

Object M (Plastic Cylinder): Mass: _______________ g

Meterstick Vernier
Meterstick Vernier Caliper Caliper
Trials
Length Width Height Length Width Height Volume Volume
(cm) (cm) (cm) (cm) (cm) (cm) (cm3) (cm3)
1
2
3
4
5

Trials Meterstick (Density) Vernier Caliper Density

g/cm3 g/cm3
1
2
3
4
5
Mean
Variance
Deviation
Standard Deviation
Best Estimated +
Value -

Standard Density = 1.40 g/cm3

Object V (Clear Plastic Sphere): Mass: _______________ g

Meterstick Vernier
Meterstick Vernier Caliper Caliper
Trials
Length Width Height Length Width Height Volume Volume
(cm) (cm) (cm) (cm) (cm) (cm) (cm3) (cm3)
1
2
3
4
5

Trials Meterstick (Density) Vernier Caliper Density

g/cm3 g/cm3
1
2
3
4
5
Mean
Variance
Deviation
Standard Deviation
Best Estimated +
Value -

Standard Density = 1.226 g/cm3

Computations (ATTACHED ADDITIONAL SHEET FOR THE COMPUTATIONS):

Analysis:

Conclusion:
 INDIVIDUAL LABORATORY REPORT

Name: ____________________________________________ Section:_________

Course: ___________________________________________ Score: _________

1. Which among the two measuring devices gave you the least % error?

2. Explain how the least count of a measuring instrument affects the accuracy of your
measurements

3. What do you think are possible sources of errors when measuring the sphere diameter
using a Vernier caliper? Enumerate at least 3

4. Sketch a Vernier caliper that reads 6.08 cm. Make sure to properly label the scales (in
mm or in cm)