Experiment 1 11

Kuwait University Physics Department

Physics 105

Error Analysis, Processing of Lab Results, and

Measurements of Density

Introduction
This experiment is an important experiment in which two essential concepts are
being introduced. The first part of this experiment is designed to serve the goal
of explaining the types of experimental errors a student will encounter in all other
experiments further to come, and how to numerically analyze and calculate the error
in the data. The second part of this experiment has the objective of illustrating to the
students the most frequently used measuring devices and how to use them properly
to get accurate data required. The importance of these two concepts is based on
the fact that the student’s entire work throughout the course will depend upon their
understanding of these concepts.

Part A. Error Analysis, and processing of Lab Re-

sults
Objectives
• Measuring the length of a simple pendulum, using a 1m ruler.

• Measuring the oscillation period of the same pendulum, by a stop watch.

• Observing systematic and random errors.

• Calculating the average and the standard error of measured data using two
different methods (i,e, the tabulation and the calculator methods).
Experiment 1 12

Theory
1. Errors
Error is known to be the difference between a calculated or observed value and the
true value. All experimental uncertainties are due to the presence of two types of ex-
perimental errors: systematic errors and random errors. The difference between
random errors and systematic errors can be shown by repeating the measurement of a
physical quantity several times under the same conditions. Random errors are statis-
tical fluctuations or variations in the measured data produced by the experimenter’s
inability to take the same measurement in exactly the same way to get exactly the
same reading. Therefore, the readings will be spread about the true value. See Figure
1 (a). Systematic errors, on the other hand, are reproducible inaccuracies that causes
the measurements to constantly be in the same direction (either too high or too low).
They are mostly due to defects in the measuring devices which make them continu-
ally present throughout the entire experiment. Therefore, the readings will always be
displaced far from the true value see Figure 1 (b). For that reason, systematic errors
are difficult to detect and cannot be analyzed statistically.

Figure 1: (a) A set of measurements taken with random errors only.

(b) shows a set of measurements with both systematic and
random errors.

• The Accuracy of an experiment is a measure of how close the result obtained

for a given experiment is compared to the true value.

• The Precision of an experiment is a measure of how exactly the result is

determined.
Experiment 1 13

2. Statistical analysis of random errors

• Recording the data

Assume x represents a physical quantity, such as the period of a simple pendu-

lum. In measuring x six times, the following data were recorded: x1 = 2.13, x2
= 2.11, x3 = 2.17, x4 = 2.15, x5 = 2.19, and x6 = 2.18 .

• Calculating the Mean Value

For this set of measurements, to compute the mean value of your result (also
known as the Average value) you should use the following equation :
i=n

xi x1 + x2 + ... + xn
x̄ = = (1)
i=1 n n

where x represents the physical parameter measured, n equals the number of

measurements, and xi is the ith measured value. Using Equation (1) for number
of measurements is n = 6, the mean value of your results is x̄ = 2.155. see
Figure 1(a).

• Determining the Standard Error

To compute the standard error of the measurements, we have to introduce the

standard deviation (σx ). The term refers to a statistical quantity which tells
you how tightly your measurements are clustered around the mean value of your
set of data. In other words, standard deviation is a good way to measure the
spread of your data around the mean value. If the standard deviation is small
then the spread is also small, which indicates that your data hold great deal of
accuracy.
The following law is used to calculate the standard deviation:



 1 i=n



σx =  (xi − x̄)2 (2)
n − 1 i=1
Experiment 1 14




 (x1

− x̄)2 + (x2 − x̄)2 + . . . + (xn − x̄)2
=
n−1

Finally, the standard deviation is used to calculate the standard error (σx̄ ),
as follows: The uncertainty or the standard error in the mean value is defined
as:
σx
σx̄ = √ (3)
n
The result to be reported from any measurement is

x̄ ± σx̄ (4)

3. Using the Pocket Calculator

The same analysis used to compute the mean value, standard deviation, and the
standard error can also be carried out using the pocket calculator. To do so, change
the mode in your calculator to the statistical mode, known as the “SD” mode, which
will provide you with subrutiens already programmed in your calculator to compute
the mean value and the standard deviation required. A simple procedure is discussed
to illustrate such a use of the pocket calculator:

• Convert the calculator to the ”SD“ mode.

• Reset the memory cells of the ”SD“ mode.

• Enter all the data (i,e, Enter each data and press the ”data“ or ”DT“ button
after each one.

• To get the average press the button x̄.

• To get the standard deviation press the button x σn−1 .

Experiment 1 15

Procedure
A.1 The length of the simple pendulum

1) Measure the length of the simple pendulum from the suspended point to the
center of the sphere using a 1m ruler.

2) Repeat the measurement 6 times, record them in Table (1).

3) Calculate the mean length L̄ according to equation 1.

4) Use the calculator to compute the mean length L̄ directly.

5) Complete the data analysis of Table (2).

6) Calculate the standard deviation for the length σL according to equation 2.

7) Use the calculator to calculate the standard deviation σL.

8) Calculate the standard error σL̄ using equation 3.

Experiment 1 16

A.1 The length of the simple pendulum

Table 1.

quantity unit l1 l2 l3 l4 l5 l6

li

¯l (using equation 1) =................................

¯l (using calculator) =................................

Table 2.

quantity l1 l2 l3 l4 l5 l6

li

(li - ¯l)

¯2
(li - l)

σl (using equation 2) =............................. σl (by calculator) =...............................

σ¯l (using equation 3) =.............................

Experiment 1 17

A.2 The oscillation period of the simple pendulum

1) Measure the time (t) for n oscillations.

2) Calculate the period T (T = t/n) of one oscillation, and record your mea-
surement in Table (3).

3) Repeat this process 6 times to get 6 values for the period T .

4) Calculate the mean period T̄ according to equation 1 applying the tabulation

method.

5) Use the calculator to get the mean period T̄ .

6) Complete the data analysis of Table (4) then calculate the standard deviation
for the period σT according to equation 2.

7) Use the calculator to get the standard deviation σT .

8) Calculate the standard error σT̄ using equation 3.

Experiment 1 18

A.2 The period of the simple pendulum

Table 3.

quantity unit T1 T2 T3 T4 T5 T6

Ti

T̄ (using equation 1) =..............................

T̄ (using calculator) =.................................

Table 4.

quantity T1 T2 T3 T4 T5 T6

Ti

(Ti - T̄ )

(Ti - T̄ )2

σT (using equation 2) =............................ σT (by calculator) =..............................

σT̄ (using equation 3) =................................

Experiment 1 19

Part B. Measurements of Density

Objectives
• Determining the length, diameter, and mass of cylindrical objects.

• Calculating of the density of the cylindrical objects and comparing with the
accepted values of the density of the metals.

Equipment list
• Four cylindrical objects of different sizes made from the same material (alu-
minum, steel, or brass).

• Measuring devices:

the Micrometer Screw Gauge (Figure 2).

the Vernier Caliper (Figure 3, 4).

the Laboratory Triple Balance.

Theory
Density ρ of any substance is defined as the mass m of a unit volume of that substance.
The obvious way of finding it is by determining the mass of a known volume of the
substance and dividing this mass by the volume
m
ρ= , (5)
V

The volume of any solid which has a simple geometric form may be determined from
its dimensions; which, if the body is small, are most conveniently measured by a
Vernier Caliper and a Micrometer Screw Gauge. The mass; however , is found
by the use of the laboratory triple balance.

The micrometer screw gauge, (Figure 2), is most convenient for the accurate
measurement of short lengths. The object is placed between the end of the screw and
Experiment 1 20

the anvil. The distance through which the screw travels is measured by two scales:

• Main Scale which is divided into millimeters on the lower part and half mil-
limeters on the upper part.

• Rotating Scale which is divided to (50) divisions each of which represents

(0.01 mm).

The two scales are related to each other such that one complete revolution of the
rotating scale equals half a millimeters on the main scale. The Least Count of the
micrometer is equal to the ratio of the smallest division on the main scale to number
of divisions on the rotating scale.

Figure 2. Micrometer Screw Gauge

The Vernier Caliper, (Figure 3), is considered also as a convenient device for ac-
curate measurement of short lengths of objects. The object placed between the jaws.
The distance through which the jaws travel is measured by two scales:

• Main Scale which is divided into inches on the upper part and centimeters on
the lower part.
Experiment 1 21

• Vernier Scale which is divided to (20) divisions each of which represents (0.005
cm).

Figure 3. Vernier Caliper

Figure 4. Magnified view of the Vernier Caliper

Experiment 1 22

Procedure
B. Measurements of density

1) Use the micrometer screw gauge to measure the diameter (d) of the cylindrical
objects. Record your data in Table (5).

2) Use the vernier caliper to measure the length (l) of the cylindrical objects.
Record your data in Table (5).

3) Use the laboratory triple balance to measure the mass (m) of the cylindrical
objects. Record your data in Table (5).

4) Calculate the volume for each cylindrical object using the measured values of
diameter and length.

5) Calculate the density (ρ) for each piece.

6) Compute the average value of the density (ρ̄).

7) Calculate the standard error (σρ̄ )of your results.

8) Use you data on Table (5) to plot a graph of the mass m (y-axis) of each
cylindrical object versus its volume V (x-axis). According to equation (5) the
graph should be a straight line through the origin. Get the average density (ρ̄)
from the slope of this line.

9) Compare the measured density with the accepted values for the density of
metals.
Experiment 1 23

B. Measurements of Density
Table 5

Object diameter length mass volume density (ρ)

d (cm) l (cm) m (g) V (cm3) (g/cm3 )

cylinder 1

cylinder 2

cylinder 3

cylinder 4

ρ̄ ± σρ̄ (from Table 5) =..............................................

ρ̄ (from the graph) =...................................................