1

Introduction
Overview of Ancient Indian Contributions to science and technology ;

The History of Science and Technology in ancient India is a testament to the profound

intellectual advancements made over millennia. From the prehistoric era of the Indus

valley civilization to the classical periods of vedic and post-vedic India, the

contributions of Indian scholars to global scientific and technological knowledge are

unparalleled. Indian advancements in fields such as mathematics, astronomy, medicine,

metallurgy and engineering not only shaped the ancient world but also influenced future

generations of thinkers across Asia, The Middle East and Europe.

Ancient India's scientific culture thrived in harmony with its philosophical and spiritual

traditions. The ancient texts and scriptures, such as the vedas and upanishads contain

references to astronomical phenomena, the structure of the universe and elements of

mathematics and medicine, demonstrating the early inquiry into the natural world. The

holistic integration of empirical observation with metaphysical reflection formed a

unique knowledge system that persisted throughout Indian history.

The indus valley civilization( circa 3300-1300 BCE), one of the world's earliest known

urban cultures, represents the starting point of India's Contributions to science and

technology. Excavations at sites such as Mohenjo Daro and Harappa have revealed
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sophisticated urban planning, including the use of standardized bricks, extensive

drainage systems and the construction of public baths. These discoveries suggest an

advanced understanding of civil engineering and water management.

According to the World History Encyclopedia, “ The Indus valley civilization displayed an

early example of advanced urban planning and engineering. The use of fired bricks,

precise grid layouts of cities, and a complex drainage system that revealed those of

later civilizations are noteworthy contributions.” These technological advancements laid

the foundation for future developments in Indian society.

The vedic period(1500-500 BCE) saw the development of various scientific concepts

embedded within the religious and philosophical texts of the time. The Rigveda, one of

the oldest known texts, contains hymns that reflect a cosmological understanding of the

universe, time, and natural forces. This period also witnessed the early application of

mathematics and astronomy in the performance of religious rituals, as outlined in the

Sulbasutras.

The classical period of Indian history saw monumental advancements in mathematics

and astronomy, largely attributed to scholars like Aryabhatt(476-570 CE). His seminal

work Aryabhatiya, introduced concepts such as Zero, the decimal system and

calculations for the circumference of the earth. Aryabhatt’s contributions laid the
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groundwork for later developments in mathematics, influencing both Indian and global

scientific thought. His heliocentric model and explanations for eclipses represent

significant strides in astronomical understanding.

Ancient India's contributions to medicine are epitomized by Ayurveda, a holistic system

that emphasizes balance and natural remedies. Texts such as the Charaka Samhita and

Sushruta Samhita outline various treatments and surgical techniques, including those

for cataracts and reconstructive surgery. Ayurveda not only influenced medical practices

but also spread to various parts of the world, illustrating the global impact of ancient

Indian medical knowledge.

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Prehistoric Developments
Until the last half of the 18th century Europeans made no real attempt to study India's

ancient past, and her early history was known only from brief passages in the works of

Greek and Latin authors. They accepted the culture at its face value, as very ancient

unchanging, and their only studies of India's past were in the nature of speculations

linking the Indians with the descendants of Noah and the Vanished empires of the Bible.

Like prehistoric Europe, Northern India experienced ice ages and it was after the
second

Interglacial period, more than 100,000 years before Christ, that man first left surviving

traces in India. These are the paleolithic pebble tools of the Soan culture, so called from

the little river in Punjab where they have been found in large numbers. In type they

resemble tools widely distributed all over the Old World, from England to Africa and

China.

In South there existed another prehistoric stone industry, which is not conclusively dated

but which may have been the approximate Contemporary of that of the Soan valley. The

men of this culture made core tools, especially fine hand axes, formed by striking off

flakes from a large pebble and they evidently had much better command over their

material than the Soan men. This Madras industry, as it is called by the archeologists,

has affinities with similar core tool industries in Africa, western Europe, and Southern

England, where it has been found in association with a more advanced type of man- a
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true Homo Sapien.

Homo Sapiens continued in India, his skill and technical equipment imperceptible

improving down the ages. He learnt to fashion microliths, tiny and delicate stone

arrowheads and other implements, which have been found in many parts of India, from

North Western frontier to the extreme South. In parts of the Deccan microliths are often

found together with polished stone axes, and it would seem that in the remoter parts of

the Peninsula their use was only fully replaced by that of iron tools around the beginning

of the Christian age.

The stone age began about 2.6 million years ago, and lasted until about 3300 B.C.
when

The Bronze age began. It is typically broken into three distinct periods: The Paleolithic
period, The Mesolithic period and The Neolithic period.

● Paleolithic period - Stone tools were the most common, but Paleolithic people

also made tools from wood, bone, and antler. They used a process called flaking

to sharpen the edges of their tools by chipping away pieces of stone. Some tools

included hand axes, scrapers, needles, and spears. They also learned to control

fire for warmth and protection, and to cook a wider variety of foods. Paleolithic

people created art in the form of cave paintings, figurines, and carved shells and

bones.Paleolithic people invented ropes.Two main forms of Paleolithic art are

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known to modern scholars: small sculptures; and monumental paintings, incised

designs, and reliefs on the walls of caves.

Paleolithic tools found in Bernifal cave in Meyrals, Dordogne, France, estimated to be

12,00010,000 years old. Image courtesy Wikimedia Commons.

● Mesolithic period - The Mesolithic period was a transitional phase in human

history between the Paleolithic and Neolithic periods. Humans used small flake

tools, called microliths, which were set into bone or antler shafts. Humans

developed the bow and arrow, which revolutionized hunting techniques. They
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used stone axes to cut down trees for fires and to construct living quarters and

fishing vessels. Humans built the first roads, called wooden trackways, to safely

cross wetlands. One notable form of Mesolithic art was rock art. Another form of

artistic expression during the Mesolithic period was the creation of small-scale

sculptures and figurines. These sculptures were typically made from bone, antler,

or stone.

Mesolithic tools

● Neolithic period - The Neolithic period, also known as the New Stone Age, was a

time of significant scientific and technological progress for prehistoric humans.

Humans began to farm and domesticate animals, which allowed them to produce

large amounts of food. This led to the development of permanent villages and the

ability to support larger populations. Pottery was a craft that developed during the

Neolithic period. Stone tools became more sophisticated. Humans developed

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ways to polish stone, making tools sharper and harder. The Neolithic tools &

weapons: axes and hammers, adzes and chisels, knives and scrapers, sickle

and hoe were used for cereal cultivation and animal domestication. Weaving and

spinning were also invented in this age. The balance of subsistence strategies

can be gradually observed to have shifted from hunting and gathering to

agriculture and animal husbandry.

An array of Neolithic artifacts, including bracelets, ax heads, chisels,

and polishing tools

Reference:

1. Basham A.L. - The Wonder That Was India

Page Numbers 14 , 18 , 19 , 20
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Indus valley civilization

The Indus Valley Civilization or alternatively the Mature Harappan from 2500-1900 B.C.

is a time of cities, developed social classes, crafts, and career specialists, writing, and

long distance trade with Mesopotamia, Central Asia, and even the countries at the

mouth of the Red Sea. The foundations for this extraordinary civilization are deep in

time, going back to the transition from hunting and gathering to agriculture and

pastoralism early in the Holocene 9000-10000 years ago. One of the most interesting

features of the Indus Valley Civilization is the range of new technologies associated with

it. The craft specialists of the Indus Valley Civilization were technological virtuosos.

There was, for example, a significant increase in the ability of these people to control

heat and direct it to pyrotechnology. This is best exemplified in their metalwork and the

development of bronze, but it is also apparent in the advancements they made with

faience and stoneware, clear steps upward on the pyrotechnological ladder. Other

significant technologies associated with the Indus are as follows ; First, city planning

and construction of large buildings from baked brick. Second, The technology needed

for excavation of brick-lined wells. Third, Urban drainage systems. Fourth, Manufacture

of very long, hard stone beads, including the sophisticated drilling technology. Fifth,

Spectacular pyro technological achievement along a number of fronts. Mastery of

maritime sailing.
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Town planning, architecture and drainage systems of Indus valley

civilization :

During the indus valley civilization, the towns of Harappa and Mohenjo-Daro stood out

for their remarkable town planning.

Rectangular grid pattern: The IVC cities were designed on a grid pattern, with streets

running in a north-south and east-west direction, forming a well-organized layout.

Streets and lanes were cutting across one another almost at right angles, thus dividing

the city into several rectangular blocks. The main street was connected by narrow

lanes. House doors opened in these lanes rather than the main streets.

Planned streets and alleyways: The streets and alleyways of IVC cities were planned

and constructed with precision.They were wide enough to allow the movement of carts

and pedestrians, and some streets had covered drains running alongside them. The

main street was ten meters wide, dividing the town into rectangular and square blocks.

Fortification: The cities were surrounded by fortified walls made of mud bricks,

protecting robbers, cattle raiders and floods.

Division of cities: The city was divided into two parts–An upraised citadel and the lower

part of the city. In the western part of these ancient cities, an elevated citadel was the

foundation for constructing significant structures. These included granaries,

administrative buildings, pillared halls, and courtyards. The citadel housed essential

residential structures used by the general public or select residents. Notably, cities like

Harappa, Mohenjodaro,and Kalibangan featured a citadel built atop a tall mud-brick

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podium. Below the citadel in each city lay a lower town containing brick houses, which

the common people inhabited.

Material used: They used burnt bricks on a large scale in almost all kinds of

constructions, and there was an absence of stone buildings during the Harappan

Civilisation culture. The houses were built of mud bricks, while the drainages were built

with burnt bricks. The cities of Harappan Civilisation were constructed using

standardized bricks, with a uniform size of 1: 2: 4 ratio in terms of thickness:width:

length across all IVC structures. This standardization suggests a sophisticated level of

planning and craftsmanship. There was equal uniformity in the average size of bricks for

houses and city walls.

Residential areas: The cities were divided into distinct residential areas. Houses were

made of baked bricks, often with multiple stories, indicating a well-developed urban

society. The houses were generally built around courtyards, and some had private wells

and properly ventilated bathrooms. No windows were facing the streets, and the

bathrooms were tiled.

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The Great Bath: It is situated within a courtyard. Corridors can be found on all four

sides, and stairs can be found on the northern and southern sides. A flight of steps

leads to the surface at either end. It was well-paved with several adjacent rooms. There

were side rooms for changing clothes. The bricks were water-tightly installed with

gypsum mortar. The bath floor was made of burnt bricks. It is associated with a ritual

bath, which has been vital to any religious ceremony in India. Water was drawn from a

large well in an adjacent room, and an outlet from the corner of the bath led to a drain.

Example: Great Bath of Mohenjo-Daro.

Sophisticated drainage systems: The drainage system of the Harappan Civilisation was

elaborate and well laid out. Every house had drains connected to the street drains.
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Drains were made of mortar, lime and gypsum. These drains were covered with

manhole bricks or stone slabs (which could be removed for cleaning) and were

constructed at regular intervals by the side of the streets for cleaning. This

demonstrates that the people were well-versed in sanitation science.

Granaries and storage facilities: The cities had well-planned granaries and storage

facilities to store surplus agricultural produce. These structures featured thick walls to

protect the stored food from pests and were often located near the citadel or the city

center. Granaries was a brick structure built over 45 meters in north-south and

east-west directions. It was partly paved with baked bricks. Each room has three

sleeper walls with air space between them. There was the presence of a small
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triangular opening that may serve as an air duct to allow the flow of fresh air beneath

the hollow floors. Cities having granaries: Mohenjo-Daro, Harappa, Kalibangan.

Water management: The Harappans were adept at managing water resources. Many

cities had wells, reservoirs, and water tanks that were well-built and strategically placed

to ensure a consistent water supply for the residents.

Examples: Reservoir at Dholavira, Dholavira storm drain, Wells at Mohenjo-Daro, etc.

Reservoir at Dholavira
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Commercial areas: Commercial areas were present within the cities, where artisans,

craftsmen, and merchants conducted their trade. These areas had specialized

workshops and shops, indicating a well-organized economic system. Evidence of

beadsmaker shops has been found at Chanhudaro and Lothal. Chanhudaro was a craft

production center, specializing in bead making, shell-cutting, metal-working,

seal-making, and weight-making. Beads were made from a variety of materials,

including carnelian, jasper, crystal, quartz, steatite, copper, bronze, gold, shell, faience,

and terracotta. Beads were made in many shapes, including disc-shaped, cylindrical,

spherical, barrel-shaped, and segmented. Some beads were decorated by incising or

painting, and some had designs etched onto them. Specialized drills were found at

Chanhudaro.

Dockyard: The dominant sight at Lothal is the massive dockyard, the greatest work of

maritime architecture during the IVC. It was discovered on the banks of the Sabarmati
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River. The structure's design demonstrates a thorough investigation of tides, hydraulics,

and the effect of seawater on bricks. Lothal is the only IVC city with a dockyard.

Dockyard at Lothal

Town planning uniformity: One notable aspect of IVC town planning was the uniformity

observed across multiple cities. The similarities in the layout, construction techniques,

and standardization of bricks indicate a centralized authority or a shared urban planning

system.
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Weights and Measurement: The Indus civilization’s inhabitants had developed a high

degree of precision in measuring length, mass, and time. They were among the first to

establish an equitable weights and measures system. A study of the available materials

suggests that the Indus areas exhibit considerable variance. Their smallest division, as

shown on an ivory scale discovered in Lothal, Gujarat, was around 1.704 mm, the tiniest

partition documented on the Bronze Age scale. Harappan engineers divided

measurements into decimal fractions for all practical reasons, including mass

measurement using their hexahedron weights. Additionally, they used a weight stone

(Batkhara) to weigh 0.05, 0.1, 0.2, 0.5, 1, 2, 5, 10, 20, 50, 100, 200, and 500 units, as

well as smaller things measuring 0.871 units, each unit weighing 28 grams, almost

equivalent to the English Imperial Ounce or Greek Unia. However, like with other

civilizations, the actual weights varied throughout the area. Later in Kautilya’s astrology

(4th century BCE), the weight and measurement employed are comparable to those in

Lothal. The Indus Valley civilization’s inhabitants were technically advanced and had an

advanced understanding of metallurgy; they also used standardized burned bricks,

precise weights, and cotton.

Numerous subdivisions also used a calibrated standardized system of weights and

measures. They employed gold, silver, copper, lapis lazuli, turquoise, amethyst,

alabaster, and jade, among other materials, according to evidence discovered during

the excavations Harappans invented new metallurgical processes and also

manufactured copper, bronze, lead, and tin. At Banawali, a stone with gold streaks was

discovered, which may have been used to determine the purity of gold, a process that is
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still utilized in some regions of India today. The earliest surviving measuring rod is a

copper-alloy strip discovered at Nippur by German Assyriologist Eckhard Unger. And

Unger said that it was utilized as a standard of measurement. Before 1500 BCE, the

Indus Valley Civilisation used an ivory ruler in what is now Pakistan and certain portions

of Western India. One such ruler calibrated to around 1/16 of an inch—less than 2

millimeters—was discovered during excavations at Lothal (2400 BCE).

According to Ian Whitelaw (2007), ‘The Mohenjo-Daro ruler is split into units equivalent

to 1.32 inches (33.5 mm) and these are etched out in decimal subdivisions with

astonishing precision to within 0.005 of an inch. The proportions of ancient bricks

discovered around the area match these units.’

Buttons, decorative: Indus Valley Civilization employed buttons made of Sagar ka kauri

for aesthetic reasons circa 2000 BCE. Some buttons were carved with geometric forms

and holes to allow for thread attachment to clothes. According to Ian McNeill (1990),

“buttons were initially employed more as a decorative than a fastener, with the oldest

being discovered in Mohenjo-Daro in the Indus Valley.” It is made of a bent shell and is

believed to be around 5000 years old.”

Transportation technology: Significant advancements in transportation technology

assisted the Indus Valley Civilization. These advancements might include bullock carts

like the boats prevalent across South Asia today.

The majority of these boats were presumably tiny, flat-bottomed vessels propelled by

sails, as seen today on the Indus River; nonetheless, there is secondary evidence of

seagoing vessels. One transportation technology is boats and archeologists have

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unearthed a massive, dry canal used as a mooring facility in western India’s coastal port

of Lothal (Gujarat state). A vast canal system that was also utilized for irrigation is also a

transportation technology.

Agriculture was the main profession of the people of Indus Valley. The land was pretty

fertile when the Harappans used to live there. In the cities of Harappa and Mohenjo

Daro, leftovers of large granaries were found that suggest that they produced more than

their requirements. Barley and wheat were grown by them on a large scale. They also

grew some other crops such as pulses, cotton, cereals, dates, melons, pea, etc. There

was no clear evidence of rice, but some grains of rice were found in Rangpur and

Lothal.

Animal husbandry was another occupation for the sustenance of the Indus Valley

Civilization. The seals depicted animals and suggested that they domesticated cows,

buffalo, goats, sheep, pigs, etc. Camels and jackasses were also domesticated and

were used as beasts of burden. Bones of camels have been obtained in large numbers

from many sites, but there is no sign of them on the seals. During the excavation in

Surkotada in Gujarat, the jawbone of a horse was found. Terracotta figures of a horse

have been found at Naushahro and Lothal.

Very few written materials have been discovered in the Indus valley and the scholars

have not been able to decipher the Indus script so far. As a result, there is difficulty in

understanding the nature of the state and institutions of the Indus Valley Civilization.

No temples have been found at any Harappan sites. Therefore the possibility of priests

ruling Harappa can be eliminated.

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Harappa was possibly ruled by a class of merchants. If we look for a center of power or

for depictions of people in power, archaeological records provide no immediate

answers. Some archaeologists are of the opinion that Harappan society had no rulers,

and that everybody enjoyed equal status. Another theory argues that there was no

single ruler, but a number of rulers representing each of the urban centers.

The Indus Valley Civilization is said to be an agro-commercial civilization as most of the

people were peasants. The Harappan were the first people to grow cotton.

In Harappa numerous terracotta figurines of women have been found. In one figurine a

plant is shown growing out of the embryo of a woman. The Harappans, therefore,

looked upon the earth as a fertility goddess and worshiped her in the same manner as

the Egyptians worshiped the Nile goddess Isis. The male deity is represented on a seal

with three horned heads, represented in the sitting posture of a yogi. This god is

surrounded by an elephant, a tiger, a rhinoceros, and has a buffalo below his throne. At

his feet appear two deer.The depicted god is identified as Pushupati Mahadeva.

Numerous symbols of the phallus and female sex organs made of stone have been

found. The people of the Indus region also worshiped trees and Animals. The most

important of them is the one horned unicorn which may be identified with the rhinoceros

and the next important was the humped bull. Amulets have also been found in large

numbers.

The Indus Valley Civilisation is also known as the Harappan Civilisation, after Harappa,

the first of its sites to be excavated in the 1920s in what was British India’s Punjab
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province and is now Pakistan. The discovery of Harappa and the site of its neighboring

Indus city Mohenjo-Daro was the culmination of work that began in 1861 with the

establishment of the Archaeological Survey of India in the British Raj, the common

name for British imperial rule over the Indian subcontinent from 1858 to 1947.

Reference:

1. Possehl Gregory - The Indus Civilization: A Contemporary

Perspective

Page Numbers 1 , 58 , 89 , 90 , 92 , 97 , 99 , 103 , 104

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Vedic period

The earliest Indian literary source we possess is the Rig Veda, most of which was

composed in the second half of the 2nd millennium. It is evidently the work of an

invading people who have not yet fully subjugated the original inhabitants of

north-western India. In his great report on the excavations at Mohenjo-daro, Sir John

Marshall maintains that some two centuries or more elapsed between the fall of the

Indus-cities and the invasion of the Aryans. But the more recent excavations at Harappa

and elsewhere, the revision of the chronology of Babylon and the indications in the Rig

Veda itself have all tended to reduce the gap. Many competent authorities led by Sir R.

Mortimer Wheeler now believe that Harappa was overthrown by the Aryans. It is

suggested that the interments in the later cemetery at Harappa are those of true Vedic

Aryans and that the forts or citadels which the Vedic war god Indra is said to have

destroyed included Harappa in their number. There is not enough evidence to say with

certainty that the destroyers of the inner cities were members of the group of related

tribes whose priests composed the Rig Veda, but it is probable that the fall of this great

civilization was an episode in the widespread migratory movement of charioteering

peoples which altered the face of the whole civilized world in the 2nd millennium BC.

The invaders of India called themselves Aryas, a word generally anglicized into Aryan.

The name was also used by the ancient Persians and survived in the world Iran, the

name of the most westerly land reached by Indo-European peoples in ancient times.

About 2000 BC, the great steppeland, which stretches from Poland to Central Asia, was

inhabited by semi-nomadic barbarians, who were tall, comparatively fair, and mostly
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long-headed. They had tamed the horse, which they harnessed to light chariots, with

four wheels of a much faster and better type than their lumbering, ass-drawn cars, with

four solid wheels, which were the best means of transport known to contemporary

Sumerians. They were mainly pastoral, but practiced a little agriculture. There is no

evidence that they were in direct contact with the Sumerians, but they had adopted

some Mesopotamian innovations, notably the shaft-hole ax. There is evidence of early

mathematical and astronomical concepts found in the vedas and the sulbasutras.

Pythagorean theorem : The Sulba Sutras demonstrate an understanding of the

relationship between the sides of right-angled triangles, which is the basis of the

Pythagorean theorem.

Baudhāyana's theorem : This theorem is found in the Sulba Sutras and states that the

area of the square on the hypotenuse of a triangle is equal to the sum of the areas of

the squares on the other two sides. These texts are part of the larger corpus of the

Vedas and represent some of the earliest known mathematical and geometric treatises

in history.

Value of pi : The Sulba Sutras contain multiple values of pi, which is used in

approximate constructions.

Accurate astronomical calculations : Indian mathematicians were able to make accurate

calculations for astronomical constants, such as solar and lunar eclipses.

Formula for the sum of cubes : This formula was an important step in the development

of integral calculus.
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Decimal system : The decimal system, place-value, zero, square, and cubic-roots were

all of Indian origin.

Trigonometry : Trigonometry was an essential component of astronomy, and Indian

mathematicians provided formulas for calculating the sine of any angle.

The Sulba Sutras are a collection of ancient Indian texts that date back to around 800

BCE to 200 BCE. They were used to provide rules for the construction of altars for

religious ceremonies.

Indian mathematics emerged in the Indian subcontinent from 1200 BCE until the end of

the 18th century. The decimal number system in use today was first recorded in Indian

mathematics. Indian mathematicians made early contributions to the study of the

concept of zero as a number, negative numbers, arithmetic, and algebra. In addition,

trigonometry was further advanced in India, and, in particular, the modern definitions of

sine and cosine were developed there. These mathematical concepts were transmitted

to the Middle East, China, and Europe and led to further developments that now form

the foundations of many areas of mathematics. Ancient and medieval Indian

mathematical works, all composed in Sanskrit, usually consisted of a section of sutras in

which a set of rules or problems were stated with great economy in verse in order to aid

memorization by a student. This was followed by a second section consisting of a prose

commentary (sometimes multiple commentaries by different scholars) that explained the

problem in more detail and provided justification for the solution. In the prose section,

the form (and therefore its memorization) was not considered so important as the ideas
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involved. All mathematical works were orally transmitted until approximately 500 BCE;

thereafter, they were transmitted both orally and in manuscript form.

The religious texts of the Vedic Period provide evidence for the use of large numbers.

By the time of the Yajurvedasaṃhitā- (1200–900 BCE), numbers as high as 1012 were

being included in the texts.

The Śulba Sūtras (literally, "Aphorisms of the Chords" in Vedic Sanskrit) (c. 700–400

BCE) list rules for the construction of sacrificial fire altars. Most mathematical problems

considered in the Śulba Sūtras spring from "a single theological requirement," that of

constructing fire altars which have different shapes but occupy the same area. The

altars were required to be constructed of five layers of burnt brick, with the further

condition that each layer consist of 200 bricks and that no two adjacent layers have

congruent arrangements of bricks.

According to Hayashi, the Śulba Sūtras contain "the earliest extant verbal expression of

the Pythagorean Theorem in the world, although it had already been known to the Old

Babylonians.”

Among the scholars of the post-Vedic period who contributed to mathematics, the most

notable is Pingala ( 300–200 BCE), a music theorist who authored the Chandas

Shastra.

Pingala's work also contains the basic ideas of Fibonacci numbers (called maatraa

meru).
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Cosmology : Cosmology is defined as the study of the origin, purpose, structure and

functioning of the universe. Vedic cosmology gives a vast amount of information about

not only the structure of the phenomenal universe as we see it, but also a clear idea of

the source of the manifested universe, its purpose, and the subtle laws that govern its

operation.

The concept of a loka or lokas develops in the Vedic literature : Influenced by the

special connotations that a word for space might have for a nomadic people, loka in the

Veda did not simply mean place or world, but had a positive valuation: it was a place or

position of religious or psychological interest with a special value of function of its own.

Hence, inherent in the "loka" concept in the earliest literature was a double aspect; that

is, coexistence with spatiality was a religious or soteriological meaning, which could

exist independent of a spatial notion, an "immaterial" significance. The most common

cosmological conception of lokas in the Veda was that of the trailokya or triple world:

three worlds consisting of earth, atmosphere or sky, and heaven, making up the

universe. The universe was viewed as three spheres, or lokas, made up of earth, the

atmosphere, and heaven. This tripartite cosmology was shared with other

Indo-European peoples.

The origin of the universe : The Vedas describe the universe as created through a

divine act of creation and pervaded by a supreme consciousness.

The hierarchy of beings : Vedic cosmology describes the hierarchy of beings within the

universe, leading to the Supreme Personality of Godhead, Sri Krishna.

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The relationship between the universe and humans : Vedic cosmology provides

information on how to interact with the universe to live a peaceful and progressive life.

The year : The year was divided into seasons based on religious rites and seasons. The

year was closed with rites to celebrate Indra Sun¯as¯ıra, which represented the

regeneration of the year.

Towards urbanization :

By the 6th century BCE, the political units consolidated into large kingdoms called

Mahajanapadas. The process of urbanization had begun in these kingdoms, commerce

and travel flourished, even regions separated by large distances became easy to

access. Anga, a small kingdom to the east of Magadha (on the doorstep of modern-day

West Bengal), formed the eastern boundary of the Vedic culture. Yadavas expanded

towards the south and settled in Mathura. To the south of their kingdom was Vatsa

which was governed from its capital Kausambi. The Narmada River and parts of North

Western Deccan formed the southern limits. The newly formed states struggled for

supremacy and started displaying imperial ambitions.

Society :

While Vedic society was relatively egalitarian in the sense that a distinct hierarchy of

socio-economic classes or castes was absent, the Vedic period saw the emergence of a

hierarchy of social classes. Political hierarchy was determined by rank, where rājan

(tribal king or chieftain) and rājanya (tribal nobility) stood at the top, the viś (the common
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people) in the middle, and the dāsa and dasyu (non-Indo-Aryan servants) at the bottom.

The words Brahamana and Kshatriya occur in various family books of the Rigveda, but

they are not associated with the term varna. The words Vaishya and Shudra are absent.

The institution of marriage was important and different types of marriages— monogamy,

polygyny and polyandry are mentioned in the Rigveda. Both women sages and female

gods were known to Vedic Aryans. Women could choose their husbands and could

remarry if their husbands died or disappeared. The wife enjoyed a respectable position.

The emergence of monarchical states in the later Vedic age led to a distancing of the

rajan from the people and the emergence of a varna hierarchy. The society was divided

into four social groups—Brahmanas, Kshatriyas, Vaishyas and Shudras. The later Vedic

texts fixed social boundaries, roles, status and ritual purity for each of the groups.

Economy :

Economy in the Vedic period was sustained by a combination of pastoralism and

agriculture. There are references, in the Rigveda, to the leveling of fields, seed

processing, and storage of grains in large jars. War bounty was also a major source of

wealth. Economic exchanges were conducted by gift giving, particularly to kings (bali)

and priests (dana), and barter using cattle as a unit of currency. While gold is mentioned

in some hymns, there is no indication of the use of coins. Metallurgy is not mentioned in

the Rigveda, but the word ayas and instruments made from it such as razors, bangles,

axes are mentioned. The transition of Vedic society from semi-nomadic life to settled

agriculture in the later Vedic age led to an increase in trade and competition for
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resources. Agriculture dominated the economic activity along the Ganges valley during

this period.

Visual arts :

In northern India, some very early depictions of deities appear in the art of the Indus

Valley Civilisation, but the following millennium, coinciding with the Indo–Aryan

migration during the Vedic period, is devoid of such remains. It has been suggested that

the early Vedic religion focused exclusively on the worship of purely "elementary forces

of nature by means of elaborate sacrifices", which did not lend themselves easily to

anthropomorphological representations. Various artifacts may belong to the Copper

Hoard culture (2nd millennium CE), some of them suggesting anthropomorphological

characteristics. Interpretations vary as to the exact significance of these artifacts, or

even the culture and the periodization to which they belonged. Some examples of

artistic expression also appear in abstract pottery designs during the Black and red

ware culture (1450–1200 BCE) or the Painted Grey Ware culture (1200–600 BCE), with

finds in a wide area, including the area of Mathura.

Archaeology :

Archaeological cultures identified with phases of Vedic material culture include the

Ochre Coloured Pottery culture, the Gandhara grave culture, the Black and red ware

culture and the Painted Grey Ware culture.

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Painted Grey Ware culture - Sonkh (Uttar Pradesh) - 1000-600 BCE

Black and Red Ware

 31

Reference:

1. Basham A.L - The Wonder That Was India

Page Numbers 18 , 19 , 21 , 22
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Early Iron Age and Metallurgy

The Early Iron Age in India, typically starting around 1200 BC and lasting until the 1st

century CE, marked a significant phase in this subcontinent's cultural and technological

revolution. It was a period characterized by the widespread use of iron tools and

weapons, and profound changes in agricultural practices and socio-political

transformations. Iron Age settlements emerged across different regions, notably in the

Indo-Gangetic Plains, the Deccan Plateau, and Southern India. This era laid the

foundations for subsequent historical developments in India.

Spread of Iron technology in India :

Iron technology first appeared in the northwestern part of India and gradually spread to

other regions. The evidence of iron smelting and lineage is documented in various

archaeological sites across India. One of the most significant and epoch-making

discoveries in recent years was that of the painted greyware ceramic. The painted

greyware is post Harappan in stratigraphy and therefore in chronology. This is proved

by the excavation at Rupar and by the exploration in Bikaner. The chronological range

of the painted greyware is therefore broadly and generally between circa 1500 BC and

the presently accepted terminal date of the Harappan culture in circa 600 BC, the

proposed initial date of the northern black polished ware. Since the painted greyware

occurs in a post-Harappan context in Bikaner, the very region comprising the valley of

the Saraswati or the modern Ghagar, which is known as the early habitat of Aryans in

India, and since they are also found in a number of sites in the Ganga plain.
 33

The discovery of iron objects such as axes, sickles, and plough share indicates the

utility of iron in both agriculture and warfare.

The three sites are 1. Ahar, Rajasthan, early traces of iron smelting 2. Atranji Kheda,

Uttar Pradesh, evidence of iron tools associated with agriculture 3. Hastinapura, Uttar

Pradesh, early evidence of iron in northern India

Iron spread to South India by the mid-first millennium BCE, leading to the development

of the megalithic culture.

Agriculture :

The use of iron significantly revolutionized agricultural practices. Unlike bronze, iron

tools were harder, more durable, and could be mass-produced, making them ideal for

cutting through dense forests and breaking harder soils. This advancement enables the

expansion of settlements into new territories, particularly in the Gangetic Plains and

Deccan regions. With iron-plough shares, agricultural productivity increased. This

contributed to the growth of agrarian societies, which laid the foundation of urbanization,

particularly in the later vedic period. The iron-tipped plough shares found in

archaeological sites like Atranjikheda played a crucial role in transforming agriculture.

This development helped increase food production, leading to surplus storage and

trade. Increased agricultural productivity contributed to the rise of urban centers. Iron

tools also enabled more efficient forest clearing, creating more arable land for

agriculture and other purposes.

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Overview of Iron smelting and Early metallurgy :

The characteristic of an Iron Age culture is the mass production of tools and weapons

made not just of found iron, but from smelted steel alloys with an added carbon content.

Only with the capability of the production of carbon steel does ferrous metallurgy result

in tools or weapons that are harder and lighter than bronze. Smelted iron appears

sporadically in the archeological record from the middle Bronze Age. In the early stages,

Indians used bloomeries to produce iron. The process involved heating iron ore along

with charcoal in a furnace and then manually removing impurities by hammering. This

produced wrought iron, which was more malleable and suited for forging tools and

weapons. Evidence suggests that iron smelting in India began as early as 1400 BCE,

and that iron implements were in use by 1200 BCE. Archaeological data suggests that

India was "an independent and early center of iron technology."

The discovery of furnaces and slag deposits in sites like Jakhera, Uttar Pradesh and

Raipura, Madhya Pradesh, points to the expertise in iron production.

Techniques of quenching, tempering, and forging were gradually mastered, improving

the quality and durability of tools.

By the later stages of the Iron Age, India had developed more sophisticated techniques

of ironworking. As seen in the creation of high-quality steels, the southern part of India,

especially the Tamil region, became known for its production of Wootz steel, a

precursor to modern steels, which would become a highly sought-after material in the

ancient world, particularly in West-Asia and Europe.

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The introduction of iron had profound socio-economic consequences. The increased

efficiency in agriculture combined with better tools for daily use allowed for the creation

of surplus produce. This surplus gave rise to trade and exchange of goods, leading to

more complex economic systems. The early iron age in India marked a period of

remarkable technological advancement and socio-political transformation. The spread

of iron smelting technology revolutionized agriculture and warfare, leading to larger and

more powerful kingdoms. Mastering of iron metallurgy in India also contributed to the

development of advanced tools and weapons, which had a lasting impact on Indian

civilization.

Reference:

1. Banerjee N.R. - Iron Age In India

Page Numbers 13 , 14 , 15 , 36 , 39 , 53
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Early Medicine: Ayurveda and Surgery

Ayurveda encompasses not only science but religion and philosophy as well. We use

the word religion to denote belief and discipline conducive towards a state of being in

which the doors of perception open to all aspects of life. In Ayurveda, the whole of life's

journey is considered to be sacred. The word philosophy refers to the love of truth and

in Ayurveda, truth is being, pure existence, the source of all life. Ayurveda is a science

of truth as it is expressed in life. India has a rich history of medical knowledge that dates

back thousands of years. The early system of medicine known as Ayurveda developed

during the Vedic period, around 1500 BCE to 500 BCE. Ayurveda is considered one of

the world's oldest medical systems and has continued to influence health and healing

practices globally. Alongside Ayurveda, ancient Indian surgeons, most notably Sushruta,

made significant advancements in surgery. These medical systems were not just

confined to healing illnesses, but encompassed broader aspects of health, wellness,

and lifestyle management.

Ayurveda is a holistic system of medicine that is indigenous to and widely practiced in

India. The word Ayurveda is a Sanskrit term meaning “science of life”. Ayu means

“life” or “daily living” and Veda is “knowing”. Ayurveda was first recorded in the Vedas,

the world's oldest extant literature. This healing system has been practiced in daily life in

India for more than 5000 years.

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The Atharva Ved is the most significant of the Vedic texts that deals with medical

knowledge, outlining procedures for the treatment of various ailments. Ayurvedic

teachings are primarily based on the belief that health is the balance between the body,

mind, and spirit.

The primary principles of Ayurveda revolve around the concept of Doshas, i.e. vata,

pitta, and kapha, which are bioenergies that govern the physiological and psychological

processes in the human body. According to Ayurveda, an imbalance in these Doshas

leads to disease and treatments are aimed at restoring the balance. The tridosha are

responsible for the arising of natural urges and for individual preferences in food, their

flavors, temperatures, and so on.

Vata:

Vata is a principle of movement. That which moves is called Vata. Therefore, Vata may

be translated as the bodily air principle. Vata is formed from the two elements, air and

ether. Vata governs breathing, blinking of eyelids, movement in the muscles and

tissues, pulsations in the heart, all expansion and contraction. Vata also governs such

feelings and emotions as freshness, numbness, fear, anxiety, pain, tremors, and

spasms.

Pitta:

Pitta is translated as fire, although the term does not literally mean fire. The fire of a

candle or the fire in a fireplace may be seen. However, the bodily heat energy, The Pitta

dosha, which manifests as metabolism, is not visible in this way. Pitta governs digestion,

absorption, assimilation, nutrition, metabolism, body temperature, skin coloration, the

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luster of the eyes, and also intelligence and understanding. Psychologically, Pitta

arouses anger, hate, and jealousy. The small intestines, stomach, sweat glands, blood,

fat, eyes, and skin are the seats of Pitta. Pitta is formed from the two elements fire and

water.

Kapha:

The translation of Kapha is Biological Water and this bodily principle is formed from

these two elements, earth and water. Kapha cements the elements in the body,

providing the material for physical structure. This dosha maintains body resistance.

Kapha lubricates the joints, provides moisture to the skin, helps to heal wounds, fills the

spaces in the body, gives biological strength, vigor, and stability, supports memory

retention, gives energy to the heart and lungs, and maintains immunity. Kapha is

present in the chest, throat, head, sinuses, nose, mouth, stomach, joints, cytoplasm,

plasma, and liquid secretions of the body such as mucus. Psychologically, kapha is

responsible for emotions of attachment, greed, and long-standing envy. It is also

expressed in tendencies toward calmness, forgiveness, and love. The chest is the seat

of kapha.

Classical Ayurvedic Texts :

The body of Ayurvedic knowledge was passed down through oral traditions before

being codified in classical texts. Two of the most important texts in Ayurveda are the

Charaka Samhita and the Sushruta Samhita.

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One of the most remarkable aspects of early Indian medicine was the advanced state of

surgery. The Sushruta Samhita remains one of the earliest known texts on surgery.

Detailing over 300 different surgical procedures and around 120 surgical instruments.

Sushruta is often regarded as the “father of Indian surgery” and one of the earliest

pioneers in the field globally. His surgical procedures included complex operations that

would not become common in other parts of the world until centuries later.
 40

Some of his key surgical contributions are ;

Rhinoplasty i.e. Nose Reconstruction Due to the practice of punishing criminals by

cutting off their noses, Sushruta developed an early method for rhinoplasty, a technique

that would later inspire plastic surgery in the West.

Cataract surgery, Sushruta described an early form of cataract surgery where a curved

needle was used to push the lens of the eye out of the way, thus restoring vision.

Antiseptic practices, Sushruta's use of clean and sterilized surgical instruments

highlighted his advanced understanding of preventing infection even in ancient times.

Fracture treatments, detailed methods for setting bones and treating complex fractures

were also described in his text.

The Ayurvedic approach to surgery was unique in its understanding of anatomy, with

Sushruta emphasizing the importance of human dissection in medical education. This

was a groundbreaking approach for its time.

Health is order. Disease is disorder. Within the body, there is a constant interaction

between order and disorder. The wise man learns to be fully aware of the presence of

disorder in his body and then sets about to re-establish order. He understands that

order is inherent in disorder and that a return to health is thus possible.

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Pharmacology and Herbal Medicine : Ayurveda is famous for its rich tradition of herbal

medicine, utilizing thousands of plants and their combinations to cure various diseases.

The Materia Medica of Ayurveda, as detailed in texts like the Charaka Samhita and

Bhaishajya Ratnavali, includes hundreds of medicinal plants, minerals, and animal

products.

Some of the common herbs still in use today include:

Ashwagandha: Used to reduce stress and increase energy.

Turmeric: Known for its anti-inflammatory and antioxidant properties.

Triphala: A combination of three fruits used to promote digestion and detoxification.

Ayurvedic pharmacology classified drugs according to their taste (Rasa), potency

(Virya), and post-digestive effect (Vipaka), which influenced how they interacted with the

body. These classifications provided a systematic approach to prescribing remedies

tailored to each patient's doshic imbalance.

Holistic Healing and Preventive Medicine :

Ayurveda’s focus extends beyond just treating illness; it emphasizes preventive

medicine and maintaining balance in life. This involves:

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Dinacharya (Daily Routine): Prescribed routines to maintain balance, including specific

practices upon waking, eating, and sleeping.

Ritucharya (Seasonal Routine): Adjusting one's lifestyle according to seasonal changes

to prevent imbalances that could lead to disease.

Panchakarma: A set of five purification techniques aimed at cleansing the body of

toxins. These include therapeutic vomiting, enemas, nasal cleansing, and bloodletting.

Ayurveda also integrated mental and spiritual health as key components of well-being.

Practices such as yoga, meditation, and breathing exercises (Pranayama) were

considered essential for maintaining the mind-body connection.

The early medical systems of India, particularly Ayurveda and ancient surgery,

represent one of the most profound and sophisticated knowledge systems in the ancient

world. These traditions were rooted not only in the treatment of diseases but also in the

philosophy of maintaining balance and harmony within the body, mind, and

environment. Ayurveda’s holistic approach recognized the importance of preventive

care, individual constitution, and the interconnectedness of physical and mental health

long before such ideas became popular in modern medicine. The emphasis on lifestyle,

diet, and personalized treatment demonstrates an advanced understanding of human

health and wellness.

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The contributions of Ayurveda are particularly significant when it comes to

pharmacology and herbal medicine, with an extensive body of knowledge on the

medicinal properties of plants, minerals, and other natural substances. The

classifications of herbs based on their taste, potency, and post-ingestive effects

showcase the depth of their understanding of how various substances affect the body.

Many of these practices continue to be relevant and are widely used today, both in India

and around the world as part of complementary and alternative medicine.

Similarly, the pioneering work of ancient Indian surgeons, particularly Sushruta, was

revolutionary for its time. The detailed surgical techniques, including rhinoplasty and

cataract surgery, laid the foundation for modern surgical practices. The integration of

surgery with Ayurveda's holistic principles shows the diversity of approaches in ancient

Indian medicine.

The ethical dimension of Ayurveda and surgery is another aspect that highlights the

maturity of this medical tradition. Physicians and surgeons were guided by principles of

compassion, ethical conduct, and a deep sense of duty toward their patients—values

that resonate with modern medical ethics.

Today, with the resurgence of interest in holistic healing and natural medicine, Ayurveda

continues to offer valuable insights into health and well-being. Its time-tested principles
 44

are being integrated into modern healthcare systems and influencing contemporary

approaches to wellness. The ancient Indian surgical methods, too, remain a testament

to the ingenuity and foresight of early Indian practitioners. In sum, early Indian medicine,

particularly Ayurveda and surgery, has left a lasting legacy that continues to shape

global health practices, demonstrating the enduring relevance of this ancient wisdom in

addressing modern health challenges.

Reference:

1. Lad Vasant - Ayurveda : The Science Of Self Healing

Page Numbers 15 , 18 , 29 , 30 , 37 , 39
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Conclusion

The history of science and technology in ancient India is a testament to the country's

profound intellectual achievements and contributions to global knowledge. Ancient India

made significant strides in various fields such as mathematics, astronomy, medicine,

metallurgy, and architecture, long before the modern era. The Vedic period, dating back

to around 1500 BCE, laid the foundations of Indian thought, where natural phenomena

were observed, and early forms of scientific inquiry began. The Vedas, especially the

Rig Veda, contain hymns that reflect knowledge of astronomy and cosmology.

One of India's most notable contributions to mathematics is the development of the

concept of zero and the decimal system, a groundbreaking advancement attributed to

Indian mathematicians like Aryabhata and Brahmagupta. Aryabhata (5th century CE)

also made significant contributions to astronomy, proposing that the Earth rotates on its

axis and providing approximations of pi. In medicine, the Ayurveda system, documented

in texts like the Charaka Samhita and Sushruta Samhita, focused on holistic health

practices, surgical techniques, and treatments, some of which are still in use today.

Indian metallurgy was advanced as well, with the creation of iron and steel products

such as the famous Iron Pillar of Delhi, which has resisted corrosion for over a

millennium. Architectural feats like the construction of temples and stupas showcased

sophisticated engineering techniques and scientific understanding.

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Ancient Indian science and technology were deeply intertwined with philosophy, religion,

and daily life, reflecting an integrated worldview that encouraged the pursuit of

knowledge. These advancements were later transmitted to other civilizations through

trade, travel, and scholarship, influencing developments in the Middle East and Europe.

The history of science and technology in ancient India not only highlights the intellectual

vigor of early Indian civilizations but also their enduring legacy in shaping the global

scientific future.
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Bibliography:

1. Basham A.L. : The Wonder That Was India , Published by

Sidgwick & Jackson in 1954 in United

Kingdom

2 . Possehl Gregory : The Indus Valley Civilisation: A

Contemporary Perspective , Published by

AltaMira Press in 2002 at University of

Michigan

3 . Banerjee N.R. : Iron Age In India , Published by Munshiram

Manohar Lal in 1965 at University of Michigan

4 . Lad Vasant : Ayurveda: The Science Of Self Healing

Published by Motilal Banarsidass in 1984 in

Delhi
48