FLOW MEASUREMENTS

Flow measurement is essential in many industries such as the oil, power, chemical, food, water, and
waste treatment industries. These industries require determination of the quantity of a fluid - either gas,
liquid, or steam - that passes through a check point, either a closed conduit or an open channel, in their
daily processing or operating. The quantity to be determined may be volume flow rate, mass flow rate,
flow velocity or other quantities related to the previous three.

Both gas a and liquid flow can be measured in volumetric or mass flow rates. The volumetric flow rate,
also called volume flow rate or rate of fluid flow, is the volume of fluid which passes through a given
surface per unit time. In SI unit systems it is expressed in m³/s. It is usually represented by the symbol
Q. Mass flow rate is the movement of mass per time. In SI unit systems it is expressed in kg/s. It is
usually represented by the symbol. Volumetric or mass flow rates measurements can be converted
between one another if the materials density is known. The instrument to conduct flow measurement is
called flowmeter.

Fluid flow measurements can be made by the following methods:

1. Positive displacement meters.

(i) Nutating disc meter

(ii) Sliding vane type meter
(iii) Lobed impeller flow meter

2. Variable head meters

(i) Venturi meter
(ii) Orifice meter
(iii) Nozzle meter
(iv) Pitot tube

3. Variable area meters

(i) Rotameter
(ii) Pitot static tube
(iii) Drag force flow meter
(iv) Turbine flow meter

Positive Displacement Meter

Positive displacement flowmeter measures volumes of fluid flowing through, by counting repeatedly
the filling and discharging of known fixed volumes. A typical positive displacement flowmeter
comprises a chamber that obstructs the flow. Inside the chamber, a rotating/reciprocating mechanical
unit is placed to create fixed-volume discrete parcels from the passing fluid. Hence, the volume of the
fluid that passes the chamber can be obtained by counting the number of passing parcels or equivalently
the number rounds of the rotating/reciprocating mechanical device. The volume flow rate can be
calculated from the revolution rate of the mechanical device.
Many types of positive displacement flowmeters are used in the industry. They are named after the
mechanical device inside the chamber. They all share the same principle of operation and are
volumetric-flow-measuring instruments. These meters are used in dedicated unidirectional flow
applications, such as fuel oil dispensing, natural gas or water metering. Some of the positive
displacement flowmeters are as follows:

1. Nutating Disk Flowmeter: Figure shown below the schematic diagram of a nutating disk flowmeter.
Liquid enters a chamber containing a disk which nutates (wobbles). The position of the disk divides the
chamber into compartments of some fixed volume. Liquid pressure drives the disk to wobble and a
roller cam causes the nutating disk to make a complete cycle. This motion is translated into rotary
motion by means of a ball and shaft, which is attached to the disk. The movements of the disk are
transmitted by gear train to an indicator/totalizer or pulse transmitter. The type of flowmeter has a
simple and rugged construction, low pressure drops, low cost and very good accuracy (of the order of
±1%). It finds wide application as a domestic water meter.

2. Lobed Impeller Flowmeter: Figure shown below the schematic diagram of a lobed impeller
flowmeter. Here two-lobed impellers rotate in opposite directions to each other within the body housing
These peanut-shaped gears sweep out an exact volume of liquid passing through the measurement
chamber during each rotation. The flow rate can be calculated by measuring the rotation speed.
Variable Head or Differential Flow meters:

Variable head meters operate on the principle that, "if a restriction element (obstruction) such as orifice
plate or venturi-tube or elbow in the pipe of flowing fluid is introduced, then it produces a pressure
difference across the restriction element used." This pressure difference is proportional to the flow rate.
Therefore, such flow meters are called as restriction type flow meters, which results in acceleration of
fluid causing change (decrease) in pressure. In other words, pressure drops, because, some pressure
energy of fluid is converted into kinetic energy, which increases velocity of fluid in downstream side.
This magnitude of pressure drops or change in pressure can be measured. Since flow is directly
proportional to change in pressure, therefore, we say that, pressure difference can be used as function
of flow to find its value.

1) Venturi meter

Venturi meter is a device used to measure rate of discharge in a pipeline. It is fixed permanently at
different sections of pipeline to know the dis- charges at those sections.

Venturi meter consist of mainly three parts:

(i) Convergent cone:

It is a short pipe, which converges from a diameter d1, (diameter of pipe, which, Venturi meter is fitted)
to a smaller diameter d₂ (diameter of throat). The throat ratio d₂/ d1, varies between 1/4 or 1/ 5. In other
words, the slope of converging cone is between 1 in 4 or 1 in 5.

(ii) Throat:

It is a short pipe having diameter d₂, connected between converging and diverging cones. Diameter of
throat varies between 33% to 75% of main pipe diameter. Preferably, it is taken as 0.5 times the diameter
of pipe. i.e. d₂ = 0.5 d₁.
(iii) Divergent cone

It is a long pipe, which diverges from a diameter d₂ to original pipe diameter d₁.

Working of Venturi meter

One end of U-tube differential manometer is connected to the pipe at entrance section (before
converging section) and another end is connected at the throat. This differential manometer is used for
the measurement of pressure difference. When the liquid flows through the venturi meter (converging
cone), its flow is accelerated resulting in an increase in velocity. Therefore, the velocity of liquid at
section 2 (throat) becomes higher than that at section 1. This decreases the pressure at section 2. When
the liquid flows through divergent cone, its flow is decelerated (Retarded). As a result of this retardation,
the velocity of decreases with subsequent increase in pressure. Thus, venturi meter works on the
principle of converting pressure energy (head) into kinetic energy by reducing cross-sectional area of
flow passage. This leads to pressure difference, which is measured by means of U-tube differential
manometer.

Flow rate of fluid can be measured using the equation/ formula given below:

Where, Cd = Coefficient of discharge

A1 = area of pipe in m2.

A2 = area of throat in m2.

h = pressure difference in m.

Orifice Meter:

Orifice is used in orifice meter, which measures discharge of fluid flowing through the pipe. Here,
orifice (i.e. orifice plate) is sharp edge circular opening having hole diameter as 0.4 to 0.8 times diameter
of pipe.
Construction and Working of Orifice Meter:

Orifice is made up of materials like stainless steel, phosphor bronze etc., to withstand against corrosive
effect of flowing fluids. A U-tube differential mercury manometer is connected between two sections,
one on up-stream side and other at vena-contracta on the downstream side of orifice plate. Orifice meter
works on same principle as that of Venturi meter i.e. the pressure head (energy) is converted into kinetic
energy in an accelerated flow. Thus, orifice meter works on the principle of converting pressure energy
(head) into kinetic energy by reducing cross-sectional area of flow passage, This leads to pressure
difference, which is measured by means of U-tube differential manometer.

Flow rate of fluid can be measured using the equation/ formula given below:

Pitot tube

Pitot tube is one of the most accurate devices for velocity measurement. It works on the principle that
if the velocity of flow at a point becomes zero, the pressure there is increased due to conversion of
kinetic energy into pressure.

It consists of a glass tube in the form of a 90° bend of short length open at both its ends. It is placed in
the flow with its bent leg directed upstream so that a stagnation point is created immediately in front of
the opening as shown in figure. The kinetic energy at this point gets converted into pressure energy
causing the liquid to rise in the vertical limb, to a height equal to the stagnation pressure.
[Derivation as discussed in class]
Variable Area Meters:

1) Rotameter
2) Elbow meter

1) Rotameter:

Rotameter is most commonly used type of variable area type flow meter. Here, flow area is varied by
means of float kept in a tapered glass tube. Depending on the rate of flow, the float takes position in the
tube, which increases or decreases size of area, thus keeping the pressure difference constant.

Construction: It consists of a tapered metering glass tube, inside of which is located a rotor or active
element (float) of the meter. The tube is provided with inlet and outlet connections. The specific gravity
of the float or bob material is higher than that of the fluid to be metered. On a part of the float spherical
slots are cut which cause it (float) to rotate slowly about the axis of the tube and keep it centred. Owing
to this spinning, accumulation of any sediment on the top or sides of float is checked. However, the
stability of the bob may also be ensured by using a guide along which the float would slide.

Working: When the rate of flow increases the float rises in the tube and consequently there is an
increase in the annular area between the float and the tube. Thus, the float rides higher or lower
depending on the rate of flow.

The discharge through a rotameter is given by:

Characteristics of Rotameter

• Simplicity of construction and low cost.

• Possibility of remote indication and record.
• Essentially a linear scale with most of the meters.
• Easy to install.
• Accuracy Within 2% of the maximum reading.

Advantages of Rotameter

• Pressure loss is nearly constant and small.

• It can handle any corrosive fluid.
• Suitable for measurement of gases as well as liquids.
• Good accuracy at low flow rates.

• Provides linear scale.

• Condition of flow is easily visible.
• Relatively low cost.
• Good range of measurement.
• Gives direct visual indication of rate.
• Minimum piping required.
• Easily equipped with data transmission, indicating, and recording devices.

Limitations:
1. Mounted vertically, limited to small pipe sizes and capacities.
2. Less accurate, compared to venturi meter and orifice meter.