TOPIC-1 A sexual Reproduction and Vegetative Propagation.

Concepts Covered:
 Reproduction and its type  Various types of asexual reproduction.

Revision Notes (i) Binary fission: It is the division of one cell into two
similar or identical cells. The nucleus first divides
 Reproduction is the process by which living organisms amitotically into two, followed by the division of the
produce new individuals similar to themselves. It cytoplasm. The cell finally splits into two daughter
ensures continuity of life on the earth. cells, e.g., Amoeba
 Nucleus of the cell contains DNA (Deoxyribonucleic (ii) Multiple fission: In multiple fission, many individuals
acid), which is the hereditary material. are formed from a single individual, e.g., Plasmodium.
 DNA replicates and forms new cells causing variation. The nucleus divides repeatedly, producing many
So, these new cells will be similar but may not be nuclei and many daughter cells are formed.
identical to original cell.  [Board , 2020]
 Variations are useful for the survival of the individual (b) Fragmentation: It takes place in multicellular organisms
and species over time. It is the base of evolution. with simple body organisation such as in Spirogyra. In
 Types of Reproduction this, the body breaks up into two or more small pieces of
I Asexual Reproduction fragments upon maturation. These fragments grow into
 A single individual give rise to new individual.
new individuals.
 Gametes are not formed. (c) Regeneration: It is the ability of a fully differentiated
 New individuals are identical to their parents.
organism to give rise to new individual organisms from
its body parts. Small cut or broken parts of the organism’s
 Asexual reproduction is seen in most of the lower
organisms and plants as well. body grow or regenerate into separate individuals. For
example: Planaria and Hydra. [Board, 2019]
II Sexual Reproduction
 Two individuals i.e., one male and one female are
(d) Budding: In budding, a small part of the body of the
needed to give rise to new individual. parent grows out as a bud which then detaches and
 Gametes are formed.
becomes a new organism. Hydra reproduces by budding
using the regenerative cells.  [Board, 2023]
 New individual, is genetically similar but not identical
to parents. (e) Vegetative Propagation: In many plants, new plantlets
 It is useful to generate more variations in species. develops from vegetative parts of a plant body such as
 Adopted by higher organisms. stem, roots, leaves, etc. [Board, 2022]
I. Asexual reproduction takes place through fission,  Methods of vegetative propagation:
fragmentation, regeneration, budding, vegetative (i) Natural methods are:
propagation, and spore formation. These modes (a) By roots: e.g., Dahlia, sweet potato.
of reproduction depend on the body design of the
organisms. (b) By stems: e.g., Potato, ginger.
(a) Fission: It is of two types - binary fission and multiple (c) By leaves: e.g., Bryophyllum (leaf margins bear buds
fission. which develop into plants).
TOPIC-2 S exual Reproduction in Flowering Plants
Concepts Covered
 Parts of Flower  Pollination and Fertilisation

Fertilisation is the process of fusion of male and female

Revision Notes 
gamete to produce zygote. It occurs inside the ovary. 
 Parts of Flower
 [Board, 2019]
 Flowers are main reproductive part of a plant. The
 Post-fertilisation Changes:
main parts of a flower are: sepals, petals, stamens and
carpels.  The outer layers of the ovule become impervious and
 Stamens and carpels are the reproductive parts of a hard and function as a seed coat.
flower which contain the germ cells. The male organ of  An ovule with an embryo inside is called a seed.
a flower called ‘stamen’ makes the male gamete which  The ovary enlarges and ripens to become a fruit.
are present in the pollen grain. The female part of a
 Other floral parts such as sepals, petals, stamens, styles
flower called ‘carpel’ makes the female gamete, which
and stigma may fall off. However, in some cases, they
are present in ovules of the plant. [Board, 2019]
persist in the fruit.
 Flowers may be unisexual (e.g., papaya and
 Double fertilisation:  [Board, 2020]
watermelon) or bisexual (e.g., Hibiscus and mustard).
 Pollination: It is the transfer of pollen grains from the  It is a characteristic feature of flowering plants. In this
anther of a stamen to the stigma of a carpel. Pollination process, out of the two male nuclei, one male nucleus
is of two types: Scelf pollination and cross pollination. fuses with the egg nucleus to form an embryo (process
is called syngamy) and another fuses with the polar
nuclei to form an endosperm (process is called triple
fusion). Because two kinds of fusion, syngamy and
triple fusion take place, the process is known as double
fertilisation.
 Seed is the final (last) product of sexual reproduction in
angiosperms. It is the fertilised ovule that is developed
 Self pollination is the transfer of pollen in the same inside a fruit.
flower. In cross pollination, pollen is transferred from  Seed protects the future plant, i.e., embryo.
one flower to another.  A seed consists of seed coat(s), cotyledon(s) and an
 Cross-pollination introduces embryonal axis.
variations in plants because of the  Embryonal axis has two parts: Plumule and radical.
mixing of different genes. These Plumule develops into shoot and radicle develops into
variations further increase the root.
adaptability of plants towards the  The process of development of seedling from the
environment or surroundings. embryo under suitable conditions such as air, moisture
 The transfer of pollens take place by agents like wind, etc., is known as germination.
water or animals.
 After pollination, a pollen tube grows out of pollen
grains, through which male germ cell reaches the
ovary and fuses with the female germ cell.

These Questions are for practice and their solutions are given at the end of the chapter.
 

TOPIC-3 R eproduction in Human Beings

Concepts Covered
 Puberty  Male and female reproductive system  Process of fertilisation  Menstrual cycle  Sexually Transmitted Diseases
 Methods of contraception.
Girls begin to menstruate.
Revision Notes 
(c) In boys:
 Humans have sexual mode of reproduction.
 Thick hair grows on face in the
 It needs sexual maturation, which is the period of life form of beard and moustache.
when production of germ cells, i.e., ova (female) and  Voice begins to crack.
sperm (male) start in the body. This period of sexual
 These changes signals that sexual
maturity is called puberty.
maturity is taking place.
 Changes at Puberty are:
 Male Reproductive System
(a) Common in boys and girls:
 Thick hair growth in armpits and genital area. (a) Testes: A pair of testes are located inside scrotum
 Skin becomes oily, may result in pimples. which is present outside the abdominal cavity. Scrotum
(b) In girls: has a relatively 2°C lower temperature needed for the
 Breast size begins to increase. production of sperms.

These Questions are for practice and their solutions are given at the end of the chapter.
 Functions of testes:  The time period from the development of foetus inside
 Produce male germ cells, i.e., sperms are formed here. the uterus till birth is called gestation period. The act of
 Testes release male sex hormone (testosterone). Its giving birth to the fully developed foetus at the end of
function is to: gestation period is termed as parturition.
(i) Regulate production of sperms. Placenta is a specialised tissue embedded in the uterine
(ii) Bring changes at puberty. wall. It contains villi on the embryo’s side and blood
spaces on the mother’s side.
 The breakdown and removal of the inner, thick and
soft lining of the uterus along with its blood vessels in
the form of vaginal bleeding is called menstrual flow
or menstruation.
 Reproductive Health:
Reproductive health is all those aspects of general
health which help a person to lead a normal, safe and
satisfying reproductive life.
 Sexually Transmitted Diseases (STDs) are the diseases
which spread by sexual contact from an infected
person to a healthy person. Some common STDs are
Gonorrhoea, syphilis, warts, HIV-AIDS.
 Birth Control Methods: There are different methods
which are developed to prevent and control pregnancy
such as mechanical methods, chemical methods, oral
(b) Vas deferens: It passes sperms from testes towards the pills and surgical methods. These are also known
urethra. as methods of contraception. Contraception is the
(c) Urethra: It is a common passage for both sperms and avoidance of pregnancy, which can be achieved by
urine. Its outer covering is called penis. It is like a preventing the fertilisation of ova.
fibromuscular long tube which travels through penis. Methods of contraception
(d) Associated glands: Seminal vesicles and prostate gland (a) Physical barrier
are associated glands, which add their secretion to the  To prevent union of egg and sperm.
sperms. This fluid provide nourishment to sperms and  Use of condoms, cervical caps and diaphragm.
make their transport easy. Sperm along with secretion
of glands form semen.
 Female Reproductive System
(a) Ovary: A pair of ovary is located in Scan this
both sides of abdomen.
 Female germ cells, i.e., eggs are
produced here.
 At the time of birth of a girl, The Female
thousands of immature eggs are Reproductive
System
present in the ovary.
 At the onset of puberty, some of these eggs start
maturing.
(b) Oviduct or Fallopian tube (b) Chemical methods
 Receives the egg produced by the ovary and transfer it  Use of oral pills.
to the uterus.  These change hormonal balance of body so that eggs
 The cell which is formed by the fusion of a male gamete
are not released.
and female gamete is called zygote, i.e., it is a ‘fertilised
ovum’ or ‘fertilised egg.’  May have side effects.

 Fertilisation, i.e., fusion of gametes takes place here. (c) Intrauterine contraceptive device (IUCD)
(c) Uterus: It is a bag-like structure where development of  Copper-T or loop is placed in uterus to prevent
the foetus takes place. pregnancy.
 Uterus opens into vagina through cervix. (d) Surgical methods
 The embryo moves down to reach the uterus. Embryo  In males the vas deferens is blocked to prevent sperm
is the stage of development between the zygote or transfer and the process is called vasectomy.
fertilised egg and the newly formed offspring. The  In females, the fallopian tube is blocked to prevent egg
embedding of the embryo in the thick inner lining of transfer and the process is called tubectomy.
the uterus is called implantation. [Board, 2022]