Chapter 8 How do Organisms Reproduce

Asexual Reproduction

 It involves only one parent.

 There is no formation and fusion of gametes.
 The young ones formed are almost identical to each other as well as to the parent
cell.
 Asexual reproduction generally occurs during favourable environmental conditions
and when there is an abundance of food.
 It is a faster method of reproduction.

Types of Asexual Reproduction is Unicellular Organism

(i) Binary Fission: Seen in bacteria, protozoa like Amoeba, Paramecium. (In these first
pseudopodia withdrawn (karyokinesis) the nucleus of the parent cell divides and then
the cytoplasm divides (cytokinesis) resulting in the formation of two daughter cells). It
occurs during highly favourable conditions. The cell division can occur in any plane as in
case of Amoeba. However, organisms like Leishmania. (cause Kala-azar), which have a
whip like flagella at one end, binary fission occurs in a definite orientation in relation to
the flagellum.

Cytokinesis: Division of cytoplasm.

Karyokinesis: Division of Nucleus.

(ii) Multiple Fission: Seen in Plasmodium, (a malarial parasite). In this during

unfavourable conditions, the parent cell develops a thick resistant wall around itself
forming a cyst. Within the wall, the cytoplasm divides many times to form many
plasmodia. When conditions become favourable, the cyst wall breaks and the
Plasmodium are released.

(iii) Budding: Seen in Yeast (a fungus). The parent yeast cell develops a protrusion or
an outgrowth at its upper end. The nucleus of the parent cell divides and one of them
moves into the outgrowth which grows bigger and finally separates from the parent cell
to lead an independent existence. Very often if the conditions are highly favourable, a
chain of buds is formed.

Types of Asexual Reproduction in Multicellular Organisms :

(i) Fragmentation: Seen in multicellular organisms which have a relatively simple body
organisation like Spirogyra. Spirogyra has a filamentous body. (If it breaks into smaller
pieces or fragments). Each fragment has the capacity to form a new individual.
However, all multicellular organisms cannot show cell-by-cell division as cells from
tissues which form organs. These organs are placed at definite positions in the body.
Hence, they need to use more complex methods of reproduction.

(ii) Regeneration: It is the ability of organisms to develop their lost parts. Some
organisms show have high regenerative capacity it is also a means of reproduction for
example; Planaria. (Regeneration is carried out by specialized cells which redivide to
form a mass of cells from which different cells undergo changes to become different cell
types and tissues. These changes occur in an organized sequence known as
development).
(iii) Budding: Seen in Hydra. Parent Hydra develops a bud at its lower end. This grows
in size and finally breaks off to live independently.

(iv) Spore Formation: Seen in Rhizopus (a fungus). Rhizopus body is made up of

thread-like structures called hyphae. The erect hyphae bear sporangia inside which
reproductive structures called spores are formed. Spores are asexually reproducing
bodies having a thick protective wall. They are produced during unfavourable times and
help to tide over the unfavourable environmental conditions. When the spores fall on a
suitable medium, each one forms a new individual.

(v) Vegetative Propagation: Method by which plants reproduce by their vegetative

parts such as roots, stems, and leaves.

Types of Vegetative Propagation: It is two types

 Natural vegetative propagation.

 Artificial vegetative propagation (Tissue culture).

Mint reproduces naturally by roots. Sugarcane, jasmine by stems and Biyophyllum by

leaves. In biyophyllum buds are produced in the notches along the leaf margins and
when they fall on the soil, they develop into new plants.

Importance of Vegetative Propagation

 Plants can bear flowers and fruits earlier.

 Plants which have lost the ability to produce viable seeds can also reproduce by
vegetative propagation.
 All plants are genetically almost similar to the parent plant.
 Seedless varieties can be obtained.
 The property of vegetative propagation is used by horticulturists in developing
methods like layering, grafting to grow many plants like sugarcane, roses, or
grapes.

Tissue Culture: The technique of developing new plants from a cell or tissue in a
nutrient medium under aseptic conditions. The cell or tissue is placed in a nutrient
medium where it forms a mass of cells called callus. This callus is then transferred to
another nutrient medium where it differentiates and forms a new plant.

Sexual Reproduction: Sexual reproduction in plants, Sexual reproduction in human

beings. The mode of reproduction that takes place with the involvement of two
individuals of two different sexes i.e. male and female.
During sexual reproduction, male organism having male sex organs produces male
gametes i.e. sperms which are small and motile and the female organism having female
sex organs produces ova which are generally large and store food. Male and female
gametes fuse to form a zygote that grows into a new organism.

Significance of Sexual Reproduction :

 Sexual reproduction involves DNA as well as cellular apparatus of two different

organisms which promotes diversity of characters in the offspring.
 Since gametes are derived from two different organisms, it results in a new
combination of genes which increases the chances of genetic variations.
 Sexual reproduction results in the origin of. new species.
 Sexual reproduction involves division in the sex organs that reduces the DNA
matter to half so that the zygote formed after fusion has the same amount of DNA
as the parents it maintains DNA in a species.

Limitation of Sexual Reproduction: Sexual reproduction involves the process of

combining DNA from two different organisms which may bring some undesirable
features also.

Sexual reproduction in flowering plants

 The reproductive parts are present in the flower.

 The parts of the flower are sepals, petals, stamens and carpels.
 Sepals are green structures that protect the inner parts when the flower is in bud
stage.
 Petals are colourful and attract the insects for pollination.
 Stamens are male reproductive parts and produce pollen grains that contain male
gametes. Each stamen has two parts—
 Filament i.e. stalk and Anther i.e. swollen top part which has large number of
pollen grains.

The carpel is the female reproductive part and produces ovules that contain female
gametes. It has three parts—Stigma which is top sticky part and receives pollen grains
during pollination. Style which is the middle long part and ovary which is the swollen
part and contains ovules. Each ovule has an egg cell i.e. female gamete.

The flowers may be bisexual i.e. having both stamens and carpels for example; Mustard
China Rose (Hibiscus).
The flower may be unisexual i.e. paving either stamens or carpels for example; Papaya,
Watermelon.

Pollination: The process of transfer of pollen grains from an anther to the stigma of the
flower is pollination. Two types of pollination are:
(i) Self-pollination: The transfer of pollen grains from the anther to the stigma of the
same flower or another flower of the same plant.
(ii) Cross-pollination: The transfer of pollen grains from the anther to the stigma of
another flower or another flower of a different plant of the same species. It generally
takes place with the help of some agents like insects, birds, wind and water.

Fertilization: Fertilization is the process of fusion of male and female gamete to form a
zygote during sexual reproduction. Pollination is followed by fertilisation in plants. The
events are
Pollen grains land on the stigma of the ovary.
Pollen tubes grow out of the pollen grains, travel through the style and reach the ovary,
through micro pyle.
Pollen tube has two male germ cells. Each ovule has two polar nuclei and a female
germ cell (egg).

Pollen tube releases two male germ cells inside the ovule, one of them fuses with
female germ cell and forms a zygote which grows into the baby plant i.e. embryo, the
fusion is known as syngamy. The other male germ cell fuses with two polar nuclei, the
process is known as triple fusion. So in flowering plants two fusions take place during
fertilisation. It is called double fertilisation.

Post-fertilisation changes: After fertilisation the following changes takes place in the
flower.
Zygote divides several times and forms an embryo inside the ovule.

 The ovule develops a tough coat and changes into the seed.
 The ovary grows rapidly and ripens to form a fruit.
 Petals, sepals, stamens, style and stigma shrivel and fall off.

Flower Diagram Class 10

Seed and its parts: The advantage of seed is that it protects the future plant i.e.
embryo.

Seed has two parts: Cotyledons and Embryo Cotyledons store food for the future
plant.
Embryo has two parts: plumule and radicle. Plumule develops into shoot and radicle
develops into root.
The process of development of a seedling from the embryo under appropriate
conditions is known as germination.

Reproduction in Human Being: Human beings show sexual reproduction. Male parent
produces male gametes called sperms. Female parent produces female gametes called
ova. Sperms have tail and are therefore, motile. They are produced in large numbers in
the testes. Ovum is bigger, non-motile and only one ovary produces one ovum in one
month. There is no food stored in the sperms whereas ova contain stored food. Both the
gametes are microscopic unicellular and have half the number of chromosomes as
compared to the body cells.

Human beings become reproductively active from the onset of puberty. Puberty is the
period during adolescence when the rate of general body growth begins to slow down
and reproductive tissues begin to mature. Onset of puberty in human males is between
11 to 13 yrs of age, while in human females is between 10 to 12 yrs. of age. Puberty is
associated with many physical, mental, emotional and psychological changes in boys
and girls which occur slowly over a period of time. These are called secondary sexual
characters. For instance thick dark hair start growing in new parts of the body such as
arm pits and genital area between the thighs. Thinner hair appear on legs, arms and
face. Skin becomes oily and pimples may appear on the face. Individuals become more
conscious of their bodies become more independent, more aggressive etc.

In case of boys beard and mustache start appearing, voice begins to crack,
reproductive organs develop and start producing releasing sperms.
In case of girls, breast size begins to increase, skin of the nipples darkens, menstruation
starts.
The act of mating between the male and female partner is termed as copulation.
Male Reproductive System: Male reproductive system consists of the following
components

 1 pair of testes
 A system of ducts
 Epididymis
 Vas deferens or the sperm duct
 Urethra
 A system of glands
 Seminal vesicles
 Prostrate gland
 Cowper’s gland
 A copulatory organ called a penis.

One pair of testes are present in a bag-like structure called scrotum which lies outside
the abdominal cavity, hence they are extra abdominal in position. This is so because the
testes have to be maintained at 1-3 degree lesser temperature than the body in order to
produce functional sperms.

Functions of testes

 To produce male gametes i.e. the sperms.

 To produce a male reproductive hormone called testosterone which is responsible
for producing sperms as well as secondary sexual characteristics in males.

Attached to each testis is a highly coiled tube called epididymis. The sperms are stored
here and they mature in the epididymis.
Each epididymis leads into the sperm duct or the vas-deferens. Each vas-deferens rises
up and enters into the abdominal cavity. It unites with the duct coming from the urinary
bladder to form a common duct called urethra which passes through the penis and
opens to the outside. Along the way the ducts of the three glands also open and pour
their secretions into the vas deferens.

Function of the vas-deferens: It is meant for the passage of the sperms in the male
body.

Functions of the glands: They produce different secretions which provide nutrition as
well as medium for locomotion to the sperms.
The secretions of the three glands along with the sperms is known as semen.

Function of the urethra: It is the common passage for both semen and urine from the
body to. the outside.

Penis: It is the organ which is used to introduce semen into the female body. It is richly
supplied with blood vessels.

Female Reproductive System: It consists of the following components

 1 pair of ovaries
 1 pair of fallopian tubes or oviducts
 A uterus/womb
 A vagina/birth canal.

Each ovary is almond shaped and present inside the abdominal cavity. At the time of
birth each girl child already contains thousands of immature ova. These ova start
maturing only from the time of puberty. Only one ovum is produced by one ovary in one
month and each ovary releases an ovum in alternate months. The release of an ovum
from the ovary into the abdominal cavity is known as ovulation.

Functions of ovary

 To produce and release ova

 To produce female reproductive hormones: estrogen and progesterone.
There are two fallopian tubes. The end lying close to the ovary has finger like structures
called fimbriae. The two fallopian tubes unite to form an elastic bag like structure called
uterus.

Function of the fallopian tubes: It is the site of fertilization between the male and the
female gametes and formation of the zygote early embryo.
The inner lining of the uterus is richly supplied with blood vessels and is known as
endometrium. The narrow end of the uterus is called cervix.

Function of the uterus: The embryo formed in the fallopian tube comes down and gets
attached to the endometrium (implantation) and develops for the next nine months till
the baby is delivered.

Vagina: The uterus opens into the vagina through the cervix. The vagina is a muscular
tube through which the baby is delivered at the end of nine months. It also serves as the
canal for receiving the semen at the time of copulation.

The semen is discharged into the vaginal tract during copulation. The sperms travel
upwards and reach the fallopian tube where one sperm fuses with the ovum to form the
zygote. The zygote divides and redivides as it descends into the uterus and the embryo
gets implanted in the endometrium. The endometrium thickens so as to receive the
embryo.

The embryo gets nutrition from the mother’s blood with the help of a special tissue
called placenta, which is a disk-like structure embeded in the uterine wall. It contains
finger-like villi on the embryo side, while on the mother’s side blood spaces surround the
villi. Villi provides a large surface area for glucose and oxygen to pass from the mother
to the developing embryo and the wastes to pass from the embryo to the mother
through the placenta. When the embryo starts resembling a human is formed, it is
termed as a foetus. The foetus continues
to develop inside the uterus for almost nine months after which the baby is delivered as
a result of rhythmic contractions of the uterine muscles.

Menstruation: It is the loss of blood, mucous along with the unfertilized ovum and the
ruptured cells and tissues of the endometrium through the vagina of the female. It is a
28-day cycle which occurs in every reproductively active female (from puberty). The
flow of blood continues for 2 to 8 days. If the ovum does not get fertilized, then the
endometrium starts sloughing off and there is loss of blood and mucous etc. through the
vagina. In case the ovum gets fertilized, then the endometrium becomes thick and
spongy for nourishing the embryo and hence menstruation does not occur. A lady with a
developing embryo in her womb is termed as pregnant. The beginning of menstruation
at puberty is known as menarche. The stopage of menstruation when the woman is 45-
55 yrs of age is called menopause.
Reproductive Health: Sexually transmitted diseases and birth control.
A number of diseases occur as a result of sexual intercourse if one of the partners is
infected. These are known as sexually transmitted diseases (STD’s). They can be
caused by bacteria for example; syphilis, gonorrhoea; or caused by a virus for example;
HIV-AIDS, warts etc. The transmission of these diseases can be avoided by using birth
control measures such as wearing a condom during the sexual act.

Birth control measures: They can be mechanical, chemical and surgical.

Mechanical methods: These are used to prevent the passage of semen to the
follopian tube :
(i) Use of condoms: Condoms are thin rubber tubes worn over the penis before sexual
intercourse. The semen gets collected in this and is not discharged into the vagina.
(ii) Diaphragm: It is a thin rubber fixed over a flexible metal ring which is fitted over the
cervix in a woman’s body by a doctor.
(iii) Intra Uterine Contraceptive Device (IUCD) or loop: It is inserted in the uterus and its
insertion causes certain secretion which prevents the implantation of the embryo in the
uterine wall.
Both methods (ii) and (iii) cause side effects.

Chemical methods

 Use of spermicides: These are strong sperm-killing chemicals available in the form
of creams, jellies etc. which are injected into the vagina just before copulation.
 Oral contraceptive pills: These are hormonal pills which prevent ovulation but do
not stop menstruation.

Surgical methods

 Vasectomy: It involves cutting and ligating the vas deferens in males.

  Tubectomy: It involves cutting and ligating Reproductive organs the fallopian tubes
in females.
 Medical termination of pregnancy (MTP) or abortions is carried out to eliminate the
developing embryo. This practice can, however, be misused to carry out female
foeticide which involves the killing of the female foetus. It should be avoided at all
cost as it disturbs the male-female ratio in a population.

Reproduction: It is the process by which living organisms produce new individuals

similar to themselves.

 Reproduction ensured continuity of life on earth.

 It is a bridge to hereditary transmission.
 It involves a continuation of characters from the parents to daughter cells by
copying of DNA (Deoxyribose Nucleic Acid) molecules present in the
chromosomes of the cell.
 Copying of DNAs is also not a foolproof exercise, even minute changes bring
about variation in the blue print of the offsprings.
 The useful variations are retained while the harmful ones do not go beyond.
 Actually, variations help the species to withstand drastic environmental changes,
thus save the species from becoming extinct and promotes its survival for a longer
time.
 This inbuilt tendency of variation is the “basis” for Evolution.

Asexual Reproduction: It is extremely useful as a means of rapid multiplication. It is

common in lower plants and animals.
Different forms of Asexual Reproduction:

 Fission: The parent cell divides/splits into two daughter cells —Binary fission and
splits into many cells —Multiple fission.
 Budding: A new organism is produced as an outgrowth of the parent body part.
 Spore Formation: Spores are small, the bulb-like structure which develops at the
top of the erect hyphae of the fungus-plant, when released into the air germinate,
into new individuals after landing into food or soil.
 Fragmentation: It is the accidental process when the broken pieces of an
organism (fragments) grows into a complete organism. Example, fragmentation in
Spirogyra.
 Regeneration: When simple animals like a hydra, planaria develop a new
individual from their broken older part it is known as regeneration. It is carried out
by specialised cells which grow large numbers of cells.

Vegetative Propagation: A mode of reproduction in which parts like the stem, root,
leaves develop into new plants under favourable conditions.
Benefits:

 Plants can bear flowers, fruits more quickly than those produced from seeds.
  Growing banana, orange, rose, jasmine that have lost the capacity to produce
seeds.
 The genetical similarity is maintained in the plants. Example, sugarcane, rose,
grapes by layering or grafting.

Sexual Reproduction: When reproduction takes place as a result of the fusion

between two gametes, one from each parent, it is called sexual reproduction.

 This process of fusion between two gametes is called fertilization.

 The formation of gametes involves an exchange of chromosomal (genetic)
fragments between homologous chromosomes causing genetic recombination
which leads to variation.

Sexual Reproduction in Plants: It occurs mostly in flowering plants.’ In fact, flowers

are the reproductive organ of plants.

 Pollen grains of a flower transfer to the stigma of the carpel of the same flower
(Self-Pollination) or to the carpel of another flower (Cross-Pollination).
 This transfer of pollens is achieved by agents like wind, water or animals. After
pollination, the pollen grains reach the egg cell in the form of a pollen tube.
 Fertilization. The fusion between the pollen grain and female egg cell. It occurs
inside the ovary. The zygote is produced in this process.
 The zygote divides several times to form an embryo within the ovule. The ovule
develops a rough coat and is converted into a seed.
 Ovary grows rapidly and ripens to form fruit, while the seed contains the future
plant or embryo which develops into a seedling under suitable conditions. This
process is known as Germination.

Reproduction in Human Beings:

 Humans use a sexual mode of reproduction.

 It needs sexual maturation which includes the creation of the germ cells, i.e., egg
(ova) in the female and sperm in the male partner and this period of sexual
maturation is called Puberty.
 Human beings have a well-developed male and female reproductive system.
 The formation of the male germ cell (sperms) takes place in the testes (male
reproductive organ). Actually, a pair of testes are located inside scrotum situated
outside the abdominal cavity. It is meant to keep a relatively low temperature
needed for the production of sperms by testes. Testes release a male sex
hormone called testosterone whose function is to:
 regulate the production of sperms;
 brings about changes in appearance seen in boys at the time of puberty; and
 the sperms along with the secretion of the prostate gland and seminal
vesicle, together constitute semen, which is released and made to enter into
the female genital tract during Copulation.
Female Reproduction System:

 The female germ cells or eggs are made in the ovaries, a pair of which is located
in both sides of the abdomen.
 When a girl is bom, the ovaries already contain thousands of immature eggs. At
the time of puberty, some of these eggs start maturing. One egg is produced
every month by one of the ovaries.
 The egg is carried from the ovary to the womb through a fallopian tube. These two
fallopian tubes unite into an elastic bag like structure known as the uterus.
 The uterus opens into the vagina through the cervix.
 Fertilization occurs in the fallopian tube of the female genital tract.
 The fertilized egg also called zygote gets implanted in the lining of the uterus, and
starts dividing. The uterus is richly supplied with blood to nourish the growing
embryo.
 If the zygote is not formed, the inner wall of uterus breaks which causes bleeding
through vagina. This process is called Menstruation. It occurs at a regular interval
of 28 days.
 The embryo gets nutrition from the mother’s blood with the help of a special tissue
called Placenta.
 Placenta provides a large surface area for glucose and oxygen to pass from the
mother to the embryo. Similarly the wastes from developing embryo are removed
to mother’s blood through placenta.
 The child is bom as a result of rhythmic contractions of the muscles in the uterus
after nine months (36 weeks) of development inside the mother’s womb, called
Gestation Period.
 The sexual cycle in a woman continues upto the age of 45 to 50 years. After that
the ovaries do not release eggs. This stage is called Menopause. It also marks the
end of menstruation in the woman.

Reproductive Health: Reproductive health means total well-being in all aspects of

reproduction, z.e., physical, emotional, social and behavioural.

Contraception: It is the avoidance of pregnancy through different methods—Natural

methods, Barrier method, Oral contraceptives, Surgical methods.

Advantages of contraception: Help in birth control, prevent sexually transmitted

diseases, prevent unwanted pregnancies, keep population explosion in check.

1. Reproduction is the process by which a living organism is able to produce new

individuals of its own kind. Unlike other life processes such as nutrition, respiration, etc.,
it is not essential to, maintain the life of an individual organism. But it is important for the
existence and continuity of the species.
2. Reproduction involves the creation of DNA copy and additional cellular apparatus by
the cell involved in the process.

3. The process of DNA copying leads to variations. This inbuilt tendency for variations
during reproduction is the basis for evolution.

NCERT Solutions for Class 10 Science Chapter 8

4. Living organisms’ reproduce mainly through :

 Asexual reproduction
 Sexual reproduction

5. ASEXUAL REPRODUCTION
(a) Single ceiled organisms reproduce through following ways:

(ii) Budding (also by multicellular organisms)

(iii) Spore formation (also by multicellular organisms)
(b) Asexual reproduction by multicellular organisms:
(i) Fragmentation and Regeneration

6. Fission: In unicellular organisms when cell becomes fully mature, it splits into two or
more parts. It is called the fission. In organisms such as Amoeba, splitting can take
place in any plane. But in organisms like Leishmania, having whip like structure at one
end of the cell, binary fission occurs in a definite orientation in relation to these
structures.

7. Regeneration : It is the ability to give rise to new organism. When the individual is
cut or broken up into many pieces. It can be seen in Hydra and Planaria and is known
as regeneration.

Regeneration is carried out by specialised cells. These cells proliferate and rqgkeJarge
numbers of cells. From this mass of cells, different cells undergo changes to become
various cell types and tissues. These changes take place in an organised sequence
referred to as ” development. However, regeneration is not the same as reproduction,
since most organisms would not normally depend on being cut up to be able to
reproduce.
8. Budding: Organisms such as Hydra use regenerative cells for reproduction in the
process of budding. In Hydra, a bud develops as an outgrowth due to repeated cell
division at one specific site. These buds develop into tiny individuals and when fully
mature, detach from the parent body and become new independent individuals.

9. Spore Formation (Sporulation): Some bacteria and lower organisms make spores.
During spore formation, knob like structure called sporangium develops from the fungal
hypha. Sporangia contain spores that eventually develop into new individual. The
spores are covered by thick walls that protect them until they come in contact with moist
surface or substratum and can begin to grow.

10. Fragmentation : It can be seen in Spirogyra. During this process filament of

spirogyra simply breaks up into smaller pieces upon maturation. These pieces or
fragments grow into new individuals. This process occurs under favourable conditions of
moisture, temperature, light and nutrient availability.

11. Vegetative propagation: It is the simplest method of reproduction in some higher

plants in which new plant is produced from any vegetative part of the plant such as root,
stem, leaf, etc.
Advantages of vegetative propagation : Vegetative propagation is useful for plants
those have lost the capacity to produce seeds, e.g. banana, rose, jasmine. Moreover, all
plants produced are genetically similar to the parent plant.
Natural Vegetative Propagation: In some plants like guava, sweet potato, dahlia, roots
sprout and grow into new plants during favourable conditions. In some other,stems grow
horizontally and develop root below and leaves above the ground. Many other common
examples of vegetatively propagating plants are onion, banana, garlic, ginger, turmeric,
bryophyllum and water hyacinth.

12. Vegetative propagation in Bryophyllum: Bryophyllum reproduces by the

vegetative propagation method. During this method, buds produced in the notches
along the leaf margin of bryophyllum fall on the soil and develop into new plants.
13. SEXUAL REPRODUCTION :
Sexual reproduction involves two individuals for producing a new individual. Sexual
reproduction begins with fertilization, which is defined as the union of two different
gametes. The motile germ-cell fptrUeh or sperm) is called the male gamete and germ-
cell containing stored food (egg or ovum) is called the female gamete. The process of
fusion of two gametes is called fertilization. After fertilization, a zygote is formed , which
develops into a new organism.

14. Sexual reproduction in Plants : The flowering plants or angiosperms bear special
reproductive parts located in the flower. Various parts of flower are; sepals, petals,
stamens and carpels.
Most flowers have both male and female reproductive organs. The flower may be
unisexual (papaya, watermelon) when it contains either stamen or carpel or bisexual
(Hibiscus, Mustard) when it contains both stamens and carpels. It has male
reproductive part cal led stamen and a female reproductive part called carpel. Carpel is
made of three parts. The swollen bottom part is the ovary, middle elongated part is the
style and the terminal part which may be sticky is the stigma.

The ovary contains ovules and each ovule has an egg cell. Each stamen consists of
stalk called filament, and a flattened fertile top called anther. The anthers produce the
pollen grains. The pollen grains produce male gametes which fuse with (egg cel I)
female gamete present in the ovule. This fusion of the germ-cells or fertilization gives
zygote which grows into a new plant. Pollination: It is the process of transfer of pollen
grains from the anther to the stigma of flower. If this transfer of pollen occurs in the
same flower, it is referred to as self-pollination, whereas if the pollen is transferred from
one flower to another, it is known as cross-pollination. This transfer is carried out by
different agencies like wind, water, insects or animals.

Fertilization: A tube grows out of pollen grain and travels through the style to reach the
female germ-cells present in ovule in the ovary. Out of two male gametes present in
pollen tube one fuses with egg to form zygote. This fusion is called fertilization. After
fertilization, the zygote divides several times to form an embryo within the ovule. The
ovule develops a tough coat and gradually turns into a seed. The ovary grows rapidly
and ripens to form a fruit. Meanwhile the petals, sepals, stamens, style and stigma may
shrivel and fall off.

15. Reproduction in human beings : The reproductive organs of human beings are
called gonads. These are testes in male and ovaries in female. The male gonad
produces sperms and female gonad produces ova (eggs) at the age of puberty (after
attainment of sexual maturity). Various changes occur in girls and boys at this age.

16. Male Reproductive System consists of the following organs:

Testes: A pair of testes are situated in scrotum that lie outside the abdominal cavity and
behind the penis. Testes produce sperms and hormone, Testosterone hormone.
Testosterone brings about changes in appearance of boys at the time of puberty.
VAS deferens: From each testis, a duct arises which is known as vas deferens which
unites with a tube coming from urinary bladder. It brings sperms from testis.

Urethra: Vas deferens tube opens into a common tube called urethra. It runs through a
muscular organ called Penis. Penis is male copulatory organ.

Accessory Glands: Glands like prostate and seminal vesicles and Cowper’s gland add
their secretions which make transport of sperms easier and this fluid also provides
nutrition.
17. Female Reproductive System: It consists of the following organs:

Ovaries: Paired ovaries are located in the abdominal cavity near the kidney. Ovaries
produce female gamete (ovum or egg) and secrete female hormones (estrogen and
progesterone). One egg is produced every month alternately by one of the ovaries.
Fallopian Tube: The egg is carried from the ovary to womb/uterus through a thin
oviduct or fallopian tube.
Uterus: The two oviducts unite into an elastic bag like structure known as the uterus.
Vagina: Uterus opens into the vagina. It is a female copulatory organ.

18. Sexual Cycle in female: After puberty, only one egg is produced alternately from
one ovary after a period of 28 days. Egg in fallopian tube encounter sperms which enter
through the vaginal passage during sexual intercourse. This fertilized egg (zygote) gets
implanted in the lining of uterus which later forms embryo. Embryo gets nutrition from
the mother’s blood with the help of special tissue called placenta.

If the egg is not fertilized, if lives for about one day since the ovary releases one egg
every month, the uterus prepares itself every month to receive the fertilized egg. Thus,
its lining becomes thick and spongy. If it does not get zygote, the developed lining
slowly breaks down and comes out through the vagina as blood and mucus. This cycle
takes place roughly every month and is known as menstruation. It usually lasts for about
2-5 days.

19. Reproductive Health: Reproductive organs need a lot of care and hygiene.
Otherwise, they are susceptible to many infections or diseases. The diseases which
spread through sexual routes are known as sexually transmitted diseases e.g., bacterial
infections like syphilis, gonorrhoea and viral infections such as warts and HIV- AIDS. A
condom helps to prevent transmission of many of these infections to some extent.
Frequent pregnancy causes many health problems and also adds to an already
exploding population. Many ways have been devised to avoid pregnancy. Contraception
can be achieved by:

 Mechanical barrier method (use of condoms).

 Chemical methods (use of pills).
 Use of contraceptive devices (copper-T).
 Surgical methods (vasectomy in males and tubectomy in females)