MODULE – 4

Design Engineering Concepts: -Project-based Learning and Problem-based Learning in Design.

Modular Design and Life Cycle Design Approaches. Application of Biomimicry, Aesthetics and
Ergonomics in Design. Value Engineering, Concurrent Engineering, and Reverse Engineering in
Design.
Project-based Learning and Problem-based Learning in Design

Project-based learning is an instructional approach where a team learn by investigating a

complex question, problem or challenge. It promotes active learning and allows for higher order
thinking. The team explore real-world problems and find answers through the completion of a
project. They also have some control over the project they will be working on, how the project
will finish, as well as the end product.
Eg: 1) Analyzing the five most popular social media platforms for teens, then predict and design
a new platform based on existing trends and past trajectory of change.
2) Solving the problem of negative and/or‘fake news.’

Project-based learning process

Problem-based learning is a teaching pedagogy that is individual-centered. We learn about a
topic through the solving of problems and generally work in groups to solve the problem where,
often, there is no one correct answer. In short, ‘it empowers learners to conduct research,
integrate theory and practice, and apply knowledge and skills to develop a viable solution to a
defined problem.
Problem-based learning typically follow prescribed steps:
1. Presentation of an "ill-structured" (open-ended, "messy") problem
2. Problem definition or formulation (the problem statement)
3. Generation of a "knowledge inventory" (a list of "what we know about the problem" and
"what we need to know")
4. Generation of possible solutions
5. Formulation of learning issues for self-directed and coached learning
6. Sharing of findings and solutions
Eg : 1) Design a new waste management system in your residence area, especially for plastic
waste
2) How can you market your own product within limited budget
The problem based design process does not focus on problem solving with a defined solution,
but it allows for the development of other desirable skills and attributes such as knowledge
acquisition, enhanced group collaboration and communication.
The key difference is that , In Project-based Learning, the team have to produce an artefact to
demonstrate their mastery of content, while in Problem-Based Learning, they have to present a
solution to a clearly defined authentic problem. Importantly, project-based learning often
involves authentic tasks that solve real-world problems while problem-based learning uses
scenarios and cases that are perhaps less related to real life.

Project-based Learning Problem-based Learning

Project-based Learning begins with the Problem-based Learning begins with a problem that
assignment of tasks that will lead to the determines what Team study. The problem derives
creation of a final product or artefact. The from an observable phenomena or event. The
emphasis is on the end product. emphasis is on acquiring new knowledge and the
 Team work on open-ended solution is less important.
assignments. These could be more  Team is presented with an open-ended,
than one problem authentic question.
 They analyse the problems and  They analyse the question
generate solutions.
 They generate hypotheses that explain the
 They design and develop a phenomena.
prototype of the solution
 They identify further follow-up questions
 They refine the solution based on
feedback from experts, instructors,  They seek additional data to answer the
and/or peers questions.
 Modular Design and Life Cycle Design
Modular design is an approach in which a product is designed for assembling in module-wise
fashion. Modular products are the artifacts that are composed of many modules. These modules
function together to get the overall function of the product.
Modular products can be machines, assemblies and components that fulfill various overall
functions through the combination of distinct building blocks or modules. In a modular product
(or modular system), the overall function performed by the product is the results achieved
through a combination of discrete units (modules). Dividing a product into discrete units based
on some criteria is called as modularization of a product. As we have seen, modular products or
modular Systems are built up on separable or inseparable units called as modules. The basic idea
behind modular design is to organize a complex system as a set of distinct component that can be
developed independently and then assembled together to perform a function.
Advantages of modular design
• Minimizing cost
• Design of a singe part is easier as designer can concentrate only in one section
• Module can be separately improved without affecting the entire product
• A part of module can be updated
• Replacement of a parts becomes cheaper
• Shorten the design cycle
• Improves reliability and quality

Life-Cycle Design is the environmentally sound design of products based on the whole lifecycle
starting from exploitation and processing of raw materials, preproduction, production,
distribution, to use and returning materials back into the industrial cycles.
It refers to the consideration of environmental impacts throughout the various stages of a
product's existence and the endeavor to minimize these impacts whenever feasible. It aims to
prevent the transfer of environmental burdens from one stage to another. Additionally, life cycle
design acknowledges the role of technological advancement in addressing environmental
concerns.
This approach is adopted by companies in the development of eco-friendly products, by
consumers in making conscious product selections, and by governments in establishing
regulatory standards to mitigate environmental effects. It involves identifying key areas for
reduction while also promoting consumer awareness.
There are many different approaches that involve looking at life cycle-generated impacts and
ways to minimize these impacts. An important component is the avoidance of burden shifting,
which ensures that improvements in one stage are not achieved at the expense of another stage.
Impact measurement focuses on decreasing environmental impact and resource use throughout
all stages of a process.

The Life Cycle Design is closely related to eco-design or design for environment but LCD is
more appropriate within the design discipline that deals with the sustainability requirements of
industrial products. Here, the goods have to be designed with all their life cycle stages. All
activities needed for manufacturing its materials and then the product itself, its distribution, use
and finally disposal are all considered to be one totality. Thus it takes from product design and
goes to product system design, all the events that determine and accompany a product during its
lifespan.
This process is very useful as it does not consider design where environmental impacts are
reduced at one stage. For example, low grade furniture, where the pre-production and production
is less demanding than the furniture made from traditional durable materials, runs out of use very
fast and has to be substituted again and again. Hence, the overall impact of low grade furniture is
much higher than one that is made up of traditional durable materials.
The future of life cycle design and sustainable development depends on education, government
policy and regulations, and industry leadership but fundamental changes in societal values and
behaviour will ultimately determine the fate of the planet's life support system.

Strategies for Life Cycle Design are:

1. Minimising Resource Consumption

2. Selecting Low impact Resources and processes
3. Product Lifetime Optimisation
4. Extending Lifespan of Materials
5. Facilitating Disassembly
6. System Design for Eco-efficiency
The relative importance of various factors under life cycle design stratifies and their orientation
will vary from industry to industry and product to product. However, there are general design
principles for these life cycle requirements that will be generally applicable to many items.
Product Life Cycle can usually be divided into the following phases:
• Pre-Production
• Production
• Distribution
• Use/Customer Interface
Pre-Production:
In the preproduction stage, necessary resources and semi-finished products are prepared as
components of the manufacturing of the final product.
Production:
The three key stages of production are:
1. Processing of materials
2. Assembly
3. Completion
The raw materials need to be conveyed to the machinery and processed into components after
which they are assembled for the completion of the final product.
Distribution:
Three fundamental stages that characterize distribution are:
 1. Packaging
2. Transportation
3. Storing
The final product is packaged in order to reach the end-user intact and functional; shipping is
carried out by different means of transport either to an intermediate station or directly to the
sphere of application. This stage entails not only energy consumption for transportation but also
resource consumption to produce the means of transport as well as storage facilities.
Use/Customer interface:
Two fundamental stages that characterise utilisation are:
1. Consumption
2. Service
The utilisation or consumption of goods in most cases consumes resources and energy and leaves
behind refuse and waste. Besides, they may require maintenance and servicing during its period
of use.
Characteristics for the optimisation of end-of-life systems:
1. Re-use of product
2. Remanufacturing/refurbishing
3. Recycling of materials
4. Safer incineration
5. Taking into consideration local (informal) collection/ recycling systems
The concept of life cycle is able to adapt a system vision over the products input-output during
all phases, analyse and asses its environmental effect together with economic and social
influences.

Application of Biomimicry, Aesthetics and Ergonomics in Design.

Biomimicry engineering is the practice of creating designs based on structures and sequences
from the Earth's natural world, including its plants, animals and geographies. These designs
allow engineers and other professionals to create sustainable infrastructure and equipment for
everyday activities and habitation processes, like public transportation and water sanitation. The
engineers involved in these types of projects often collaborate with biologists. Biologists identify
natural processes that are efficient and sustainable, then engineers implement these processes
into building or tool designs.
Examples of biomimicry engineering
Engineers can mimic the shapes, processes or ecosystems on Earth. Here's a list of biomimicry
engineering examples you may apply in your own career:
1. Butterfly wings and solar energy
The "common rose" butterfly heats its body by absorbing sunlight with its wings. By studying its
wings under an electron microscope, researchers discovered holes in their bodies that dispersed
the sunlight and kept them warm. Using this mechanism, researchers created a thin silicon film
that resembled a 3D model of the butterfly's wing and applied it to a solar energy cell, improving
its design overall. This new energy cell could often absorb more sunlight under lower light
conditions. By using this technology in a solar industry position, engineers can help communities
and local businesses increase their sustainable energy usage.
2. Whale fins and wind energy
The ridges on the front fins of a humpback whale, called tubercles, influence how water flows
over the fins. The tubercules allow them to swim at high speeds despite their great size.
Engineering and science professionals often collaborate on projects involving whale tubercules
to create improved machinery for travel or energy production. Scientists often measure these
tubercles using a mathematical model, while engineering professionals use this data to create a
3D model and determine how a similar design might improve lift and reduce wind drag on a
submarine, aircraft or turbine.
3. Termite mounds and sustainable architecture
Termites build mounds that keep cool in hot weather even when they're in high altitudes, using
holes at the top of the mounds that push hot air outward and keep cool air at the bottom.
Architects used these termite structures as inspiration for building designs in hot climates.
Engineers followed these designs and used jagged stone to absorb less heat compared to a stone
with a flat surface. This is an example of how construction and architectural professionals can
use natural elements and sustainable materials to enhance the safety and quality of a building
project.
4. Woodpeckers and shock absorption
Woodpeckers use their long beaks to forage for insects and create homes in the trunks of trees
without sustaining head injuries from the fast and forceful pecking Biologists conducted CT
scans and reviewed recordings of the bird, finding structures in a woodpecker's body that work
together to improve its shock absorption. Aerospace engineers often use these structures to
design meteorite-resistant spacecraft and airplane black boxes that can absorb more force before
malfunctioning. This natural design can also help aircraft and aeronautical engineers develop
more quality technology in the future.
5. Spiders & Protective Glass
You are probably already well aware that spider silk is one of the strongest biological substances
in the world. However, there is something even more special about the strands of spider silk.
Each year 100 million birds die after crashing into glass windows, doors, etc. For Birds, it's
almost impossible to identify the transparent surface of the glass.
Turning to nature, engineers took inspiration from the UV-reflective strands of spider webs and
created bird-safe glass. In nature, birds can see identify these reflective strands and avoid them.
6. Flexible Energy Storage Solution for Wearable Electronics

Wearable technology comprising soft robotics is a rapidly booming field of research. The
assistive soft wearable robotic devices have been advancing at an exponential rate and have
branched into numerous categories such as robot-facilitated therapy, mobility-assistance
achieving activities of daily living,etc. Wearable sensors are widely used in clinical settings to
obtain real-time physiological information about the human body. These devices require energy
to carry out their functions, which could be derived from batteries, solar cells, etc. Scientists at
the Korea Institute of Machinery and Materials have developed a novel bioinspired battery
design mimicking snakeskin. The battery houses overlapping scale-like units, which are highly
flexible and stretchable, ensuring high energy density while resisting damage. The overlapping
scale-like structure ensures that the unit can bend and morph with the device into which it is
integrated. This battery possesses large areal capacity and reliability, which extends to extreme
environmental conditions that require dynamic stretching and bending deformations. This
snakeskin-inspired battery could be used in various types of flexible energy devices that require
high stability.It could play a vital role in the development of flexible electronics such as human-
friendly wearable electronics, soft robotics, and multifunctional stretchable devices.

Aesthetics is a core design principle that defines a design’s pleasing qualities. In visual terms,
aesthetics includes factors such as balance, color, movement, pattern, scale, shape and visual
weight. Designers use aesthetics to complement their designs’ usability, and so enhance
functionality with attractive layouts.
There is a phenomenon that social psychologists call “the halo effect”. It means humans tend to
assume that good-looking people have other positive qualities aside from their looks.The same is
valid for product design. Good looking products and user interface are perceived as more
valuable and having more qualities.
Aesthetics are in all our senses, not just the sight. Aesthetic design is a 4D experience. Product
designers, who are doing actual physical products are aware of that. There are 4 important
categories, which can make or break the aesthetics of our designs.
Vision:
The most dominant sense in majority of people is our sight. We can’t stop ourselves to look at
what we find beautiful. It is as if the light that reflects from the beautiful design acts as a magnet
for our eyes.
Visual aesthetics have these key elements: Color, Shape, Pattern, Line, Texture, Visual weight,
Balance, Scale, Proximity and Movement. Using these element well will help us achieve good
visual aesthetics.
Hearing:
Our ears are capable of perceiving a whole another level of aesthetic design. The ability to hear
how your car engine works, how the digital product notifies you of new messages and etc. This
is the power of sound aesthetics.
Sound aesthetics have these key elements: Loudness, Pitch, Beat, Repetition, Melody, Pattern
and Noise. Using them well will create enjoyable “music” for our users.
Touch:
Skin is the largest organ in human body. It also helps us experience the aesthetics. Material
aesthetics are especially important for physical products.
Just remember, the last time you were buying cloths and feeling their texture or when you were
checking out the latest mobile phone and feeling the frame material. Sometimes people make
there buying decisions only based on the material aesthetics. Powerful stuff are these material
aesthetics. Material aesthetics key elements are: Texture, Shape, Weight, Comfort, Temperature,
Vibration and Sharpness. By mastering them we can make our customers adore our products.
Taste and Smell:
Taste and Smell are sense that help us experience aesthetics even more deeply. Especially in
food industry and different environment designs, these senses play an important role in
experiencing aesthetics.
Key elements are: Strength, Sweetness, Sourness and Texture (for taste). Use these elements
when possible to enhance the full picture, so our users can feel the aesthetics even deeper.
Why aesthetic design matters?
Not long ago user were expecting only functional and usable products when they were buying.
Today, users expectations have evolved together with the design field. People expect usability by
default and are seeking products that are more than functional and usable. We want to experience
pleasure, to stimulate our senses. We want the products we use to evoke positive emotion in us.
Aesthetic design is crucial to satisfy these needs.We all judge the book by its cover. The better
the book cover the more we believe the content is better. This is phenomenon called “Aesthetic-
usability”. Beautiful products/objects are perceived as easier to use and more valuable than ugly
ones. Even if it is not true!
Like most things in the design world, it depends on who is using/consuming/viewing your
product. There are cases where we don’t really care too much about how something looks as
long as it performs the function needed when it’s needed. Think about a fire extinguisher, it’s
quite plain. Usually, it will be in red because that tends to stand out against a wall and it comes
with instructions printed about its use which is easy to follow. This is because everyone is meant
to use a fire extinguisher in the event of a fire.
However, the narrower your audience, the more complex a design could become. A designer can
then create aesthetics that are meant to be understood and appreciated by a very specific set of
people who enjoy the complexity rather than be confused because of it. Snapchat exemplifies a
design that is understood far more easily by a younger, more smartphone-savvy user than
someone who is currently over the age of 35. In this case, the design here defines the audience
for the product itself.

Ergonomics is the process or methodology for arranging or designing workplaces, products, and
systems of a working environment so that they are best fitted for the people who work there. To
achieve the greatest level of efficiency, organizations make sure that the employees are provided
with the most convenient surroundings, systems, and products. The branch of science that deals
with the external resources to provide a user-friendly environment to workers is known as
Ergonomics. This includes the tools, seating arrangement and all the job conditions of a
workplace. There are plenty of reasons that justify the application of ergonomics. It reduces the
risks of problems that can get the employees sick and injured, the cost of which in turn is borne
by the companies. For instance, an employee can get a severe backache if proper seating chair
that allows them to work in the right posture is not provided to them. Ergonomics is a new
science which is the result of years of research and surveys in physiology, psychology, and
engineering.
The following are a few examples of ergonomic changes which, if implemented, can result in
significant improvements:
 A task should not require workers to stay in awkward positions, such as reaching,
bending, or hunching over for long periods of time.
 Workers need to be trained in proper lifting techniques. A well-designed job should
minimize how far and how often workers have to lift.
 Standing work should be minimized, since it is often less tiring to do a job sitting than
standing.
 Job assignments should be rotated to minimize the amount of time a worker spends doing
a highly repetitive task, since repetitive work requires using the same muscles again and
again and is usually very boring.
 Workers and equipment should be positioned so that workers can perform their jobs with
their upper arms at their sides and with their wrists straight.

Ergonomic design involves a number of other subjects like:

• Biomechanics- the study of strength, force, levers, and muscles.
• Anthropometry- the study of populations, variations, and body sizes
• Environmental physics- science related to human senses, noise, light, etc.
• Psychology- the study of groups, learning, communications, adaptability, etc.
 Do not use tools with spaces that can catch fingers or flesh.

Ergonomics overall helps us in minimizing our overall expenditure and enhancing the
productivity level. Besides, it curtails the chances of accidents and unfavorable situations at
workplaces. Besides, it also improves the quality of output because the workers are healthy and
fit to work to their maximum capabilities. The employees are more engaged in their work
without getting distracted. Most importantly ergonomics adds to the company’s goodwill. When
our workers are satisfied with the working conditions they spread a good word about the
organization which is a very important factor to invite investments and more competent
manpower. Ergonomics is not confined to workplaces only but it can be extended to our homes
as well. It is considered in the manufacture of home essentials to allow our bodies to acquire the
maximum level of comfort while we're sitting on a sofa or using a laptop in bed. All these things
are referred to as home ergonomics. For the purpose of home ergonomics, ergonomic furniture is
available to minimize backache and painful body conditions. In addition, ergonomic kitchen
tools are also there to make sure that we don’t meet injuries while working in the kitchen. While
growing plants in a garden, snow shovels, and Motus tools are specially designed considering
ergonomics that we can use to ensure a comfortable and environment-friendly gardening
experience.
Ergonomics Process
 Asess Risk: Conducting an ergonomic assessment is a foundational element of the
ergonomics process. Your ergonomic improvement efforts will never get off the ground
without being able to effectively assess jobs in your workplace for musculoskeletal
disorder (MSD) risk factors.
 Plan Improvements: The core goal of the ergonomics process is to make changes to your
workplace that reduce risk. Making changes at scale requires a significant planning effort
that includes prioritizing jobs to be improved, identifying effective improvement ideas,
and cost-justifying the improvement projects.
 Measure Progress: Measurement is an important component of any successful continuous
improvement process. High performing ergonomics programs are constantly measured
using both leading and lagging indicators.
 Scale Solutions: By establishing a common set of tools to train your workforce, assess
risk, plan improvements, measure progress, and design new work processes, you’ll be
able to scale ergonomics best practices throughout your organization.

Value Engineering
Value engineering is a systematic, organized approach to providing necessary functions in a
project at the lowest cost. Value engineering promotes the substitution of materials and
methods with less expensive alternatives, without sacrificing functionality. It is focused
solely on the functions of various components and materials, rather than their physical
attributes.
Value engineering is the review of new or existing products during the design phase to
reduce costs and increase functionality to increase the value of the product. The value of an
item is defined as the most cost-effective way of producing an item without taking away
from its purpose.
Value engineering begins by analyzing what a product lifecycle will look like. This includes
a forecast of all the spending and processes related to manufacturing, selling, and distributing
a product. With the core baseline expectations for the product having been documented, it's
now time for the value engineering team to consider new, different ways for the product to be
developed. This includes trying new approaches, taking risks on things never been done
before, or creatively applying existing processes in a new way. They will re-imagine how the
product will be created and distributed from state to finish. This phase is the "idea-
generation" stage where members of the team should be encouraged to brainstorm freely
without fear of criticism. With a bunch of ideas now on the table, it's time to decide which
are reasonable and which aren't Each idea is often assessed for its advantages and
disadvantages. Once the ideas are ranked, the best ideas are taken and further analyzed. This
includes drafting model plans, detailing changes and their impacts, producing revised
financial projections, redesigning physical renderings, and assessing the overall viability of
the change.
Concurrent Engineering
Concurrent engineering is a method of designing and developing engineering products in
which different departments simultaneously work on the different stages of engineering
product development. If managed well, it helps to increase the efficiency of product
development and marketing, considerably reducing the time and contributing to the reduction
of the overall development cost while improving the final product quality.

This streamlined approach towards an engineering product forces several teams within the
organisation, such as product design, manufacturing, production, marketing, product support,
finance, etc., to work simultaneously on new product development.
For instance, while engineering product designers begin to design the product, the sales team
can start working on the marketing, and the product support department can start thinking
about the after-sale support. While the mechanical designers work on the packaging design to
incorporate the PCB developed by the electrical engineering team, the software engineers can
start looking at the software code.
Concurrent engineering presents an environment that encourages and improves the
interaction of different disciplines and departments towards a single goal of satisfying
engineering product requirements. A P-P-T framework or the Golden Triangle can
summarise key elements of concurrent engineering.
People, processes, and technology are crucial to any organisation and essential in
implementing concurrent engineering to achieve shorter development time, lower cost,
improved product quality and fulfil customer needs.
People : Concurrent product development is a multidisciplinary team task, and companies
must utilise the right skilled personnel at the right time to accelerate product development.
 A process is a series of product development steps that need to happen to achieve a goal.
These can be project planning stages, milestone management, problem-solving
methodologies, product development key stages, information sharing workflow, etc., as
people are ineffective without processes to support their tasks and decisions.
Technology :For concurrent engineering to be successful, the effective introduction of tools,
techniques, and technologies to aid a smooth integration of people and processes is vital.

Reverse Engineering
Reverse engineering is the process of analysing an existing product’s constituent components in
order to understand how it was put together and how it works. It is often used in research by
designers wanting to make add-on or complementary products for an existing product, machine
or device as well as to create replica designs – or design knowledge of the source product. It can
also be used in cases where an engineered product or technology is not functioning as it should,
so must be ‘deconstructed’ and engineered to understand where the errors and flaws may lie.
Products and systems such as mechanical devices, electronic components, computer software
and chemical formulas can all potentially be reverse engineered, making this branch of design
engineering an extremely useful technique.
Reverse engineering is typically used to gain a deep and detailed understanding of the processes
used in the creation, manufacture or development of a product.The reasons it is used vary widely,
from establishing the details of an existing technology or device, to determining the technical
aspects of a product that was manufactured in the past, but which now for some reason will be
revisited and upgraded. It should also be noted that reverse engineering may be used in less than
ethical ways by certain types of organisation to copy or replicate genuine products or
technologies for commercial gain. In most cases, original design drawings are not available,
though reverse engineering techniques may be used to convert design drawings into 3D digital
data.
Product improvement is a key driver of reverse engineering projects. For firms involved in
product design, development and manufacture, the need for constant development and evolution
is simply part of operating in a competitive market.
The main goals of reverse engineering in the context of product improvement are:
 Reducing manufacturing cost
 Refining features e.g. usability
 Improving product performance
 Replacing a product with a new updated version
It is in the nature of product lifecycles that designers and engineers constantly need to find ways
to improve both novel concepts and existing products. To do so they need the data and
knowledge to refine and improve a product’s assembly process and working capabilities. By
simplifying a product’s manufacture, its cost can potentially be reduced and its performance
improved. It can also be replaced by a newer, more efficient version of the product. Given that
efficiency, performance and manufacturing cost are all key goals of the design engineering
process, the identification of redundant or obsolescent parts and their subsequent elimination
from the product can be just important as the introduction of new parts and features that will
enhance the product.
3D scanners are the most commonly accepted capturing device to turn a physical object into its
digital twin.