Systems Fundamentals

Exploring the Foundations of Computer Technology

by Rodan Fabro
Introduction to Computer Systems
Hardware Software Data Representation

Physical components of a computer Instructions and data that tell the How data is stored and processed by
system, such as the CPU, RAM, hard hardware what to do, including the computer, using binary
drive, and peripherals. operating systems, applications, and numbers, character sets, and data
programming languages. structures.
Hardware Components

Central Processing Unit (CPU) Memory (RAM) Storage

The brain of the computer, Short-term storage for data and Long-term storage for data and
responsible for executing instructions instructions currently being used by applications, including HDDs and
and performing calculations. the CPU. SSDs.
Software Layers

1 Operating System (OS) 2 Applications

Programs designed for
The foundation of specific tasks, interacting
software, managing with the OS through APIs.
hardware resources and
providing a user interface.

3 Device Drivers
Software that enables communication between the OS and
hardware devices.
Data Representation: Bits, Bytes, and Binary

Byte Kilobyte Megabyte Gigabyte Terabyte

Computers use binary system to represent data, with the smallest unit being a bit.
Number Systems
Decimal Binary
Base-10 system using digits Base-2 system using digits 0
0-9. Familiar to humans for and 1. Fundamental for
everyday counting. computer hardware.

Hexadecimal
Base-16 system using digits 0-9 and letters A-F. Convenient for
representing binary data.
Boolean Logic and Digital
Circuits
Boolean logic provides a foundation for digital circuits. This system
utilizes logical operators such as AND, OR, and NOT to represent
binary values (0 and 1).

Digital circuits are built upon these principles. Logic gates, like AND
gates and OR gates, implement Boolean operations, and these circuits
are essential for building computer components.
Instruction Set Architecture
(ISA)

Core of the CPU Machine Language

The ISA defines the instructions Instructions are encoded in a
that the CPU can understand and binary format, forming the language
execute. of the CPU.

Program Execution
Software programs are translated
into ISA instructions, enabling the
CPU to perform tasks.
Memory Hierarchy

Registers
1
Fastest memory, directly accessible by the CPU.

Cache
2
Small, fast memory that stores frequently used data.

RAM
3
Main memory, larger and slower than cache.

Storage
4
Slowest, but largest memory for persistent data.
Input/Output Devices and
Interfaces

Keyboard Mouse
Input device for text, commands, Input device for cursor control
and shortcuts. and selection.

Monitor Speakers
Output device for displaying Output device for sound and
visual information. audio.
Buses and Communication Protocols

1 2
Data Transfer Communication Protocols
Buses are physical pathways that facilitate data transfer between different Protocols define the rules and standards for data exchange over a network,
computer components. ensuring compatibility.

3 4
Types of Buses Protocols
Different types of buses include address, data, and control buses, each serving a Examples of protocols include TCP/IP, USB, and SATA, each optimized for
specific function. different purposes.
Process Management and Scheduling

1 Process Creation
Creating a new process involves allocating resources and assigning it a unique process ID (PID).

2 Process States
Processes transition between states like running, ready, waiting, and terminated, based on resource availability and events.

3 Process Scheduling
The operating system manages the allocation of CPU time to running processes, using scheduling algorithms to optimize resource utilization.

4 Process Communication
Inter-process communication (IPC) mechanisms, such as pipes, message queues, and shared memory, allow processes to exchange data.

5 Process Termination
When a process completes its task or encounters an error, it releases resources and is terminated by the operating system.
Memory Management and Virtual Memory
Physical Memory Virtual Memory Memory Allocation Memory Protection

The actual RAM chips in An illusion of larger Assigning memory to Preventing processes
the computer, limited by memory space, using disk processes for execution. from accessing each
hardware. space as an extension. other's memory.
File Systems and Storage
Management
Organization Access Control
File systems structure and Permissions and security
organize data on storage measures are implemented
devices, enabling efficient to protect data integrity and
access and management. prevent unauthorized access.

Storage Management
File systems optimize storage allocation, manage disk space, and
handle file operations like creation, deletion, and modification.
Concurrency and Synchronization

Multithreading
1 Allows multiple tasks to execute concurrently, enhancing performance and responsiveness.

Synchronization
2 Ensures data integrity and consistency when multiple threads access shared
resources.

Critical Sections
3 Code segments that require exclusive access to shared resources, protected
by synchronization mechanisms.

Deadlocks
4 Situations where threads block each other indefinitely, requiring
careful handling to prevent system failures.
Networking Fundamentals

1 Interconnected Devices 2 Protocols 3 Topologies

Networks enable Networks rely on protocols like Different network architectures
communication and data TCP/IP to regulate data like star, bus, and ring affect
sharing between computers transmission. performance and reliability.
and other devices.
Internet Protocols and the TCP/IP Stack
Layer Protocols Functions

Application HTTP, FTP, SMTP Provides services for applications, such as email,
web browsing, and file transfer.

Transport TCP, UDP Manages data transmission between applications,

ensuring reliable and efficient delivery.

Network IP, ICMP Handles addressing, routing, and packet

forwarding across networks.

Link Ethernet, Wi-Fi Provides data transfer over physical media, such
as network cables and wireless signals.
Cybersecurity Principles and Threats

Security Principles Cyber Threats

Confidentiality, Integrity, Availability Malware, Phishing, Social Engineering, Denial-of-Service
Attacks
System Performance Optimization
Identify Bottlenecks
Analyze system components to pinpoint areas limiting performance.

Optimize Code
Improve code efficiency, reduce resource consumption, and enhance
algorithms.

Memory Management
Enhance memory allocation and usage, minimizing fragmentation and
swapping.

Hardware Upgrades
Consider upgrading components like CPU, RAM, or storage to meet
demand.
Emerging Trends and Technologies
The field of computer technology is constantly evolving, with new
innovations emerging regularly. Staying ahead of these trends is
crucial for professionals and businesses alike.

• Artificial Intelligence (AI): AI is transforming various industries,

from healthcare to finance, with applications like machine
learning, natural language processing, and computer vision.
• Quantum Computing: Quantum computing holds the potential to
revolutionize computing with its ability to solve complex
problems that are intractable for classical computers.
• Edge Computing: Edge computing brings processing power
closer to data sources, enabling real-time analysis and faster
response times.
• Blockchain: Blockchain technology, known for its secure and
transparent decentralized ledger, is gaining traction in areas like
supply chain management and cryptocurrency.
Practical Applications and Case Studies
Cloud Computing Data Science Artificial Intelligence
Systems fundamentals are Understanding data structures, AI systems rely heavily on
essential for designing and algorithms, and processing computational power and efficient
managing cloud infrastructure, techniques is crucial for analyzing memory management for training
ensuring scalability, reliability, and and extracting insights from vast and deploying complex models.
security. datasets.