IM314 – Metal Forming Processes

Lecture 2
The behaviour of materials under loading
Stress-Strain relationship
 Types of Strain

All deformation processes in manufacturing

involve strains of these types:
▪ Tensile
▪ Compressive
▪ Shear

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 Types of Strain
F
1- Tensile strain
▪ Tensile strains are involved in
stretching sheet metal to make
automobile components, or
stretching a wire as in wire drawing.
▪ Another example is the application of
an internal pressure inside a plastic
tube to expand it into beverage bottle
▪
Engineering Strain: F

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 Types of Strain
F

2- Compressive strain
▪ Compressive strains are
involved in forging metals to
make turbine disks and car
bodies. Note that the strain is
negative
Engineering Strain:

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 Types of Strain

3- shear strain F

▪ Shear strains are involved in

punching a sheet of metal to
make a hole.

Shear Strain: F

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 Tensile test
▪ Because of its simplicity, it is
commonly used for the
determination of the
strength-deformation
characteristics of a material,
such as:
▪ Yield strength
▪ Ultimate tensile strength
▪ Modulus of elasticity
▪ Ductility
▪ Modulus of resilience
▪ Modulus of toughness

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Tensile test

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Engineering stress-engineering strain

At any instantaneous point “i”

▪ Engineering stress

▪ Engineering strain

▪ Modulus of elasticity (determined before the yield point)

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Engineering stress-engineering strain
▪ Ductility:
The strain in the specimen at fracture is a measure of
ductility.

▪ Two quantities are used to define ductility:

▪ %Elongation

▪ %Reduction in area

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 True stress- true strain
• The engineering stress-strain curve does not give a true
indication of the deformation characteristics of a metal because
it is based on the original dimensions of the specimen.

• In actuality, ductile materials continue to strain-harden up to

fracture, but engineering stress-strain curve gives a different
picture. The occurrence of necking in ductile materials leads to
a drop in load and engineering stress required to continue
deformation, once the maximum load is exceeded.

• Therefore, the evaluation of the true stress-true strain

relationship provides a realistic characteristic of the material.

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 True stress- true strain

True stress-strain and engineering stress-strain curves for AISI 4140 hot-rolled steel

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 ▪ After achieving the ultimate tensile stresses (the
maximum engineering stresses), plastic deformation
becomes localized (called necking), and the
engineering stresses drop because of the localized
reduction in cross-sectional area.

▪ However, the true stress continues to rise because

the cross-sectional area decreases and the material
work-hardens in the neck region. The true-stress-
true-strain curves are obtained by converting the
tensile stress and its corresponding strain into true
values and extending the curve.

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True stress- true strain
At any instantaneous point “i”

▪ True stress

▪ True strain

▪ Also, until the start of necking:

▪ Relationship between true stress and true strain (flow

rule)

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 True stress- true strain curve
▪ “K” and “n” are characteristics
of the material that could be
determined experimentally.
▪ “K” is the true stress at true
strain of unity.
▪ “n” is the slope of the strait line
representing the Log σ- Log ε
relationship.
▪ “Yf” is the flow stress and it is
the stress required to continue
plastic deformation at a
particular true strain “ε1”.

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Engineering strain vs. True strain
▪ For small strain values
e=ε

▪ For larger strains, the values rapidly diverge

▪ Elastic strains are much smaller than plastic strains

▪ Since all metal forming processes involve large
strains, true strain should be used.

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Instability in tension
▪ During the tensile test, two competing mechanisms are
taking place simultaneously;
▪ As the load increases on the specimen, its cross-sectional
area decreases.
▪ However, this also increases the strain which causes the
material to be stronger due to strain hardening.
▪ At maximum load, when necking begins, the increase in
stress due to decrease in the cross-sectional area of the
specimen becomes greater than the increase in the load-
carrying ability of the metal due to strain hardening.

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Instability in tension
▪ At UTS, (start of necking), the
slope of the load-elongation
curve is zero.
▪ dP = 0
▪ Following the derivation at
Page 38 will end up in
ε=n

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Types of stress-strain curves
▪ Perfectly elastic material
▪ Linear behaviour with slope “E”
▪ There is a maximum stress the material can sustain, after
which it fractures
▪ Permanent deformation, if any, is negligible.
▪ Typical for brittle materials, glass, ceramics and some
cast irons

σ = Eε

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Types of stress-strain curves
▪ Rigid, perfectly plastic material
▪ Infinite value of “E”
▪ After yield stress “Y”, the material continue deformation at
the same stress level
▪ The deformation is always permanent; no elastic recovery

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Types of stress-strain curves
▪ Elastic, perfectly plastic material

▪ Combination of the first two types

▪ Has a finite elastic modulus
▪ Undergoes elastic recovery when the load is released

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Types of stress-strain curves
▪ Rigid, linearly strain-hardening material

▪ Requires increasing stress to undergo further strain

▪ No elastic recovery when the load is released, the
deformation is always permanent

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 Types of stress-strain curves
▪ Elastic, linearly strain-hardening
material

▪ Requires increasing stress to

undergo further strain
▪ Has a finite elastic modulus in
the elastic portion of the curve
▪ The plastic portion of the curve
has a decreasing slope with
decreasing strain
▪ Undergoes elastic recovery
when the load is released
▪ Represents the behaviour of the
most engineering materials.

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Effect of strain-hardening exponent on the
shape of true stress- true strain curve

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Effect of temperature

▪ Increasing temperature will result in:

▪ Increasing ductility and toughness
▪ Lowering yield strength, ultimate tensile strength and
modulus of elasticity

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