Mathematical Engineering

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Today, the development of high-tech systems is unthinkable without mathematical
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The series Mathematical Engineering presents new or heretofore little-known
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Jonathan Whiteley

Finite Element Methods

A Practical Guide

123
Jonathan Whiteley
Department of Computer Science
University of Oxford
Oxford
UK

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ISSN 2192-4732 ISSN 2192-4740 (electronic)

Mathematical Engineering
ISBN 978-3-319-49970-3 ISBN 978-3-319-49971-0 (eBook)
DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-49971-0
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Preface

This book has evolved from courses on the finite element method that have been
taught as part of several graduate programmes at the University of Oxford. These
courses have all focused on the practical application of the finite element method.
A typical course would begin with a specific class of differential equations being
written down. The course would then provide students with all the detail that is
required to develop a computational implementation of the finite element method
for this class of differential equations. This approach requires the following topics
to be addressed: (i) derivation of the weak formulation of a differential equation;
(ii) discretisation of the domain on which the differential equation is defined into
elements; (iii) specification of suitable basis functions; (iv) derivation of a system of
algebraic equations that is derived from the finite element formulation of the dif-
ferential equation; (v) solution of this system of algebraic equations; and (perhaps
most importantly) (vi) the practical implementation of all steps. This book is written
in the spirit in which these courses have been taught. Mathematical rigour is cer-
tainly needed when discussing some of these topics, such as the use of Sobolev
spaces when deriving the weak formulation of a differential equation. The focus,
however, is on the practical implementation of the finite element method for a given
differential equation.
This book begins with a brief overview of the finite element method in Chap. 1.
Chapters 2–6 then focus on the application of the finite element method to ordinary
differential equations. In Chap. 2, we begin with a very simple example differential
equation. Although simple, this example allows illustration of the key ideas that
underpin the finite element method. We then consider general, linear ordinary
differential equations in Chap. 3, providing a more rigorous discussion than in
Chap. 2. The material in Chap. 3 focuses exclusively on finite element solutions that
are a linear approximation to the true solution on each element. These concepts are
extended in Chap. 4 to explain how a higher order polynomial approximation may
be used on each element. We then explain how nonlinear ordinary differential
equations are handled by the finite element method in Chap. 5, and how systems of
ordinary differential equations are handled in Chap. 6. In all of these chapters, we
carefully explain how the values of the solution at each node of the computational

v
vi Preface

mesh satisfy a system of algebraic equations. We explain how these algebraic

equations may be assembled, and how they may be solved. Each chapter contains
an exemplar computational implementation in the form of MATLAB functions.
Chapters 7–12 focus on the application of the finite element method to elliptic
partial differential equations, and these chapters take a very similar approach to that
used in earlier chapters. We begin with a simple example in Chap. 7, before
considering more general linear elliptic equations in Chap. 8. In both of these
chapters, we partition the domain on which the differential equation is defined into
triangular elements. In Chap. 9, we explain how the material presented in Chap. 8
may be modified to allow the use of a mesh that arises from partitioning the domain
into quadrilateral elements. Higher order polynomial approximations to the solution
are considered in Chap. 10, followed by nonlinear partial differential equations in
Chap. 11 and systems of elliptic equations in Chap. 12. Exemplar computational
implementations of the finite element method are given in several of these chapters.
Finally, in Chap. 13, we explain how the finite element method may be applied to
parabolic partial differential equations.
Every application of the finite element method in this book requires the solution
of a system of algebraic equations. Appendix A provides a brief summary of
computational techniques that are available for solving both linear and nonlinear
systems of algebraic equations. This summary covers both direct and iterative
methods for solving linear systems, preconditioners that accelerate the convergence
of iterative methods for solving linear systems, and iterative methods for solving
nonlinear systems.
My understanding and appreciation of the finite element method has been
substantially enhanced by discussions with colleagues too numerous to mention.
Special mention must, however, be made of both the Computational Biology Group
in the Department of Computer Science at the University of Oxford, and the
Numerical Analysis Group in the Mathematical Institute at the University of
Oxford. The finite element research interests of these two groups cover a wide
spectrum, addressing a range of both practical and theoretical issues. I am very
fortunate to have been a member of both of these research groups for periods of
time over the last two decades.
Above all, I would like to thank my family for their support during the writing of
this book.

Oxford, UK Jonathan Whiteley

April 2016
Contents

1 An Overview of the Finite Element Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

1.1 Features of the Finite Element Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.2 Using This Book . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
2 A First Example . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
2.1 Some Brief Mathematical Preliminaries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
2.2 A Model Differential Equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
2.3 The Weak Formulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
2.4 Elements and Nodes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
2.5 Basis Functions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
2.6 The Finite Element Solution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
2.7 Algebraic Equations Satisfied by the Finite
Element Solution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
2.8 Assembling the Algebraic Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
2.8.1 Calculating the Local Contributions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
2.8.2 Assembling the Global Matrix . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
2.9 A Summary of the Steps Required . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
2.10 Computational Implementation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
2.11 Evaluating the Finite Element Solution at a Given Point . . . . . . 19
2.12 Is the Finite Element Solution Correct? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
2.13 Exercises. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
3 Linear Boundary Value Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ......... 25
3.1 A General Boundary Value Problem . . . . . . . . . . . . ......... 25
3.1.1 A Note on the Existence and Uniqueness
of Solutions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
3.2 The Weak Formulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
3.2.1 Some Definitions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
3.2.2 Deriving the Weak Formulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28

vii
viii Contents

3.3 The Finite Element Solution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30

3.3.1 The Mesh . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
3.3.2 Basis Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
3.3.3 Sets of Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
3.3.4 The Finite Element Solution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
3.3.5 The System of Algebraic Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
3.4 Assembling the Algebraic Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
3.4.1 The Contributions from Integrals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
3.4.2 Completing the Assembly of the Linear System . . . . . . 39
3.5 Approximating Integrals Using Numerical Quadrature . . . . . . . . 40
3.6 The Steps Required . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
3.7 Computational Implementation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
3.8 Robin Boundary Conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
3.8.1 The Weak Formulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
3.8.2 The Finite Element Solution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
3.9 A Bound on the Accuracy of the Solution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
3.10 Exercises. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
4 Higher Order Basis Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
4.1 A Model Differential Equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
4.2 Quadratic Basis Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
4.2.1 The Mesh . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
4.2.2 The Definition of Quadratic Basis Functions . . . . . . . . . 57
4.2.3 The Finite Element Solution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
4.2.4 The System of Algebraic Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
4.2.5 Assembling the Algebraic Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
4.2.6 Computational Implementation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
4.2.7 A Note on Using Quadrature for Higher Order
Basis Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
4.3 Cubic Basis Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
4.3.1 The Mesh . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
4.3.2 The Definition of Cubic Basis Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
4.3.3 The Finite Element Solution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
4.3.4 Assembling the Algebraic Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
4.4 General Basis Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
4.4.1 The Mesh . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
4.4.2 Basis Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
4.4.3 The Finite Element Solution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
4.5 Convergence of the Finite Element Solution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78
4.6 Exercises. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
Contents ix

5 Nonlinear Boundary Value Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .... 81

5.1 A First Example . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .... 81
5.1.1 The Weak Formulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .... 82
5.1.2 The Mesh, Basis Functions and Finite
Element Solution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
5.1.3 The Algebraic Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
5.1.4 Assembling the Algebraic Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
5.1.5 Computational Implementation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
5.1.6 Calculation of the Jacobian Matrix . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90
5.1.7 Numerical Approximation of the Jacobian Matrix . . . . . 96
5.2 A General Nonlinear Boundary Value Problem . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
5.2.1 The Weak Formulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
5.2.2 The Nonlinear System of Algebraic Equations . . . . . . . 98
5.3 Exercises. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100
6 Systems of Ordinary Differential Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
6.1 A Model Problem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
6.2 The Weak Formulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104
6.3 The Mesh and Basis Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
6.4 The Finite Element Solution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106
6.5 The Algebraic Equations. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
6.6 Assembling the Algebraic Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109
6.7 Computational Implementation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110
6.8 More General Linear Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112
6.8.1 The Weak Formulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113
6.8.2 The Finite Element Solution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114
6.9 Nonlinear Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115
6.10 Exercises. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117
7 Linear Elliptic Partial Differential Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119
7.1 A First Model Problem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119
7.2 The Weak Formulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120
7.2.1 Sobolev Spaces in Two Dimensions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120
7.2.2 Deriving the Weak Formulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121
7.3 The Mesh and Basis Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122
7.3.1 A Mesh of Triangular Elements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122
7.3.2 Linear Basis Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125
7.4 Sets of Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128
7.5 The Finite Element Solution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129
7.6 The System of Algebraic Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130
7.6.1 Satisfying the Dirichlet Boundary Conditions . . . . . . . . 130
7.6.2 Using Suitable Test Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130
7.6.3 The Linear System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131
x Contents

7.7 Assembling the System of Algebraic Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132

7.7.1 Assembling the Entries Defined by Integrals . . . . . . . . . 132
7.7.2 Setting the Entries Defined Explicitly . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135
7.8 Evaluating the Solution at a Given Point . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135
7.9 Computational Implementation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136
7.10 More Complex Geometries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139
7.11 Exercises. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140
8 More General Elliptic Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143
8.1 A Model Problem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143
8.2 The Weak Formulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144
8.3 The Mesh and Basis Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145
8.4 The Finite Element Solution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145
8.5 The Algebraic Equations. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145
8.5.1 Satisfying the Dirichlet Boundary Conditions . . . . . . . . 146
8.5.2 Using Suitable Test Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146
8.5.3 The Linear System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147
8.6 Assembling the Algebraic Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147
8.6.1 Evaluating Integrals Over Ω . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148
8.6.2 Evaluating Integrals Over oΩN . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149
8.6.3 Setting Entries Defined Explicitly . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150
8.7 Quadrature Over Triangles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151
8.8 Computational Implementation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152
8.9 Exercises. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158
9 Quadrilateral Elements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161
9.1 A Model Problem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161
9.2 The Weak Formulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 162
9.3 The Computational Mesh . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 162
9.4 Basis Functions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164
9.5 Sets of Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 166
9.6 The Finite Element Formulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 166
9.7 The System of Algebraic Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167
9.8 Assembling the System of Algebraic Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . 168
9.8.1 Evaluating Integrals Over Ω . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169
9.8.2 Evaluating Integrals Over ΩN . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171
9.8.3 Setting Entries Defined Explicitly . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171
9.9 Quadrature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171
9.10 Exercises. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 172
10 Higher Order Basis Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175
10.1 The Model Boundary Value Problem
and Weak Formulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175
10.2 Quadratic Basis Functions on a Mesh
of Triangular Elements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 176
Contents xi

10.3 The Finite Element Solution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 180

10.4 The Algebraic Equations. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 180
10.5 Assembling the Algebraic Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 181
10.5.1 Evaluating Integrals Over Ω . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 181
10.5.2 Evaluating Integrals Over ΩN . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183
10.5.3 Setting
Entries Defined Explicitly . . . . . . . . . . . . . ................. 184
10.6 Exercises. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ................. 184
11 Nonlinear Elliptic Partial Differential Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189
11.1 A Model Problem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189
11.2 The Weak Formulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 190
11.3 The Mesh and Basis Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191
11.4 The Finite Element Solution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191
11.5 The Nonlinear System of Algebraic Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 192
11.5.1 Satisfying the Dirichlet Boundary Conditions . . . . . . . . 192
11.5.2 Using Suitable Test Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 192
11.6 Assembling the Nonlinear System of Algebraic Equations . . . . . 193
11.6.1 Evaluating Integrals Over Ω . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 194
11.6.2 Evaluating Integrals Over oΩN . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 195
11.6.3 Setting Entries Defined Explicitly . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 196
11.7 Exercises. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 196
12 Systems of Elliptic Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 197
12.1 A Model Problem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 197
12.2 The Weak Formulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 198
12.3 The Mesh and Basis Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 199
12.4 The Finite Element Solution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 199
12.5 The Algebraic Equations. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 200
12.6 Exercises. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 202
13 Parabolic Partial Differential Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 203
13.1 A Linear Parabolic Partial Differential Equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . 203
13.2 A Nonlinear Parabolic Equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205
13.3 A Semi-implicit Discretisation in Time . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 207
13.4 Exercises. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 208
Appendix A: Methods for Solving Linear and Nonlinear Systems
of Algebraic Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 211
Appendix B: Vector Calculus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 227
Further Reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 229
Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 231