Antennas and Radio Wave

Propagations

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2.2 Radiation Pattern
Antenna (radiation) pattern

• A mathematical function or a graphical representation of the radiation properties of the antenna as a

function of space coordinates.
• Determined in the far-field region

Radiation properties

• Power flux density

• Radiation intensity
• Field strength
• Directivity
• Polarization

• The radiation property of most concern is the two- or three dimensional spatial distribution of radiated
energy as a function of the observer’s position along a path or surface of constant radius.

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2.2 Radiation Pattern

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2.2 Radiation Pattern

Amplitude field pattern : A trace of the received electric/magnetic field at a constant radius

Amplitude power pattern : A graph of the spatial variation of the power density along a constant radius

a. field pattern( in linear scale) typically represents a plot of the magnitude of the electric or magnetic field as
a function of the angular space.

b. power pattern( in linear scale) typically represents a plot of the square of the magnitude of the electric or
magnetic field as a function of the angular space.

c. power pattern( in dB) represents the magnitude of the electric or magnetic field, in decibels, as a function
of the angular space.

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2.2 Radiation Pattern

|E|-pattern | E|2 -pattern | E|2 -pattern in dB scale

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 2.2.1 Radiation Pattern Lobes

Various parts of a radiation pattern are referred to as lobes, which may be sub-classified into major or
main, minor, side, and back lobes.
Radiation lobe : portion of the radiation pattern bounded by regions of relatively weak radiation
intensity

Figure 2.3 (a) Radiation lobes and beamwidths of an antenna

3-D polar pattern

Figure 2.4 Normalized three-dimensional amplitude field pattern( in linear scale) of a 10-
element linear array antenna with a uniform spacing of d = 0.25λ and progressive phase
shift β = −0.6π between the elements.

Figure 2.3 (b) Linear 2-D plot of power pattern and its
associated lobes and beamwidths.

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 2.2.1 Radiation Pattern Lobes

• Major lobe (main beam) : The radiation lobe containing the direction of maximum radiation.

• Minor lobe : any lobe except a major lobe.

• Side lobe : Specific types of minor lobes that occur on either side of the major lobe in the radiation pattern.

• Back lobe : Usually it refers to a minor lobe that occupies the hemisphere in a direction opposite to that of
the major(main) lobe.

• Minor lobes usually represent radiation in undesired directions, and they should be minimized.

• Side lobes are normally the largest of the minor lobes.

• The level of minor lobes is usually expressed as a ratio of the power density in the lobe in question to that of
the major lobe. This ratio is often termed the side lobe ratio or side lobe level.

• Side lobe levels of −20 dB or greater are usually not desirable in many applications.

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2.2.2 Isotropic, Directional, and Omnidirectional Patterns
Isotropic radiator
- An isotropic radiator is defined as “a hypothetical lossless
antenna having equal radiation in all directions.
- Ideal, not physically realizable.
- Often taken as a reference for expressing the directive
properties of actual antennas.
Directional antenna
- Focuses energy in a specific direction, enhancing radiation in
that direction while reducing it elsewhere.
- Having the property of radiating or receiving electro-magnetic Isotropic antenna pattern
wave more effectively in some directions than in others.
- This term usually applied to an antenna whose maximum
directivity is significantly greater than that of a half-wave
dipole
Omnidirectional antenna
- Having an essentially non directional pattern in a given plane.
- Having a directional pattern in any orthogonal plane.
- A Special type of a directional pattern.

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2.2.2 Isotropic, Directional, and Omnidirectional Patterns

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2.2.3 Principal Patterns
 For a linearly polarized antenna, performance is often described in terms of its principal
E- and H- patterns
• E-plane : the plane containing the electric-field vector and the direction of maximum
radiation

• H-plane : the plane containing the magnetic-field vector and direction of maximum
radiation
• For this example, the x-z plane (elevation plane; 𝜙 = 0) is the principal E-plane
• The x-y plane (azimuthal plane; 𝜃 = 𝜋∕2) is the principal H-plane.

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2.2.4 Field Regions
 The space surrounding an antenna is usually subdivided into three regions

 Reactive near-field region

- Portion of the near-field region immediately surrounding the antenna

wherein the reactive field predominates.

 Radiating near-field(Fresnel) region

- Region of the field of an antenna between the reactive near-field and the
far-field region.
- Radiation fields predominate.
- Angular field distribution is dependent upon the distance from the antenna.

 Far-field (Fraunhofer) region

- Region of the field of an antenna where the angular field distribution is

essentially independent of the distance from the antenna

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 The measure of a plane angle is a radian.
 One radian - The plane angle with its vertex at the center of a circle of radius r that is subtended
by an arc whose length is r.

C  2 r

A full circle -2π rad (2πr/r)

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 The measure of a solid angle is a steradian.
 One steradian - The solid angle with its vertex at the center of a sphere of radius r that is
subtended by a spherical surface area equal to that of square with each side of length r.

Area of a sphere A  4 r 2

A closed sphere - 4 sr (4 r 2 / r 2 )

 The infinitesimal area dA on the surface of a sphere of radius r,

dA  r 2 sin  d d (m 2 )
 The element of solid angle dΩ of a sphere
dA
d  2
 sin  d d ( sr )
r

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 The quantity used to describe the power associated with an electromagnetic wave is the
instantaneous Poynting vector defined as
W - instantaneous Poynting vector (W/𝑚2 )
W  EH E - instantaneous electric-field intensity (V/m)
H - instantaneous magnetic-field intensity (A/m)

 Poynting vector is a power density, the total power crossing a closed surface can be
obtained
P - instantaneous total power (W)
P 
s
W  ds  
s
W n da n - unit vector normal to the surface
da - infinitesimal area of the closed surface (𝑚2 )

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Time-harmonic variations of the form

E ( x, y , z; t )  Re[ E ( x, y, z )e jt ]
H ( x, y , z; t )  Re[ H ( x, y, z )e jt ]
1 1
Re[ E  H *]  Re[ E  He j 2t ]
1
using, Re[ Ee jt ]  [ Ee jt  E * e  jt ]
2
W  EH 
2 2

 For applications of time-varying fields, it is often more desirable to find the average power density which is
obtained by integrating the instantaneous Poynting vector over one period and dividing by the period
 The time average Poynting vector (average power density)
1
Wav ( x, y, z )  [W ( x, y, z; t )]av  Re[ E  H *] (W / m 2 )
2

It will be shown that the power density associated with the electromagnetic fields of an antenna
in its far-field region is predominately real and will be referred to as radiation density.

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  The average power radiated by an antenna (radiated power) can be written as

   Re(E  H *)  ds
1
Prad  Pav  Wrad  ds  Wav  n da 
2
s s s

The power pattern of the antenna is just a measure, as a function of direction,

of the average power density radiated by the antenna.
Isotropic source
 The total power radiated by an isotropic radiator can be written as
2 
Prad  
s
W0  ds   
0 0
[a rW0 (r )]  [a r r 2 sin  d d  ]  4 r 2W0

 The power density is given by

 P 
W0  a rW0  a r  rad2  (W / m 2 )
 4 r 

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 Radiation intensity - The power radiated from an antenna per unit solid angle.
(far-field parameter)

U  r 2Wrad

U - radiation intensity (W/unit solid angle)

Wrad - radiation density (W/𝑚2 )

 The total power can be obtained by integrating the radiation intensity

2 
Prad  

U d   
0 0
U sin  d d (d   element of solid angle  sin  d d )

Isotropic source
Prad   U d   U  d   4U

0 0

0

Prad
U0 
4
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Beamwidth - The angular separation between two identical points on opposite side of the pattern maximum.

• Half-Power Beamwidth (HPBW) - In a plane containing the direction of the maximum of a beam,
the angle between the two directions in which the radiation intensity is one-half value of the beam.
• A narrower HPBW indicates a more directional antenna, which is useful for long-range
communication
• A wider HPBW covers a broader area but is less directional

First-Null Beamwidth (FNBW) - The angular separation between the first nulls of the pattern.

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Directivity - The ratio of the radiation intensity in a given direction from the antenna to
the radiation intensity averaged over all directions.

U 4 U  Prad 
D   
4 
U 0
U0 Prad 

U U max 4 U max
Dmax  D0  max
 
U0 U0 Prad

Isotropic source
D 1  U ,U max , and U 0 are all equal to each other.

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Figure 2.12 Three-dimensional radiation intensity patterns
.

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- Directivity of an isotropic source = 1
(its power is radiated equally well in all directions)

- All other sources, the maximum directivity will always be greater than 1.
(an indication of the directional properties of the antenna as compared with those of an isotropic source)

- Directivity can be smaller than 1; in fact it can be equal to zero.

- The values of directivity will be equal to or greater than zero and equal to
or less than the maximum directivity.
0  D  D0

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 General Expression of Directivity

B0 - constant
Ex)
E0 and E0 - the antenna's far-zone electric-field components

U max  B0 F ( ,  ) max  B0 Fmax ( ,  )

2 
Prad   U ( , ) d   B  

0
0 0
F ( ,  ) sin  d d

U 4 U U U max 4 U max
using, D  , Dmax  D0  max
 
U0 Prad U0 U0 Prad

F ( ,  ) F ( ,  ) max
D( ,  )  4 2 
D0  4 2 
 
0 0
F ( ,  ) sin  d d  
0 0
F ( ,  ) sin  d d

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 F ( ,  ) max
D0  4 2 
 
0 0
F ( ,  ) sin  d d

4 4
D0   ( A is the beam solid angle)
 2   A

  
0 0
F ( ,  ) sin  d d 

F ( ,  ) max
2  2 
   
1
A  F ( ,  ) sin  d d  Fn ( ,  ) sin  d d
F ( ,  ) max 0 0 0 0

F ( ,  )
Fn ( ,  ) 
F ( ,  ) max
Ω𝐴 - Beam Solid angle is the solid angle through which all the power of the antenna
would flow if its radiation intensity is constant (and equal to the maximum value of
U) for all angles within Ω𝐴

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2.8 Antenna Efficiency
The total efficiency is used to take into account losses at the input
terminals and within the structure of the antenna.

Such losses may be due to

1. reflection because of the mismatch between the transmission line and
the antenna.
2. 𝐼2 R losses (conduction and dielectric)

In general, the overall efficiency can be written as

𝑒0=𝑒𝑟 𝑒𝑐 𝑒𝑑
Where
𝑒0 = total efficiency (dimensionless)
𝑒𝑟 = reflection(mismatch) efficiency (dimensionless)

𝑒𝑐 = conduction efficiency (dimensionless)

𝑒𝑑 = dielectric efficiency (dimensionless)
= voltage reflection coefficient at the input terminals of the antenna
Figure 2.22 Reference terminals Z in  Z 0
and losses of an antenna  , where Zin = antenna input impedance
Z in  Z 0
Zo = characteristic impedance of the transmission line
VSWR = voltage standing wave ratio = 1 |  |
1 |  |

Ususally 𝑒𝑐 and 𝑒𝑑 are very difficult to compute, but they can be determined experimentally. Even by
measurements they cannot be separated, and it is usually more convenient to write as

(2-45)
Where 𝑒𝑐𝑑 =𝑒𝑐 𝑒𝑑=antenna radiation efficiency, which is used to relate the gain and directivity.

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2.9 Gain
Gain of an antenna (in a given direction) is defined as “the ratio of the intensity, in a given direction, to the
radiation intensity that would be obtained if the power accepted by the antenna were radiated isotropically. The
radiation intensity corresponding to the isotropically radiated power is equal to the power accepted(input) by
antenna divided by 4 𝜋
radiation intensity U ( ,  )
Gain = 4  4 (dimensionless) (2-46)
total input (accepted) power Pin

Relative gain is defined as “the ratio of the power gain in a given direction to the power gain of a reference
antenna in its referenced direction. The power input must be the same for both antennas.
The reference antenna is usually a dipole, horn, or any other antenna whose gain can be calculated or it is known.
In most case, however, the reference antenna is a lossless isotropic source.
4 U ( ,  )
G= (dimensionless) (2-46a)
Pin (lossless isotropic source)

High gain
Narrow beam width

𝑏
Gain =eff*𝑎 a b low gain
wide beam width

Antennas with a very high level of gain are very directive. Therefore high gain and narrow beam-width
sometimes have to be balanced to provide the optimum performance for a given application.

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2.9 Gain
According to the IEEE Standards, “gain does not include losses arising from impedance mismatches (reflection losses)
and polarization mismatches(losses).

We define two gains

One, referred to as gain
The other, referred to as absolute gain (𝐺𝑎𝑏𝑠 )

𝑃𝑟𝑎𝑑 = 𝑒𝑐𝑑 𝑃𝑖𝑛 (2-47)

4 U ( ,  )
G ( , ) = (dimensionless)
Pin (lossless isotropic source)
 U ( ,  ) 
= ecd  4  (2-48)
 Prad 
U 4 U
Which is related to the directivity D 
U 0 P rad
F ( , )
D( ,  ) = 4 2 

  F ( , )sin d d
0 0

G ( ,  )  ecd D( ,  ) (2-49)

In a similar manner, the maximum value of the gain is related to the maximum directivity
(2-49a)
G0  G ( ,  ) |max  ecd D( ,  ) | max  ecd D0

G takes into account the losses of the antenna element itself, but does not take into account the losses when the
antenna element is connected to a transmission line.

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2.9 Gain
When the antenna element is connected to a transmission line, connection losses(reflections/mismatch) are taken
into account by introducing a reflection (mismatch) efficiency 𝑒𝑟 is related to the reflection coefficient. er  (1 |  |2 )

Absolute gain takes into account the reflection/mismatch losses

(due to the connection of the antenna element to the transmission line.)

Gabs ( ,  )  er G ( ,  )  (1 |  |2 )G ( ,  ) =er ecd D( ,  )  e0 D( ,  ) (2-49b)

Similarly, the maximum absolute gain 𝐺0𝑎𝑏𝑠 is related to the maximum directivity 𝐷0

(2-49c)

If the antenna is matched to the transmission line, that is, the antenna input impedance 𝑍𝑖𝑛 is equal to the
characteristic impedance 𝑍𝑐 of the line (|  | 0) , then the two gains are equal (𝐺𝑎𝑏𝑠 =𝐺)

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2.9 Gain
Example 2.10
A lossless resonant half-wavelength dipole antenna, with input impedance of 73 ohms, is connected to a
transmission line whose characteristic impedance is 50 ohms. Assuming that the pattern of the antenna is given
approximately by U  B0 sin 3 

Find the maximum absolute gain of this antenna.

Solution

First, compute the maximum directivity of the antenna. For this

U |max  U max  B0
2  
 3 2 
Prad 0 0        0   
4
U ( , ) sin d d 2 B sin d B0 
0  4 
U 16
D0  4 max   1.697
Prad 3

Since the antenna was stated to be lossless, then the radiation efficiency 𝑒𝑐𝑑 =1.
Thus, the total maximum gain is equal to
G0  ecd D0  1(1.697)  1.697
G0 (dB)  10 log10 (1.697)  2.297

Which is identical to the directivity because the antenna is lossless. There is loss factor due to reflection or
mismatch losses between the antenna(load) and the transmission line is not taken into account in the gain.

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2.9 Gain

This loss is accounted for by the reflection efficiency

 73  50 
2

er  (1 |  |2 )  1    0.965
 73  50
 
er (dB)  10 log10 (0.965)  0.155

Therefore the overall efficiency is e0  er ecd  0.965

e0 (dB)=  0.155

Thus, the overall losses are equal to 0.155 dB. The absolute gain is equal to
G0 abs  e0 D0  0.965(1.697)  1.6376
G0 abs (dB)  10 log10 (1.6376)  2.142

The gain in dB can also be obtained by converting the directivity and radiation efficiency in dB and then adding
them. Thus,

ecd (dB)  10 log10 (1.0)  0

D0 (dB)  10 log10 (1.697)  2.297
G0 (dB)  ecd (dB)  D0 (dB)  2.297
Which is the same as obtained previously. The same procedure can be used for the absolute gain.
G0 abs (dB)  e0 (dB)+D0 (dB)  0.155  2.297  2.142

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2.10 Beam Efficiency
Beam efficiency is another parameter that frequently used to judge the quality of transmitting and receiving
antennas. For an antenna with its major lobe directed along the z-axis(θ=0), the beam efficiency(BE) is defined by

power transmitted (received) within cone angle 1

BE  (dimensionless)
power transmitted (received) by the antenna
(2-53)
2 1

  U ( ,  ) sin  d d
BE  0 0
2  (2-54)

0 0
 U ( ,  ) sin  d d
Where θ1is the half-angle of the cone within which
the percentage of the total power is to be found.

If θ1 is chosen as the angle where the first null or minimum occurs, then the beam efficiency will indicate the
amount of power in the major lobe compared to the total power.

A very high beam efficiency (between the nulls or minimums),

is necessary for antennas used in radiometry, astronomy, radar, and other applications where received signals
through the minor lobes must be minimized.

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• 2.11 Bandwidth
• The range of frequencies within which the performance of the antenna, with respect to
some characteristic, conforms to a specified standard.
• For broadband antennas, the bandwidth is usually expressed as the ratio of the upper-
to-lower frequencies of acceptable operation
Ex) 10:1 bandwidth indicates that the upper frequency is 10 times greater than the lower.

• Broadband antennas with BW as large as 40:1 have been designed. Such

antennas are referred to as frequency-independent antennas

• For narrowband antennas, the bandwidth is expressed as a percentage of the

frequency difference (upper minus lower) over the center frequency of the bandwidth.
Ex) 5% bandwidth indicates that the frequency range of acceptable operation is 5% of
the bandwidth center frequency.

Pattern bandwidth Impedance bandwidth

 Directivity/Gain  Input impedance
 Side lobe level  Radiation efficiency
 Beamwidth
 Polarization
 Beam direction

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2.12 Polarization
Polarization of an antenna in a given direction is defined as “the polarization of the wave transmitted (radiated)
by the antenna. (When the direction is not stated, the polarization is taken to be the polarization in the direction
of maximum gain)

In practice, polarization of the radiated energy varies with the direction from the center of the antenna, so that
different parts of the pattern may have different polarizations.

Polarization of a radiated wave is defined as “that property of an electromagnetic wave describing the time-
varying direction and relative magnitude of the electric-field vector.

Specifically, the figure traced as a function of time by the extremity of the vector at a fixed location in space, and
the sense in which it is traced, as observed along the direction of propagation.

(b) Polarization ellipse

Figure 2.23 Rotation of a plane electromagnetic wave and its
polarization ellipse at z=0 as a function of time

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2.12 Polarization

Here is an example of the two waves Ex and Ey viewed in

𝐄𝑥 = 𝐴sin(𝑘𝑧 − 𝜔𝑡 − π/2)ො𝐱 a “fixed time” picture (t = 0):

If we look down the propagation axis in the positive z

direction, the vector E at various locations
(and at t = 0) looks like:
𝐄𝑦 = 𝐴𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑘𝑧 − 𝜔𝑡 𝐲ො

We can see that the tip of E traces out a circle as we follow the wave along the z axis at a fixed time.
Similarly, if we sit at a fixed position, the tip of E appears to trace out a circle as time evolves.

Polarization is the curve traced by the end point of the arrow (vector) representing the instantaneous
electric field.

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2.12 Polarization
The polarization of a wave can be defined in terms of a wave radiated (transmitted) or received by an antenna
in a given direction.

The polarization of a wave radiated by an antenna in a specified direction at a point in the far field is defined
as “the polarization of the (locally) plane wave which is used to represent the radiated wave at that point. At
any point in the far field of an antenna the radiated wave can be represented by a plane wave whose electric-
field strength is the same as that of the wave and whose direction of propagation is in the radial direction
from the antenna.

As the radial distance approaches infinity, the radius of curvature of the radiated wave’s phase front also
approaches infinity and thus in any specified direction the wave appears locally as a plane wave. This is a far-
field characteristic of waves radiated by all practical antennas.

The polarization of a wave received by an antenna is defined as the “polarization of a plane wave, incident
from a given direction and having a given power flux density, which results in maximum available power at
the antenna terminals.

Polarization may be classified as linear, circular, or

elliptical. Linear and circular polarizations are special
cases of elliptical, and they can be obtained
When the ellipse becomes a straight line or a circle,
respectively.

The figure of the electric field is traced in a clockwise

(CW) or counterclockwise (CCW) sense. Clockwise
Rotation of the electric-field vector is also designated
as right-hand polarization and counterclockwise as
left-hand polarization.

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2.12.1 Linear, Circular, and Elliptical Polarizations
The instantaneous field of a plane wave, traveling in the negative z direction, can be written as
 ( z; t )  aˆ x x ( z; t )  aˆ y y ( z; t ) (2-55)

and its components are related to their complex counterparts by

j (t  kz x )
 x ( z; t )  Re[ Ex  e j (t  kz ) ]  Re[ Exo e ]  Exo cos(t  kz  x ) (2-56)
 j (t  kz ) j (t  kz  y
 y ( z; t )  Re[ E y e ]  Re[ E yo e ]  E yo cos(t  kz   y ) (2-57)

Where 𝐸𝑥𝑜 and 𝐸𝑦𝑜 are the maximum magnitudes of the x and y components

A. Linear polarization
For the wave to have linear polarization, the time-phase difference between the two components must be
   y  x  n , n  0,1, 2,3....

B. Circular Polarization
Circular polarization can be achieved only when the magnitudes of the two components are the same and the
time-phase difference between them is odd multiples of π/2. That is,
(2-59)
|  x ||  y | Exo  E yo
 1  (2-60)
  2  n   , n=0,1,2,... for CW
  
   y  x  
  1  n   , n=0,1,2,... (2-61)
  2  for CCW


If the direction of wave propagation is reversed (i.e.,+z direction), the phase for CW and CCW rotation
must be interchanged.

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2.12.1 Linear, Circular, and Elliptical Polarizations
C. Elliptical polarization
Elliptical polarization can be attained only when the time-phase difference between the two components is odd
multiples of π/2 and their magnitudes are not the same or when the time-phase difference between the two
components is not equal to multiples of π/2 (irrespective of their magnitudes). That is,
| x ||  y | Exo  E yo (2-62)
 1 
  2  2n   for CW (2-62a)
  
when    y  x   n=0,1,2,..
  1  2n   for CCW (2-62b)

  2 

(2-63)
n >0 for CW
or    y  x      n=0,1,2,.. (2-64)
2 <0 for CCW

For elliptical polarization, the curve traced at a given position as a function of time is, in general, a tilted
ellipse, as shown in Figure 2.23(b). The ratio of the major axis to the minor axis is referred to as the axial ratio
(AR), and it is equal to (2-65)
major axis OA
AR   , 1  AR  
minor axis OB
1
1/2
 (2-66)
OA   {Exo 2  E yo 2  [ Exo 4  E yo 4  2 Exo 2 E yo 2 cos(2 )1/2 }
2 
(2-67)
1/2
1 
OB   {Exo 2  E yo 2  [ Exo 4  E yo 4  2 Exo 2 E yo 2 cos(2 )1/2 }
2 

The tilt of the ellipse, relative to the y axis, is represented by the angle τ given by
 1  2 Exo E yo 
  tan 1  2 cos( )  (2-68)
2 2  Exo  E yo 2 
 
When the ellipse is aligned with the principal axes [τ=nπ/2, n=0,1,2,..], the major (minor) axis is equal to
𝐸𝑥𝑜(𝐸𝑦𝑜) or 𝐸𝑦𝑜 (𝐸𝑥𝑜) and the axial ratio is equal to 𝐸𝑥𝑜 /𝐸𝑦𝑜 or 𝐸𝑦𝑜 /𝐸𝑥𝑜 .

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2.12.2 Polarization Loss Factor and Efficiency
In general, the polarization of the receiving antenna will not be the same as the polarization of the incoming
(incident) wave. This is commonly stated as “polarization mismatch”.
The amount of power extracted by the antenna from the incoming signal will not be maximum because of the
polarization loss.

The polarization loss can be taken into account by introducing a polarization loss factor(PLF).
Assuming that the electric field of the incoming wave can be written as
Ei  ρ w Ei (2-69)

And the polarization of the electric field of the receiving antenna can be expressed as
(2-70)
Ea  ρ a Ea
ρw
Where is the unit vector of the wave,
ρ a is its unit vector(polarization vector)

PLF is defined, based on the polarization of the antenna

in its transmitting mode

PLF | ρ w ρ a |2 | cos  p |2 (dimensionless) (2-71)

While  p is the angle between the two unit vectors

Figure 2.24 Polarization unit vectors of incident wave
and antenna , and polarization loss factor(PLF)

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2.12.2 Polarization Loss Factor and Efficiency

(a)

(b)

Figure2.25 Polarization loss factors (PLF) for aperture and wire antennas
(a) PLF for transmitting and receiving aperture antenna
(b) PLF for transmitting and receiving linear wire antennas

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2.12.2 Polarization Loss Factor and Efficiency
Another figure of merit that is used to describe the polarization characteristics of a wave and that of an antenna is
the polarization efficiency (polarization mismatch or loss factor) which is defined as “the ratio of the power received
by an antenna from a given plane wave of arbitrary polarization to the power that would be received by the same
antenna from a plane wave of the same power flux density and direction of propagation, whose state of
polarization has been adjusted or a maximum received power. It is expressed as
| le  Einc |2 (2-71a)
pe 
| le |2 | Einc |2
Where 𝑙𝑒 = vector effective length of the antenna
𝑬𝑖𝑛𝑐= incident electric field

Both the PLF and 𝑝𝑒 lead to the same answer

.
Example 2.11
 jkz
The electric field of a linearly polarized electromagnetic wave given by E i  aˆ x E0 ( x, y )e is incident upon a linearly
polarized antenna whose electric-field polarization is expressed as Ea (aˆ x  aˆ y ) E (r ,  ,  )

Find the polarization loss factor(PLF).

Solution
1
For the incident wave ρˆ w  aˆ x , and for the antenna ρˆ a  (aˆ x  aˆ y )
2
The PLF is then equal to 1 1
PLF | ρˆ w  ρˆ a |2 | aˆ x  (aˆ x  aˆ y ) |2 
2 2
which in dB is equal to PLF(dB)  10 log10 PLF (dimensionless)  10 log10 (0.5)  3

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2.12.2 Polarization Loss Factor and Efficiency
Example 2.12
A right-hand (clockwise) circularly polarized wave radiated by an antenna, placed at some distance away from the
origin of a spherical coordinate system, is traveling in the inward radial direction at an angle (θ, Ф) and it is impinging
upon a right-hand circularly polarized receiving antenna placed at the origin (see Figures 2.1 and 17.23 for the
geometry of the coordinate system). The polarization of the receiving antenna is
defined in the transmitting mode, as desired by the definition of the IEEE. Assuming
the polarization of the incident wave is represented by
E w  (aˆ   jaˆ  ) E (r ,  ,  )
Determine the polarization loss factor.

Solution

The polarization of the incident right-hand circularly polarized wave traveling along
The –r radial direction is described by the unit vector
 aˆ  jaˆ  
ρˆ w    
 2 

while that of the receiving antenna, in the transmitting mode, is represented by the
unit vector  aˆ   jaˆ  
ρˆ a   
 2 

Therefore the polarization loss factor is

1
PLF | ρˆ w  ρˆ a |2  |1  1|2  1  0dB
4
Since the polarization of the incoming wave matches (including the sense of rotation)
the polarization of the receiving antenna, there should not be any losses. Obviously
the answer matches the expectation.

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2.12.2 Polarization Loss Factor and Efficiency
The polarization of an antenna in the receiving mode is related to that in the transmitting mode as follows

1. In the same plane of polarization, the polarization ellipses have the same axial ratio, the same sense of
polarization (rotation) and the same spatial orientation.
2. Since their senses of polarization and spatial orientation are specified by viewing their polarization ellipses in
the respective directions in which they are propagating, one should note that

a. Although their senses of polarization are the same, they would appear to be opposite if both waves were
viewed in the same direction.
b. Their tilt angles are such that they are the negative of one another with respect to a common reference.

According to the IEEE Std 145-1983, the polarization of an antenna will almost always be defined
in its transmitting mode.

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 Input impedance

- The impedance presented by an antenna at its terminals.

- The ratio of the voltage to current at a pair of terminals.
- The ratio of the appropriate components of the electric to magnetic fields at a point.

Z A  RA  jX A (2-72)

Z A  antenna impedance at terminals a-b (ohms)

RA  antenna resistance at terminals a-b (ohms)
Z A  antenna reactance at terminals a-b (ohms)

RA  Rr  RL (2-73)

Rr  radiation resistance of the antenna

Figure 2.27 Transmitting antenna and its equivalent circuits. RL  loss resistance of the antenna

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 Z g  Rg  jX g (2-74)

Rg  resistance of generator impedance (ohms)

X g  reactance of generator impedance (ohms)

(Transmitting mode)
Find the amount of power delivered to 𝑅𝑟 for radiation and
amount of dissipated in 𝑅𝐿 as heat.

Figure 2.27 Transmitting antenna and its equivalent circuits. Vg Vg Vg

Ig    ( A) (2-75)
Zt ZA  Zg ( Rr  RL  Rg )  j ( X A  X g )

Vg
Ig  1 (2-75a)

 R R R
  ( X A  X g ) 2 
2 2
 r L g


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 the power delivered to the antenna for radiation
2
1 2 Vg  Rr 
Pr  Ig Rr    (W ) (2-76)
2 2  ( Rr  RL  Rg ) 2  ( X A  X g ) 2 
 

dissipated as heat
2
1 2 Vg  RL 
PL  I g RL    (W ) (2-77)
2 2  ( Rr  RL  Rg ) 2  ( X A  X g ) 2 
 

dissipated as heat on the internal resistance 𝑅𝑔 of the generator

2
1 2 Vg  Rg 
Figure 2.27 Transmitting antenna and its equivalent circuits. Pg  I g Rg    (W ) (2-78)
2 2  ( Rr  RL  Rg ) 2  ( X A  X g ) 2 
 

Maximum power delivered to the antenna when conjugate matching. Rr  RL  Rg (2-79)

X A  Xg (2-80)

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 (when conjugate matching, ( ))

2 2
Vg  Rr  Vg  Rr 
Pr       (W ) (2-81)
2  4( Rr  RL ) 2  8  ( Rr  RL ) 2 

2 2
Vg  RL  Vg  RL 
PL     2
(W ) (2-82)
2  4( Rr  RL ) 2  8  ( Rr  RL ) 

2 2 2 2
Vg  Rg  Vg  Rg  Vg  1  Vg
Pg     2
   (W ) (2-83)
2  4( Rr  RL ) 2  8  ( Rr  RL )  8  Rr  RL  8 Rg
Figure 2.27 Transmitting antenna and its equivalent circuits.

2 2 2
Vg  Rg  Vg  Rr  RL  1 1  Vg*  Vg  1 
Pg  Pr  PL    Ps  Vg I g  Vg 
*

2  2   (W ) (2-85)
(2-84)
8  ( Rr  RL )  8  ( Rr  RL )  2 2  2( Rr  RL )  4  Rr  RL 
 

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 (receiving mode paralles that for the transmitting mode
under conjugate matching( ))

2 2 2
VT  RT  VT  1  VT
PT      (W ) (2-86)
8  ( Rr  RL ) 2  8  Rr  RL  8RT

2 2
VT  Rr  VT  Rr 
Pr     2
(W ) (2-87)
2  4( Rr  RL ) 2  8  ( Rr  RL ) 

2 2
VT  RL  VT  RL 
PL     2
(W ) (2-88)
2  4( Rr  RL ) 2  8  ( Rr  RL ) 

2
1 1  VT*  VT  1 
Pc  VT IT*  VT     (W ) (2-89)
2 2  2( Rr  RL 
)  4  r
R  RL

Figure 2.28 Antenna and its equivalent circuits in the receiving mode.

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(under conjugate matching, ( Rr  RL  RT , X A   X T ) )

2
VT  1 
Pc    (W ) (2-89)
4  Rr  RL 

2
VT  Rr 
Pr    (W ) (2-87)
2 8  ( Rr  RL ) 2 
VT
50% PT  (W ) (2-86) 50%
8 RT VT 
2

RL
PL    (W ) (2-88)
8  ( Rr  RL ) 2 

If the losses are zero (𝑅𝐿 = 0), then half of the captured power is delivered to the load
and the other half is scattered.
The most that can be delivered to the load is only half of that captured and that is only
under conjugate matching and lossless transmission line.

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 The conduction and dielectric losses of an antenna are very difficult to compute.

lumped together to form the 𝑒𝑐𝑑 efficiency

The resistance 𝑅𝐿 is used to represent the conduction-dielectric losses.

conduction-dielectric efficiency (𝑒𝑐𝑑 ) - the ratio of the power delivered to the radiation resistance 𝑅𝑟
to the power delivered to 𝑅𝑟 and 𝑅𝐿
2
1 2 Vg  Rr 
Pr  I g Rr    (2-76)
2  ( Rr  RL  Rg )  ( X A  X g ) 
 Rr 
2 2
2
 
Pr
 ecd    (2-90)
PL 
1 2
RL 
Vg 

2
RL 

Pr  PL  r
R  RL
2
Ig
2  ( Rr  RL  Rg )  ( X A  X g ) 
2 2 (2-77)
 

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 l
Rdc  (ohms) (2-90a) l  metal rod of length
A A  uniform cross-sectional area
  conductivity of the metal

1
   skin depth of the metal
 f 0

If the skin depth 𝛿 of the metal is very small compared to the smallest diagonal of the section of the rod,
the current is confined to a thin layer near the conductor surface. Therefore the high-frequency resistance
can be written, based on a uniform current distribution, as

l l 0 P  the perimeter of the cross section of the rod

R hf  Rs  (ohms) (2-90b)
P P 2 Rs  the conductor surface resistance
  the angular frequency
0  the permeability of free-space
  conductivity of the metal

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An antenna in the receiving mode is used to capture(collect) electromagnetic waves
and to extract power from them.
For each antenna, an equivalent length and a number of equivalent areas can be defined.
Equivalent quantities are used to describe the receiving characteristics of an antenna when a wave is
incident upon the antenna.

Figure 2.29 Uniform plane wave incident upon dipole and aperture antennas.

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The effective length of an antenna is a quantity that is used to determine the voltage induced on the
open-circuit terminals of the antenna when a wave impinges upon it.

e ( ,  )  a l ( ,  )  a l ( ,  ) (2-91)

It is a far-field quantity and it is related to the far-zone field 𝑬𝑎 radiated by the antenna,
with current 𝑰𝑖𝑛 in its terminals.

k  jkr
 a E  a E   j ee (2-92)
4 r

E0  a constant complex vector

E i  E0 e jkr
k  the propagation vector
r  radius vector in any direction defined by the angles  and 

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The effective length represents the antenna in its transmitting and receiving modes, and
it is particularly useful in relating the open-circuit voltage 𝑉𝑜𝑐 of receiving antennas.

the effective length is a vector

Voc  
c
d  e ( ,  )

when taking the maximum value over 𝜃, 𝜙 this becomes

𝑬𝑖 (2-93) Voc  open-circuit voltage at antenna terminals

 incident electric field
e  vector effective length

For linear antennas

e  physical

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 Effective length of a linearly polarized antenna receiving a plane wave in a given direction
- The ratio of the magnitude of the open-circuit voltage developed at the terminals
of the antenna to the magnitude of the electric-field strength in the direction of the
antenna polarization.
- It is used to determine the polarization efficiency of the antenna.

Ex) a small dipole of length and with a triangular current distribution

k le  jkr
 a j sin  (4-36a)
8 r
k  jkr
 a E  a E   j ee (2-92)
4 r
l
e  a sin 
2
Figure 4.4 Geometrical arrangement of dipole and current distribution.

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 Equivalent area - the power capturing characteristics of the antenna when a wave impinges on it
Effective area (aperture) - the ratio of the available power at the terminals of a receiving
antenna to the power flux density of a plane wave incident on the antenna
from that direction, the wave being polarization-matched to the antenna
2 RT Ae  effective area (effective aperture) (m 2 )
PT IT PT  power delivered to the load (W)
Ae   2 (2-94)
Wi Wi Wi  power density of incident wave (W/m 2 )

Effective aperture - the area which when multiplied by the incident power density
gives the power delivered to the load.

VT 2
RT 
Ae    (2-95)
2Wi   Rr  RL  RT 2   X A  X T 2 
 

Figure 2.28 Equivalent circuits in the receiving mode.

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 VT 2
RT 
Ae    (2-95) (when conjugate matching, ( Rr  RL  RT , X A   X T ))
2Wi   Rr  RL  RT 2   X A  X T 2 
 

VT 2
RT  V 2  1 
Aem    T   (2-96)
8Wi   Rr  RL   8Wi
2
 r
R  RL 
 

Scattering area - the equivalent area when multiplied by the incident power density is equal
to the scattered or reradiated power
VT 2
Rr 
As    (2-97)
8Wi   Rr  RL 2 
 

Loss area - the equivalent area which when multiplied by the incident power density leads
to the power dissipated as heat through 𝑅𝐿
VT 2
RL 
AL    (2-98)
8Wi   Rr  RL 2 
 

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Capture area - the equivalent area which when multiplied by the incident power density leads
to the total power captured, collected, or intercepted by the antenna
VT R R R 
2
Ac   T r L
(2-99)
8Wi   Rr  RL  
2
 

Capture area = Effective area + Scattering area + Loss area

Aperture efficiency 𝜖𝑎𝑝 - the ratio of the maximum effective area 𝐴𝑒𝑚 of the antenna
to its physical area 𝐴𝑝

𝐴𝑒𝑚 𝑚𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎

𝜖𝑎𝑝 = = (2-100)
𝐴𝑝 𝑝ℎ𝑦𝑠𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎

𝐴𝑒𝑚 ≤ 𝐴𝑝 or 0 ≤ 𝜖𝑎𝑝 ≤ 1

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Partial effective area of an antenna for a given polarization in a given direction
- the ratio of the available power at the terminals of a receiving antenna to the power flux density of
a plane wave incident on the antenna from that direction and with a specified polarization
differing from the receiving polarization of the antenna

The effective area of an antenna is not necessarily the same as the physical aperture.
uniform amplitude and phase field distributions maximum effective areas  physical areas

nonuniform field distributions effective areas  physical areas

The maximum effective area of wire antennas is greater than the physical area.
(if taken as the area of a cross section of the wire when split lengthwise along its diameter)
the wire antenna can capture much more power than is intercepted by its physical size

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 Rr  80  l   , the incident field is linearly polarized
2
Ex) a very short lossless dipole (𝑙 ≪ 𝜆)
along the axis of the dipole

2  2   V 2 
VT 1  V
A  T RT  1 
 2-96  
Aem     RL  0   em 8Wi
  T
  Rr  RL   8Wi
2  
 Rr  RL 
8Wi  Rr     

VT  El VT  induced voltage on the dipole

E  electric field of incident wave
l  length of dipole
E2
Wi   120 ohms for a free-space medium 
2

Figure 2.29 Uniform plane wave incident upon dipole antennas.  El 2 3 2

Aem    0.119 2
 
8 E 2 2 80 2 l 2  2  8

If  RT  Rr  RL  2 Rr  , the effective area is only one-half of the maximum effective area given above.

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Aem  0.119 2 l  , l   50 

assume l   50
Aem  0.119 2  lwe    50  we
we  5.95 Figure 1.16 Current distribution on linear dipoles.

Typical physical diameters (widths) of wires used for dipoles

wp   300

we 1785 w p

the wire antenna can capture much more power than is intercepted by its physical size

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