DEPARTEMEN SISTEM INFORMASI

Fak. Teknologi Elektro & Informatika Cerdas

ES234422
PEMODELAN & ANALITIKA PREDIKTIF
(PREDICITVE MODELING & ANALYTICS)

Chapter 3
Exploring Data
Prof. Ir. Arif Djunaidy, M.Sc., Ph.D.
arif.djunaidy@its.ac.id
adjunaidy@gmail.com
Learning Objectives & Book Reading
Learning Objectives: To understand how to select the
appropriate preprocessing and data analysis techniques using
summary statistics, visualization, and On-Line Analytical
Processing (OLAP)

Book reading: Daniel T. Larose & Chantal D. Larose, “Data

Mining and Predictive Analytics”, 2nd edition, Wiley, 2015.
[Chapter 3: Exploratory Data Analysis]

Exploring Data Chapter 03 / 2

 Outline
Summary Statistics
Visualization
OLAP & Multidimensional Data Analysis

Exploring Data Chapter 03 / 3

 What is data exploration?
A preliminary exploration of the data to better
understand its characteristics.
• Key motivations of data exploration include
– Helping to select the right tool for preprocessing or analysis
– Making use of humans’ abilities to recognize patterns
• People can recognize patterns not captured by data
analysis tools

• Related to the area of Exploratory Data Analysis (EDA)

– Created by statistician John Tukey
– Seminal book is Exploratory Data Analysis by Tukey
– A nice online introduction can be found in Chapter 1 of the NIST
Engineering Statistics Handbook
http://www.itl.nist.gov/div898/handbook/index.htm

Exploring Data Chapter 03 / 4

 Techniques Used In Data Exploration
• In EDA, as originally defined by Tukey
– The focus was on visualization
– Clustering and anomaly detection were viewed as
exploratory techniques
– In data mining, clustering and anomaly detection are major
areas of interest, and not thought of as just exploratory 
not discussed further in this chapter
• In our discussion of data exploration, we focus
on
– Summary statistics
– Visualization
– Online Analytical Processing (OLAP)
Exploring Data Chapter 03 / 5
 Iris Sample Data Set
• Many of the exploratory data techniques are illustrated
with the Iris Plant data set.
– Can be obtained from:
https://www.kaggle.com/datasets/arshid/iris-flower-dataset
– From the statistician Douglas Fisher
– Three flower types (classes):
• Setosa
• Virginica
• Versicolour
– Four (non-class) attributes
• Sepal width and length
Virginica. Robert H. Mohlenbrock. USDA NRCS. 1995.
• Petal width and length Northeast wetland flora: Field office guide to plant
species. Northeast National Technical Center, Chester,
PA. Courtesy of USDA NRCS Wetland Science Institute.

Exploring Data Chapter 03 / 6

 Summary Statistics
• Summary statistics are numbers that
summarize properties of the data

– Summarized properties include frequency, location

and spread
• Examples: location - mean
spread - standard deviation

– Most summary statistics can be calculated in a

single pass through the data

Exploring Data Chapter 03 / 7

 Frequency and Mode
• The frequency of an attribute value is the
percentage of time the value occurs in the
data set
– For example, given the attribute ‘gender’ and a
representative population of people, the gender
‘female’ occurs about 50% of the time.
• The mode of an attribute is the most frequent
attribute value
• The notions of frequency and mode are
typically used with categorical data
Exploring Data Chapter 03 / 8
 Percentiles
• For continuous data, the notion of a percentile
is more useful.
• Given an ordinal or continuous attribute x and a
number p between 0 and 100, the pth
percentile is a value xp of x such that p%of the
observed values of x are less than xp
• For instance, the 50th percentile is the value
x50% such that 50% of all values of x are less
than x50%

Exploring Data Chapter 03 / 9

 Measures of Location: Mean and Median

• The mean is the most common measure of the

location of a set of points.
• However, the mean is very sensitive to outliers.
• Thus, the median or a trimmed mean is also
commonly used.

Exploring Data Chapter 03 / 10

 Measures of Spread: Range and Variance
• Range is the difference between the max and min
• The variance or standard deviation is the most common
measure of the spread of a set of points.

• However, this is also sensitive to outliers, so that other measures

are often used: Absolute Average Deviation (AAD), Median
Absolute Deviation (MAD), and interquartile range

Exploring Data Chapter 03 / 11

 Visualization
• Visualization is the conversion of data into a visual or
tabular format so that the characteristics of the data
and the relationships among data items or attributes
can be analyzed or reported.
• Visualization of data is one of the most powerful and
appealing techniques for data exploration.
– Humans have a well-developed ability to analyze large
amounts of information that is presented visually
– Can detect general patterns and trends
– Can detect outliers and unusual patterns

Exploring Data Chapter 03 / 12

Example: Sea Surface Temperature
• The following shows the Sea Surface Temperature
(SST) for July 1982
– Tens of thousands of data points are summarized in a single
figure

Exploring Data Chapter 03 / 13

 Representation
• Representation is the mapping of information to a
visual format
• Data objects, their attributes, and the relationships
among data objects are translated into graphical
elements such as points, lines, shapes, and colors.
• Example:
– Objects are often represented as points
– Their attribute values can be represented as the position of
the points or the characteristics of the points, e.g., color, size,
and shape
– If position is used, then the relationships of points, i.e.,
whether they form groups or a point is an outlier, is easily
perceived.
Exploring Data Chapter 03 / 14
 Arrangement
• Arrangement is the placement of visual elements
within a display
• Can make a large difference in how easy it is to
understand the data
• Example:

Exploring Data Chapter 03 / 15

 Selection
• Selection is the elimination or the de-emphasis
of certain objects and attributes
• Selection may involve the choosing a subset of
attributes
– Dimensionality reduction is often used to reduce the
number of dimensions to two or three
– Alternatively, pairs of attributes can be considered
• Selection may also involve choosing a subset of
objects
– A region of the screen can only show so many points
– Can sample, but want to preserve points in sparse areas

Exploring Data Chapter 03 / 16

 Visualization Techniques: Histograms
• Histogram
– Usually shows the distribution of values of a single variable
– Divide the values into bins and show a bar plot of the number of objects
in each bin.
– The height of each bar indicates the number of objects
– Shape of histogram depends on the number of bins
• Example: Petal Width (10 and 20 bins, respectively)

Exploring Data Chapter 03 / 17

 Two-Dimensional Histograms
• Show the joint distribution of the values of two
attributes
• Example: petal width and petal length

Exploring Data Chapter 03 / 18

Visualization Techniques: Box Plots
• Box Plots outlier

– Invented by J. Tukey
– Another way of displaying 90th percentile

the distribution of data

– Following figure shows the
basic part of a box plot 75th percentile

50th percentile

25th percentile

10th percentile

Exploring Data Chapter 03 / 19

 Example of Box Plots
• Box plots can be used to compare attributes

Exploring Data Chapter 03 / 20

 Visualization Techniques: Scatter Plots
• Scatter plots
– Attributes values determine the position
– Two-dimensional scatter plots most common, but can
have three-dimensional scatter plots
– Often additional attributes can be displayed by using
the size, shape, and color of the markers that represent
the objects
– It is useful to have arrays of scatter plots can compactly
summarize the relationships of several pairs of
attributes
• See example on the next slide

Exploring Data Chapter 03 / 21

Scatter Plot Array of Iris Attributes

Exploring Data Chapter 03 / 22

 Visualization Techniques: Contour Plots
• Contour plots
– Useful when a continuous attribute is measured on a
spatial grid
– They partition the plane into regions of similar values
– The contour lines that form the boundaries of these
regions connect points with equal values
– The most common example is contour maps of
elevation
– Can also display temperature, rainfall, air pressure, etc.
• An example for Sea Surface Temperature (SST) is provided on
the next slide

Exploring Data Chapter 03 / 23

Contour Plot Example: SST Dec, 1998

Celsius
Exploring Data Chapter 03 / 24
 Visualization Techniques: Matrix Plots
• Matrix plots
– Can plot the data matrix
– This can be useful when objects are sorted according to
class
– Typically, the attributes are normalized to prevent one
attribute from dominating the plot
– Plots of similarity or distance matrices can also be
useful for visualizing the relationships between objects
– Examples of matrix plots are presented on the next two
slides

Exploring Data Chapter 03 / 25

 Visualization of the Iris Data Matrix

standard
deviation

Exploring Data Chapter 03 / 26

Visualization of the Iris Correlation Matrix

Exploring Data Chapter 03 / 27

 Visualization Techniques: Parallel Coordinates
• Parallel Coordinates
– Used to plot the attribute values of high-dimensional data
– Instead of using perpendicular axes, use a set of parallel
axes
– The attribute values of each object are plotted as a point
on each corresponding coordinate axis and the points are
connected by a line
– Thus, each object is represented as a line
– Often, the lines representing a distinct class of objects
group together, at least for some attributes
– Ordering of attributes is important in seeing such
groupings

Exploring Data Chapter 03 / 28

Parallel Coordinates Plots for Iris Data

Exploring Data Chapter 03 / 29

 Other Visualization Techniques
• Star Plots
– Similar approach to parallel coordinates, but axes radiate from
a central point
– The line connecting the values of an object is a polygon
• Chernoff Faces
– Approach created by Herman Chernoff
– This approach associates each attribute with a characteristic of
a face
– The values of each attribute determine the appearance of the
corresponding facial characteristic
– Each object becomes a separate face
– Relies on human’s ability to distinguish faces

Exploring Data Chapter 03 / 30

 Star Plots for Iris Data

Setosa

Versicolour

Virginica

Exploring Data Chapter 03 / 31

 Chernoff Faces for Iris Data
Setosa

Versicolour

Virginica

Exploring Data Chapter 03 / 32

 OLAP
• On-Line Analytical Processing (OLAP) was
proposed by E. F. Codd, the father of the relational
database.
• Relational databases put data into tables, while
OLAP uses a multidimensional array
representation.
– Such representations of data previously existed in statistics and
other fields
• There are a number of data analysis and data
exploration operations that are easier with such a
data representation.

Exploring Data Chapter 03 / 33

Creating a Multidimensional Array
• Two key steps in converting tabular data into a
multidimensional array.
– First, identify which attributes are to be the dimensions
and which attribute is to be the target attribute whose
values appear as entries in the multidimensional array.
• The attributes used as dimensions must have discrete values
• The target value is typically a count or continuous value, e.g., the
cost of an item
• Can have no target variable at all except the count of objects
that have the same set of attribute values
– Second, find the value of each entry in the
multidimensional array by summing the values (of the
target attribute) or count of all objects that have the
attribute values corresponding to that entry.

Exploring Data Chapter 03 / 34

 Example: Iris data
• We show how the attributes, petal length, petal
width, and species type can be converted to a
multidimensional array
– First, we discretized the petal width and length to have
categorical values: low, medium, and high
– We get the following table - note the count attribute

Exploring Data Chapter 03 / 35

 Example: Iris data (continued)
• Each unique tuple of petal
width, petal length, and
species type identifies one
element of the array.
• This element is assigned
the corresponding count
value.
• The figure illustrates
the result.
• All non-specified
tuples are 0.

Exploring Data Chapter 03 / 36

 Example: Iris data (continued)
• Slices of the multidimensional array are shown by the
following cross-tabulations
• What do these tables tell us?

Exploring Data Chapter 03 / 37

 OLAP Operations: Data Cube
• The key operation of a OLAP is the formation of a data
cube
• A data cube is a multidimensional representation of
data, together with all possible aggregates.
• By all possible aggregates, we mean the aggregates that
result by selecting a proper subset of the dimensions
and summing over all remaining dimensions.
• For example, if we choose the species type dimension
of the Iris data and sum over all other dimensions, the
result will be a one-dimensional entry with three
entries, each of which gives the number of flowers of
each type.

Exploring Data Chapter 03 / 38

 Data Cube Example
• Consider a data set that
records the sales of products at
a number of company stores at
various dates.
• This data can be represented
as a 3-dimensional array
• There are 3 two-dimensional
aggregates (3 choose 2 ),
3 one-dimensional aggregates,
and 1 zero-dimensional
aggregate (the overall total)

Exploring Data Chapter 03 / 39

 Data Cube Example (continued)
• The following figure table shows one of the two dimensional
aggregates, along with two of the one-dimensional
aggregates, and the overall total

Exploring Data Chapter 03 / 40

 OLAP Operations: Slicing and Dicing
• Slicing is selecting a group of cells from the entire
multidimensional array by specifying a specific value
for one or more dimensions.
• Dicing involves selecting a subset of cells by specifying
a range of attribute values.
– This is equivalent to defining a subarray from the complete
array.
• In practice, both operations can also be accompanied
by aggregation over some dimensions.

Exploring Data Chapter 03 / 41

 OLAP Operations: Roll-up and Drill-down
• Attribute values often have a hierarchical structure.
– Each date is associated with a year, month, and week.
– A location is associated with a continent, country, state (province,
etc.), and city.
– Products can be divided into various categories, such as clothing,
electronics, and furniture.
• Note that these categories often nest and form a tree
or lattice
– A year contains months which contains day
– A country contains a state which contains a city

Exploring Data Chapter 03 / 42

 OLAP Operations: Roll-up and Drill-down

• This hierarchical structure gives rise to the roll-

up and drill-down operations.
– For sales data, we can aggregate (roll up) the sales across
all the dates in a month.
– Conversely, given a view of the data where the time
dimension is broken into months, we could split the
monthly sales totals (drill down) into daily sales totals.
– Likewise, we can drill down or roll up on the location or
product ID attributes.

Exploring Data Chapter 03 / 43

 Data Cube Lattice
State, Month,
Color

State, State, Month,

Month Color Color
Drill Roll
Down Up

State Month Color

Total

Exploring Data Chapter 03 / 44

End of Chapter 3