MODULE 3: ORIGINS OF PSYCHOLOGY

Psychology of Parents: Philosophy and Psychology

Historians of psychology usually trace the earliest roots of psychology to two approaches to
understanding the human mind:
• Philosophy: Seeks to understand the general nature of many aspects of the world, in past through
introspection, the examination of inner ideas and experiences (from intro- “inward”/ “within” and
spect- “look”).
• Physiology: Seeks a scientific study of life-sustaining functions in living matter, primarily
through empirical methods.

Philosophical Origin and Greek Philosophers ( Western Approach)

Ancient Greek philosophers believed that everything, including humans, was made up of three basic
elements: water, air, and fire. They also thought that the world is always changing because of
constant contradictory explanations for natural phenomena. They also proposed that everything is
made up of tiny, indivisible particles that interact with the soul to create sensations. This idea was
later supported by the discovery of atoms.

Hippocrates
One of the most important advances in Greek philosophy and science was the separation of the
practice of medicine from religion. Hippocrates, a physician, not only raised the standard of medical
investigation but also developed the code of ethics for physicians. He, like Alcamaeon, emphasized
the significance of the brain in psychological processes and approached the problems of medicine
systematically.
He postulated a theory of “humors” that account for basic human activity. According to him, perfect
health results from the proportionate mixture of these humors. He associated four basic humours
with different temperaments:
1. Sanguine/Blood (Cheerful and Active)
2. Melancholic/ Black Bile (Sad)
3. Choleric/Yellow Bile (Angry and Aggressive)
4. Phlegmatic/ Phlegm (Calm and Passive)

Socrates
Socrates is considered one of the most important ancient philosophers and psychologists. He laid
the groundwork for many who came after him. He was born in 469 BC and died in 399 BC.
According to him, knowledge and truth are found within the mind. To gain knowledge and
understand things, we have to look inside ourselves, rather than seeking answers from external
sources. Socrates also emphasized that knowledge and awareness lead to virtue, and to be virtuous,
we must look within ourselves. He believed that true happiness comes from acquiring honesty, not
from stealing. Socrates thought that the soul is more important than the body and that everything
happens for a reason. He also introduced the Socratic method of teaching, which involves a
dialogue between the teacher and the students to encourage understanding and intelligent
conversation. This method encourages interaction and discourages a one-way flow of information to
help the students better express themselves and understand the material.

Plato
Plato, a pupil of Socrates and an important Greek philosopher was born in 427 BC and died in 347
BC. Following the Socratic tradition, Plato believed that knowledge is innate and within the mind.
This led to the development of the introspective method, which focuses on looking into the mind or
soul for knowledge rather than relying on external observation. Many philosophers and
psychologists later adopted this method.

Plato was an idealist philosopher who believed in the supremacy of ideas. He rejected the idea of
acquiring knowledge through empiricism and observation of facts, arguing that ideas are the true
source of knowledge. According to him, looking into one's ideas can help extract the best solutions
and explanations for encountered problems. He also described the parts of personality as Intellect,
Will, and Appetite.

Plato believed that ideas are eternal, unlike worldly objects which change and die. Therefore, he
emphasized that true knowledge can be gained from ideas rather than observation. He considered
the soul to be permanent, in contrast to the changing nature of the body. Plato suggested that
knowledge could be acquired through the soul or psyche rather than through bodily sensory organs,
which he viewed as a hindrance.

Plato described the soul as having three parts: Reason, located in the head, controls and directs
Passion, located in the chest, and Appetite, located in the stomach. He believed that the soul's
reason functions to control and direct passion and appetite. Passion is the desire to perform a certain
action, while appetite refers to the natural needs of the body, such as hunger and thirst. Plato also
noted that some passions and appetites are satisfied in dreams, a concept later echoed in Freud's id,
ego, and superego. Lastly, Plato established the first-ever university known as the Academy.

Aristotle
Aristotle, a Greek philosopher, born in 384 BC and died in 322 BC, was a prominent figure in the
history of mankind. He was a student of Plato, and while his ideas were influenced by Plato's
thinking, he also presented views that opposed his teacher's. Aristotle wrote a book called "De
Anima," which means "the Soul." As the soul was a primary topic of interest for philosophers and
psychologists at that time, Aristotle is considered to be the first psychologist.
Aristotle rejected the idea of the dualism of soul and body, suggesting that they are not separate but
one entity. He believed that ideas in humans become associated with each other for three reasons:
similarity, contiguity, and contrast.
Similarity refers to the mind's tendency to see similar patterns between two things and relate them
together. Contiguity occurs when two events happen close to each other, allowing a person to
associate them. Contrast means that two opposing ideas can become associated with each other.
According to Aristotle, humans are biological beings whose functions include eating, perceiving,
procreating, thinking, and doing things.
Aristotle disagreed with Plato's views that ideas are eternal and the sole source of knowledge.
Instead, he asserted that true knowledge can only be gained through observation and empiricism,
rejecting his teacher's introspective and subjective method of learning.
He also described two types of human motives: primary motives, which are basic bodily desires
such as hunger, sex, and thirst, and secondary motives, which are learned and become habits of
individuals.

Rene Descartes
His most important work was his attempt to resolve the mind-body problem, an issue that had been
controversial for centuries. He saw the human body as a piece of machinery: intricate and
complicated. He believed that the body is a machine whose operation can be adequately explained
by the mechanical laws of the movement of objects in space.

He recognized no difference between the hydraulically operated figures and the body, and he
explained every aspect of physical functioning (digestion, circulation, sensation, motion and so on)
in mechanical terms. According to his theory of "Interactive Dualism," mind and body are separate
entities influencing each other. However, he argued that the mind can exert a greater influence on
the body than was previously thought.

Nerves are hollow tubes through which "Animal Spirits" conduct "Impulses." He claimed that the
heart was filled with a kind of innate heat. In his book "On Man," he went on to describe how the
pineal gland is moved and shaken by incoming animal spirits. He also added that the animal spirits
are carried down the nerves to muscles; as spirits run into the muscles, they are inflated, thus
causing contraction of the body region.

According to him, messages are transferred to the brain via the animal spirits in the nerves, where
the pineal gland pushes them into those pores leading most directly to the nerves controlling the
movements of the organs.

John Locke
His main contribution to psychology was an essay about human understanding, which he wrote in
1690 after 20 years of study and thought. This work later marked the formal beginning of English/
British Empiricism. Locke initially rejected the idea of innate knowledge, arguing that humans
aren't born with any knowledge. He acknowledged that certain ideas may appear innate to adults
(like the idea of God) because they've been taught these ideas since childhood and can't remember a
time when they didn't know them. Therefore, he explained innate ideas in terms of habit and
learning. He introduced the concept of “Tabula Rasa,” suggesting that people are born with empty
minds, like a blank slate. Locke believed that our ideas and memories are imprinted on our minds
through experiences.

Evolution and Growth of Modern Psychology

The evolution of psychology has seen significant shifts and challenges, particularly against the
backdrop of behaviourism's early dominance. Behaviourism, which focused on observable
behaviour, faced challenges from Sigmund Freud's theories emphasizing the unconscious and
internal processes. In the 1950s, humanistic psychology emerged, advocating for the role of free
will, personal growth, and future goals in shaping behaviour and rejecting Freud's emphasis on
innate aggressive and sexual urges. The cognitive revolution in the 1960s marked a pivotal moment,
renewing interest in cognitive processes such as memory, reasoning, and problem-solving. This
shift was facilitated by advancements in computer technology, which allowed for precise
measurement of reactions and brain activity during cognitive tasks, making previously unobservable
phenomena observable. Modern psychology has expanded to include a wide range of approaches
and perspectives, encompassing all aspects of human behaviour, thoughts, feelings, and
experiences. The field has also become more aware of the importance of the sociocultural context,
acknowledging the dangers of ethnocentrism and androcentrism, and striving for a more inclusive
understanding of behavior. Today, psychology is characterized by a plurality of perspectives and
approaches, reflecting a diverse and eclectic enterprise that continues to evolve and define its
identity and agenda.

Timeline of International Psychology

Early Foundations
1879: Wilhelm Wundt established the first laboratory dedicated to psychological research at the
University of Leipzig, marking the official beginning of psychology as an experimental science.
1890: William James published "The Principles of Psychology," which greatly influenced the
development of psychology in the United States.

Behaviorism:
1913: John B. Watson publishes his famous paper, "Psychology as the Behaviorist Views It,"
advocating for the study of observable behaviour over introspection.
1930s-1940s: B.F. Skinner develops operant conditioning, expanding the behaviourist framework.

Cognitive Revolution:
• The 1950s-1960s: The cognitive revolution begins, with psychologists like Jean Piaget and
Noam Chomsky challenging behaviourism and emphasizing the study of internal mental
processes.
• 1960s: The advent of computer technology allows for more precise research on cognitive
processes, leading to advancements in understanding memory, reasoning, and problem-solving.

Modern Psychology:
• 1970s-1980s: Psychology expands to include various approaches, such as humanistic, cognitive,
and evolutionary psychology, and integrates findings from neuroscience.
• 1990s-Present: The field continues to grow with an emphasis on diversity, cultural sensitivity,
and interdisciplinary research, incorporating insights from social, cultural, and cognitive
psychology.

Timeline of Indian Psychology

Pre-Modern Foundations:
• Ancient India: Indian thought systems, including Vedanta, Mimansa, Samkhya, Yoga, and
others, provide rich insights into the human psyche, focusing on self-realization, spiritual
transcendence, and holistic well-being.
• Vedic and Upanishadic Traditions: Emphasize the connection between individual identity and
universal consciousness, with a focus on the inner-directed discipline to regulate self-processes
and foster harmony.

Colonial Period:
• 1916: Psychology is introduced at the Master's level at Calcutta University with Dr. N. N.
Sengupta, a Harvard-trained scholar, establishing early research foundations.
• 1922: Girindra Shekhar Bose earns the first doctorate in psychology in India, focusing on
repression and initiating communication with Freud. He founds the Indian Psychoanalytical
Society.
• 1925: The Indian Psychological Association was formed, and the Indian Journal of Psychology
began publication in 1926.

Post-Independence Developments:
• 1940s: The Department of Experimental Psychology at Calcutta University is renamed the
Department of Psychology, and an Applied Psychology section is added.
• 1950s-1960s: Psychologists trained abroad bring new perspectives to Indian psychology. The
discipline begins to establish its independent identity, separate from philosophy departments.
• 1970s-Present: There is increased attention to sociocultural contexts, and the discipline addresses
issues such as prejudice, social influence, and mental health. Efforts are made to integrate
indigenous knowledge and address the limitations of Western-oriented perspectives.
Contemporary Trends:
• 1990s-Present: There is a growing emphasis on relevance, cultural appropriateness, and
indigenization in psychology. The field engages with feminist, cultural, and critical orientations,
incorporating local and global concerns to become ‘glocal.'

Psychological Thoughts in Eastern Systems ( Buddhism, Sufism & Yoga)

Eastern philosophies offer a deep and holistic view of the human mind, often dating back centuries
before Western psychology. These teachings explore the nature of consciousness, the mind, and the
self, offering unique insights into human behaviour and well-being.
Unlike Western psychology, which often separates these aspects, Eastern traditions see them as
integral parts of a unified whole. Eastern philosophies value understanding consciousness as the
fundamental ground of existence. These practices are central to many Eastern traditions, believed to
nurture inner peace, awareness, and wisdom. Ultimate goals often go beyond personal happiness,
seeking liberation from suffering or union with a higher reality.

Buddhism
Buddhism is one of the world’s largest religions and originated 2,500 years ago in India.

History
Buddhism is founded on the teachings of Siddhartha Gautama, also known as the Buddha.
According to legend, the Buddha was born as Prince Gautama around 563 BC. In his late 20s,
Gautama left his luxurious life and was suddenly confronted with the harsh realities of human
existence and suffering. On three separate outings, he encountered an elderly man worn down by
life, a person suffering from a serious illness, and a funeral procession carrying a deceased person.
These experiences made Gautama realize that suffering, ageing, and death are inevitable parts of
life, even for those leading happy and prosperous lives. Gautama came to understand that his
current way of life could not provide the solution to the problem of suffering and thus made the
decision to renounce his family and palace and seek a solution through spiritual practice.

Types of Buddhism
Buddhism has evolved into several schools and traditions, each with its interpretations and
practices. The major types of Buddhism can be broadly categorized into the following:
1. Theravada Buddhism:
• Meaning: "The Teaching of the Elders"
• Characteristics: Emphasizes the original teachings of the Buddha and the practice of
meditation for individual enlightenment. It is often considered more conservative and focuses
on the monastic community (Sangha) as the ideal path.
• Regions: Predominantly practised in Sri Lanka, Thailand, Myanmar, Laos, and Cambodia.
2. Mahayana Buddhism:
• Meaning: "The Great Vehicle"
 • Characteristics: Emphasizes the potential for all beings to achieve Buddhahood. It introduces
the concept of the Bodhisattva, an enlightened being who remains in the cycle of birth and death
to help others achieve enlightenment. Mahayana texts and teachings often expand on the
original Pali Canon of Theravada.
• Regions: Predominantly practised in China, Japan, Korea, Vietnam, and Taiwan.
3. Vajrayana Buddhism:
• Meaning: "The Diamond Vehicle" or "Thunderbolt Vehicle"
• Characteristics: Incorporates tantric practices and rituals aimed at achieving enlightenment in a
single lifetime. Vajrayana often involves complex rituals, meditation techniques, and the use of
mantras, mandalas, and mudras.
• Regions: Predominantly practised in Tibet, Bhutan, and Mongolia, as well as in certain regions
of India and Nepal.

Major Concepts
1. The Three Characteristics of Existence
• Impermanence: Everything is constantly changing; impermanence characterizes all things.
Nothing physical lasts forever. Trees, mountains, the sun, the moon, stars—all have a finite
existence and are in flux at any given moment. Impermanence also applies to thoughts and ideas.
The concept implies no final authority or permanent truth and acknowledges that everything is in
a state of constant change.
• Selflessness: The Buddhist notion of impermanence also applies to our innermost self. The
concept of selflessness holds that no immortal soul or eternal self exists in each individual. Our
bodies and personalities are composed of impermanent and constantly changing processes. No
aspect of ourselves goes on forever, and all things lack a separate, undying self.
• Dissatisfaction: Dissatisfaction, or suffering, is the third characteristic of existence. It comes
from ourselves, not from the world around us. Buddhist teachings are designed to help us
transcend our limited sense of self. The Buddha taught that the source of suffering lies within the
individual and concluded that something can be done about humankind’s basic dissatisfaction.

2. The Four Noble Truths

Gautama Buddha formulated the Four Noble Truths as a path to overcoming human suffering:
• The Existence of Dissatisfaction: Suffering or dissatisfaction is an inherent part of life, rooted in
the inner state of the average individual.
• Craving as the Root of Dissatisfaction: Suffering arises from craving or attachment, a powerful
desire for things to be different from what they are. This creates a cycle of dissatisfaction as
fulfilled desires are temporary, and unfulfilled desires cause frustration.
• Elimination of Craving: By eliminating craving, one can extinguish suffering. This does not
mean giving up all desires but adopting an even-minded acceptance of reality, and enjoying
fulfilled desires without becoming attached to outcomes.
• The Eightfold Path: The way to eliminate craving and dissatisfaction is through the Eightfold
Path, also known as the Middle Way. It advocates moderation, avoiding extremes of sense
gratification and self-mortification, to achieve a balanced and fulfilling life. The basic principle is
to avoid ways of thinking and acting that may harm others or injure oneself. The Eightfold Path
consists of three categories: ethical conduct, mental discipline, and wisdom.
• Ethical conduct includes right speech, right action, and right livelihood, all based on universal
love and compassion for all living beings.
• Mental discipline comprises the right effort, right mindfulness, and right concentration.
• Wisdom includes right thought, emphasizing detachment, love, nonviolence, and right
understanding, achieved through deep work with the Four Noble Truths.

Buddhist psychology recognizes two levels of understanding: knowledge and deep understanding,
attained through meditation and freeing the mind from impurities.

3. Meditation
The word "Zen" comes from the Sanskrit term for meditation, "dyha_na," which evolved into
"ch’an" in Chinese and "zen" in Japanese. Meditation is fundamental in Zen, with two major styles:
one focusing on sitting with awareness, and the other on koan.
• Meditation on a Koan:
A koan is a paradoxical question or statement used in the Rinzai school of Zen to challenge logical
thinking and encourage direct insight. Koans are designed to help students go beyond intellectual
reasoning and discover deeper truths within themselves. They are often derived from dialogues
between Zen masters and students. One famous koan is "Mu." Koan's study requires guidance from
a qualified teacher to avoid mere intellectual speculation and to focus on internal understanding.
• Just Sitting:
The Soto school's approach involves simply sitting in meditation without focusing on a koan or any
specific mental exercise. The meditator maintains a state of concentrated awareness, observing
thoughts without attachment or distraction, akin to watching traffic pass by. This practice aims for a
calm and balanced state of mind, free from tension or daydreams.
Zazen, as an act of faith, promotes inner peace, concentration, and balance. Proper practice of zazen
avoids visionary experiences, which are seen as distractions. The goal is not future enlightenment
but to fully experience each moment of life as real and meaningful. Practising zazen is likened to
taking a mental shower, cleansing the mind regularly.

4. Mindfulness
The Zen master Thich Nhat Hanh beautifully explains the practice of mindfulness in daily life. He
says that we should practice meditation while walking, standing, lying down, sitting, working,
washing our hands, washing the dishes, sweeping the floor, drinking tea, talking to friends, or
whatever we are doing. For example, when we're washing the dishes and thinking about having tea
afterwards, we may hurry to finish the task. However, this means we're unable to fully live in the
present moment while washing the dishes. Thich Nhat Hanh emphasizes that when washing the
dishes, our focus should solely be on that activity. We should be completely aware that we are
washing the dishes and recognize it as the most important thing at that moment. This may seem
simple, but it's a profound practice, as it allows us to be fully present and aware in our daily
activities. Thich Nhat Hanh also explains that meditation and mindfulness are connected, with
meditation fostering inner calm and heightened awareness, while mindfulness prepares us to
meditate with a peaceful mind.

5. Enlightenment
Enlightenment in Buddhism is often misunderstood as a permanent state, conflicting with the
Buddhist notion of impermanence. A key concept related to enlightenment is nirvana, a state where
all cravings and desires are extinguished. It represents the extinction of concepts and notions that
prevent direct experience of reality. Nirvana is achieved through self-discipline, meditation, and
understanding impermanence and selflessness.

In Zen Buddhism, two terms associated with enlightenment are satori and kensho. Satori means
"intuitive understanding," while kensho refers to "seeing into one's nature." Both terms describe a
dynamic, ever-evolving state of being, similar to Maslow's concept of self-actualization.
Enlightenment is not a static state to be attained but an ongoing experience of perfect peace and
harmony.

Arhat is an ideal in Buddhism, representing an individual who seeks nirvana, or emancipation from
suffering, through the elimination of craving. The Arhat focuses on achieving inner perfection and
withdrawing from the world. This path emphasizes self-development before helping others, as one
must first overcome personal delusion to be effective in aiding others.

Bodhisattva is the Mahayana ideal, meaning "enlightenment-being." A Bodhisattva is a

compassionate being who vows to remain in the world until all sentient beings are delivered from
suffering. They recognize that true enlightenment involves feeling the sufferings of all beings as
one's own. The Bodhisattva path involves abandoning personal attachments but remaining
committed to the well-being of others.

These two ideals—Arhat and Bodhisattva—are complementary rather than contradictory. The Arhat
focuses on self-discipline, while the Bodhisattva emphasizes service to others. Both are essential for
inner growth and development.
Sufism
Mystical movement within Islam that seeks to find divine love and knowledge through the direct
personal experience of God.

History
Sufism is considered the mystical core of Islam and is believed to have emerged within 100 years
after Islam became a major religious force in the seventh century AD. It is most prominent in the
Middle East and Islamic countries, but its ideas, practices, and teachers can also be found in India,
Europe, and the Americas (Shah, 1964). Sufis are present in virtually all nations worldwide.
Islam, derived from the Arabic word for "peace" or "submission," encompasses three fundamental
meanings: the submission of all creation to its Creator, the submission of human beings to God's
message as communicated through the great prophets, and the submission of Muhammad's
followers to God's guidance as revealed through him. Muhammad received his initial revelation in
AD 610, and the Muslim era dates from 622, the year Muhammad fled from Mecca to Medina.
Islam is detailed in the Quran, its holy book, as the original monotheistic religion revealed
successively to teachers such as Abraham, Moses, and Jesus.
In a sense, Islam provides an outward set of practices that supports the inner practices of Sufism. As
the saying goes, "Sufism without Islam is like a candle burning in the open without a lantern. Some
winds may blow that candle out. But if you have a lantern with glass protecting the flame, the
candle will continue to burn safely" (Ozak, 1987, p. 63). Islam offers a way of life that emphasizes
honesty, charity, service, and other virtues, forming a solid foundation for spiritual practice.

Major Concepts
Sufism is often described as both a path to knowledge and a path to love. Like all forms of
mysticism, it involves experiencing spiritual states beyond our everyday consciousness. Those who
have encountered these states describe them as a deeper knowledge and a profound connection with
truth.

1. Four Stages of Sufi Practice

Ibn ‘Arabi has described four stages of practice and understanding in Sufism—sharia (exoteric
religious law), tariqa (the mystical path), haqiqa (truth), and marifa (gnosis). The last three build
upon the first stage.
First is the sharia, the basic foundation for the next three stages. Shariah consists of the teachings
of Islam the morality and ethics found in all religions. It guides us to live properly in this world.
Trying to follow Sufism without following the Shariah is like trying to build a house on a
foundation of sand. Without an ordered life built on solid moral and ethical principles, Mysticism
cannot flourish.

Second is the tariqa, which refers to the practice of Sufism. Tariqah refers to the practice of Sufism
As Shariah refers to the external dimension of religion, Tariqah refers to the inner practices of
Sufism. The guide you need to find your way is the Sheikh or Sufi Teacher. The Shariah makes the
outer day-to-day life clean and attractive.

Third is haqiqa, or truth. Haqiqah refers to the inner meaning of the practices and guidance found
in the Shariah and Tariqah. It is the direct experience of the mystical states of Sufism, the direct
experience of the presence of God within. Without this experience, seekers follow blindly,
attempting to imitate those who know, those who have attained the station of Haqiqah. The
attainment of Haqiqah confirms and solidifies the practice of the first two stages. Before Haqiqah
all practice is imitation. Without the deep inner understanding that comes from experience, one
follows mechanically the teachings and practices of others.

Fourth is marifa, or gnosis, a deep level of inner knowing, beyond haqiqa. Marifah is superior
wisdom or knowledge of Spiritual Truth. This is a deep level of inner knowing, beyond Haqiqah.
More than momentary Spiritual experience, Marifah refers to an ongoing state of attunement with
God and with Truth. It is the knowledge of Reality, attained by very few. This is the station of the
Messengers, the prophets, and the great sages and saints.

To summarize;
✓ At the level of the law (Shariah) there is "yours and mine." That is, the law
guarantees individual rights and ethical relations between people.
✓ At the level of the Sufi path (Tariqah), "Mine is yours and yours is mine." They are
expected to treat one another as brothers and sisters to open their homes, their hearts,
and their purses to one another.
✓ At the level of Truth (Haqiqah), there is "no mine and no yours." The advanced
Sufis at this level realize that all things are from God, that they are only
caretakers and that they "possess" nothing. Those who realize Truth have gone
beyond attachment to possessions and beyond attachment to externals in general,
including fame and position.✓ At the level of Gnosis (Marifah), there is "no me and no you, At this
final level, the
individual has realized that all is God and that nothing and no one is separate from God.

2. Paths of Sufism
Sufism is a mystical branch of Islam focused on the inner, spiritual aspects of religion. It has no
single path, and its practices include devotion, service, remembrance, and community. These
disciplines support one another and form the core of Sufi life.

• Devotion
Sufism is known as the "path of the heart," emphasizing deep love and longing for God, the
Beloved. Sufi poets like Rumi describe love as transcending reason, knowledge, and normal
consciousness. This love is not sensual but rather a love for all creation, recognizing that all beings
are both loved and loving. The experience of loving God often leads to a sense of being loved in
return, similar to a reciprocal relationship.
• Service:
As love for God deepens, Sufis believe in serving others and recognizing God in every heart.
Service includes acts of kindness and healing the hearts of others. The act of serving others is seen
as essential for one's spiritual journey, emphasizing compassion and humility.

• Remembrance:
Constant remembrance of God, or Dhikrullah, is a central practice. Remembrance can involve
prayer, meditation, chanting, and repetition of the 99 Divine Names of God. Some Sufi orders
incorporate body movements, like the turning of the Mevlevi dervishes, as part of their practice.
• Community:
Sufi groups function like families, with the teacher as the parent and the dervishes as siblings. The
community provides a space to practice patience, compassion, and service, focusing on strengths
rather than weaknesses. Companionship in Sufism is viewed as a mutual journey of support,
bearing each other's burdens and sharing in the spiritual quest.

3. The Self (Nafs)

The Self (Nafs) in Sufism refers to the concept of the self or ego. It is not considered a static entity
but rather a dynamic process that evolves through various stages along the spiritual path. The term
"nafs" encompasses meanings such as "breath," "soul," "essence," "self," and "nature," reflecting its
multifaceted nature. The ultimate goal of Sufism is to transform the nafs from a lower, self-centered
state to a higher, more spiritual state.
The journey of nafs begins with The Tyrannical or Narcissistic Self, also known as the
"commanding self" or "self that incites evil." At this stage, individuals are dominated by selfishness,
a lack of morality, and strong, often unconscious, impulses such as lust and aggression. This level
resembles the id in psychoanalytic theory, where base desires and drives overpower reason and
judgment. People in this state are often unaware of their negative impulses and resist
acknowledging their need for change.
As individuals progress, they reach The Regretful Self stage, where they begin to recognize their
faults and the negative impacts of their self-centred behaviours. This stage is akin to the superego in
psychoanalysis, characterized by self-criticism, self-blame, and moments of repentance. The
struggle between the lower self and the soul becomes evident, and while individuals may have a
growing desire for change, they cannot often significantly alter their behaviour.
The next stage, The Inspired Self, marks a significant shift as individuals start to take genuine
pleasure in spiritual practices such as prayer and meditation. Motivated by compassion, service, and
moral values, they begin to transcend the power of desires and ego. This stage requires careful
guidance, as there is a risk of spiritual inspiration inflating the ego.
The Serene Self stage is characterized by inner peace and the resolution of earlier struggles with
desires and attachments. Individuals at this level display gratitude, trust, and equanimity towards
both benefits and difficulties, indicating a deeper acceptance of life's circumstances. This stage
represents a transition where the ego-self begins to dissolve, allowing for a reintegration with the
universal self.
Reaching The Pleased Self, individuals become content not only with their lot in life but also with
the challenges and trials they face, viewing them as gifts from God. This state is marked by
profound gratitude and a deep love for God, regardless of external conditions.
At the stage of Self-pleasing God, individuals realize that all actions and powers originate from
God, relinquishing all personal desires and fears. They achieve a sense of inner unity and
wholeness, perceiving the world as a unified whole rather than a collection of fragmented parts.
Finally, The Pure Self represents the transcendence of the ego and the realization of complete
union with God. At this level, individuals understand the profound truth that "There is no god but
God," recognizing that all existence is Divine and that any sense of individuality is merely an
illusion. This stage signifies the culmination of the spiritual journey in Sufism, where the self is
entirely dissolved into the oneness of existence.

4. Annihilation and Return

The Sufis describe two advanced states of consciousness—annihilation and return. The first is a
state of union, or annihilation fana in which individual identity seems merged with the whole of
reality. In this state, a person erects no barriers between the self and God because it is clear that no
barriers exist. A person has become like a drop of water that is aware of being part of the ocean or a
column of air that is conscious of the wind.
The second aspect is a state of return, or persistence baqa in which one is part of the world but not
concerned about one’s worldly position or rewards. The awareness of the divine element in all
things is so great that personal issues become secondary to caring for the rest of God’s creation. The
individual is in the world but separate from nothing in it.
In one sense, Sufism is essentially a path of self-transformation ending in fana and baqa. Arasteh
and Sheikh describe the states of fana and baqa in psychological terms. Fana is the disintegration of
one’s narrow self-concept, social self, and limited intellect. Baqa is the reintegration of the Self, or
rebirth as a whole, fully integrated human being.

5. Psychological Growth—Stages of Personal Development

Many Sufi teachers have described different stages in the course of personal development. Each
stage trains or exposes different facets of the student’s character and perception.
1. Initial Awakening: This stage begins when an individual finds the external world unsatisfying
and starts reevaluating their life, often triggered by a personal crisis. The seeker desires change
and engages in self-examination, forgiving those who have wronged them and repenting for
past habits.
2. Patience and Gratitude: At this stage, individuals realize that self-development takes time and
cultivate patience and perseverance. Gratitude becomes essential, with an understanding that
everything, pleasant or painful, comes from God.
3. Fear and Hope: In Sufism, fear refers to a fear of losing God's love, not punishment. Hope
provides the strength to persevere on the spiritual path, believing that small efforts will bring
them closer to God.
4. Self-Denial and Poverty: This involves abstaining from wrong-doing and developing
detachment from worldly desires. Spiritual poverty, or a heart empty of attachments, is
cultivated, leading to a state of simplicity and non-attachment.
5. Trust in God: Sufis place complete trust in God, acknowledging that while human effort is
necessary, success ultimately depends on God's grace. This trust is deep, akin to the reliance of
a child on a mother.
6. Love, Yearning, Intimacy, and Satisfaction: The focus shifts entirely to loving God, with the
realization that this has always been the primary desire. Satisfaction comes from a deep sense of
intimacy with God and acceptance of all experiences.
7. Intent, Sincerity, and Truthfulness: The importance of sincere intentions is emphasized, with
the belief that intention gives meaning to actions, regardless of the outcome.
8. Contemplation and Self-Examination: Similar to practices in Yoga and Buddhism, this stage
involves clearing the mind and deep contemplation, seen as more valuable than years of prayer.
9. The Recollection of Death: Contemplating death helps release undesirable habits and attitudes.
It brings awareness to the present and can lead to personal growth, as it reminds individuals of
the transient nature of life.

Obstacles to Growth
In addition to the lower self (nafs), a major obstacle to growth is our heedlessness. Heedlessness, or
forgetfulness, is a significant obstacle to personal growth. It exaggerates other limitations and
prevents individuals from fully awakening to their true state. Sufi teachings emphasize the need to
become aware of one's predicament, likening our current waking state to a form of sleep or hypnotic
trance. According to Orage (1965), the first sign of waking up is recognizing that our perception of
reality is distorted, much like realizing one is dreaming during a night-dream. Harman (1967) adds
that from infancy, we are influenced to perceive the world in a certain way, rather than seeing it as it
truly is. Overcoming heedlessness begins with becoming aware of it, whether it manifests in
everyday forgetfulness, like misplacing glasses, or in more profound disorientation, as illustrated by
Norbert Weiner's inability to remember his direction at MIT. The key to growth is waking up from
this state of partial awareness.
Yoga
Yoga is a Sanskrit word meaning “to join” or “to unite.” The goal of Yoga practice is self-
realization.

History
The origins of Yoga date back to ancient times, before 2500 BC, within the pre-Hindu culture of
India. Yoga is an essential part of the diverse Hindu tradition, which encompasses a wide range of
traditions and sacred texts, all based on the Vedas. One of the most well-known works on Yoga is
the Bhagavad Gita (Mascaro, 1962), which is part of the Indian epic Mahabharata from the 2nd
century BC. The epic is a comprehensive collection of mythology, religion, ethics, and customs,
consisting of about 100,000 stanzas. The Bhagavad Gita serves as a dialogue between Arjuna (the
ego) and Krishna (the Self) metaphorically. Arjuna represents a warrior, and Krishna, his charioteer,
is an incarnation of God and a revered spiritual teacher. The text discusses duty and the Yoga of
Action, emphasizing the importance of devotion, self-control, meditation, and other yogic practices
as an example for others. Symbolically, Krishna, as the charioteer, represents the role of a guru or
spiritual teacher, guiding students through the challenges and conflicts encountered during spiritual
development. Nonetheless, the teacher, similar to the charioteer, cannot fight the battles for the
students.

Major Concepts
1. Three Principles of Creation
In Yoga, the universe is composed of three primary principles or gunas: tamas (inertia), rajas
(activity), and sattva (clarity). These gunas interact to create all activity. For example, in sculpting a
statue, tamas is the inert stone, rajas is the act of carving, and sattva is the sculptor's vision.
Individuals typically have a dominant guna, with sattva being the most spiritual. Yoga aims to
increase sattvic qualities to enhance Self-realization. Foods and environments can be classified by
their guna, influencing our mental and spiritual state.
A. Consciousness
Consciousness (Chitta) in Yoga encompasses all mental processes. Patanjali defines Yoga as the
control of the mind's activities, aiming to calm the incessant mental chatter. The ultimate goal is to
achieve a deep state of inner peace and self-awareness. Yoga practices, whether focusing on the
body, breathing, or meditation, are designed to still the mind and facilitate awareness of the Self.
B. Karma
Karma refers to actions and their consequences, influencing one's life through past actions. To avoid
reinforcing negative subconscious tendencies, a yogi practices self-discipline and positive actions.
By transforming negative emotions into positive ones and changing consciousness through Yoga
practice, individuals can alter their subconscious tendencies and achieve long-term positive change.
C. Subconscious Tendencies
Subconscious tendencies (samskaras) are mental patterns formed by past actions and experiences.
Yoga seeks to reform these tendencies through meditation and self-analysis, transforming old habits
and mental patterns. This approach aligns with and extends beyond modern psychological concepts
of the unconscious, offering techniques for complete inner transformation.

2. Schools of Yoga
Several major schools of Yoga emerged in India, each suiting a particular personality.
a. Karma-Yoga (Yoga of Action)
Focuses on selfless action and serving others without attachment to outcomes. Suitable for those
with a strong will and a desire to act according to high ideals. Emphasizes overcoming selfishness,
laziness, and pride through disciplined action.

b. Jnana-Yoga (Yoga of Knowledge)

Centres on self-analysis and discrimination to understand the forces of delusion and achieve a deep
understanding of reality. Ideal for those with a keen intellect and a desire to explore the nature of
existence. Practices include Self-inquiry and the pursuit of knowledge beyond the superficial.

c. Bhakti-Yoga (Yoga of Devotion)

Focuses on love and devotion to transform one’s personality and connect with the Divine. Suitable
for those with a strongly emotional nature. Practices include ritual worship, chanting, and devotion
to deities or divine figures.

d. Hatha-Yoga (Yoga of the Body)

Aims to purify and strengthen the body to support advanced meditation and higher consciousness.
Involves postures (asanas), breathing exercises, and other physical disciplines. Emphasizes
balancing physical health with mental and spiritual growth.

e. Mantra-Yoga (Yoga of Sound)

Uses the repetition of sacred sounds or phrases (mantras) to achieve a meditative state and attune to
universal vibrations. Includes the use of mantras like "Om" to enhance concentration and spiritual
alignment.

f. Kundalini-Yoga (Yoga of Subtle Energy)

Focuses on awakening and controlling the latent kundalini energy at the base of the spine. Involves
meditation, visualization, breathing exercises, and purification techniques. Aims to induce
significant physical, psychological, and spiritual changes through the rise of kundalini energy.

3. Chakras
The three primary energy channels in the spine are sushumna, ida, and pingala. The sushumna,
central and vertical, is the path for ascending kundalini energy. Ida (left) and pingala (right) spiral
around sushumna in a helical manner, symbolizing the moon and the sun, respectively. Most
people's vital energy (prana) flows through ida and pingala due to external focus.
Through meditation, energy is directed into the sushumna, activating the dormant kundalini, which
ascends through the chakras, leading to states of higher consciousness, including samadhi
(illumination). The seven chakras are:
1. Muladhara (Base of spine): Associated with earth, stability, strength, and smell. It is the
dormant Kundalini’s location.
2. Svadisthana (Below navel): Linked to water, creativity, fertility, and taste.
3. Manipura (Navel area): Related to fire, personal power, and sight.
4. Anahata (Heart): Connected to air, love, touch, and transcendental sound.
5. Vishuddha (Throat): Associated with ether, communication, and hearing.
6. Ajna (Between eyebrows): Governs intuition, cognition, and individuality.
7. Sahasrara (Top of head): Represents enlightenment and connection to universal
consciousness.
Activation and stimulation of these chakras through kundalini awakening lead to higher states of
awareness and spiritual illumination.

4. Eight Limbs of Yoga

Raja-yoga, or royal yoga, emphasizes the development of mental control as the most effective and
efficient discipline. Patanjali’s raja- yoga has been called “psychological Yoga.” Some consider it a
combination of all the schools of Yoga. Some see raja-yoga as one of the major Yoga schools, and
others recognize Patanjali’s work as the source of all classical Yoga The eight limbs of Yoga as
outlined by Patanjali in Raja-Yoga are sequential stages for achieving self-realization and mental
control:
1. Abstentions (Yama): These are moral guidelines, including nonviolence, truthfulness,
nonstealing, chastity, and non-greed, forming the ethical foundation for practice.
2. Observances (Niyama): These include purity, austerity, contentment, self-study, and
devotion, which cultivate personal discipline and spiritual growth.
3. Postures (Asana): Physical poses that promote stability and comfort in the body, essential
for prolonged meditation.
4. Vital Energy Control (Pranayama): Techniques to regulate and control vital energy
(prana) through breath control and other practices, enhancing overall vitality and focus.
5. Interiorization (Pratyahara): The process of withdrawing attention from external stimuli,
turning the focus inward to calm and centre the mind.
6. Concentration (Dharana): The ability to focus the mind on a single object or point,
essential for deepening meditation.
7. Meditation (Dhyana): Advanced practice where the mind is fully absorbed in a single
thought or object, leading to deeper states of awareness.
8. Illumination (Samadhi): The ultimate state of Yoga, characterized by profound unity and
self-realization, where the sense of separation dissolves, leaving pure consciousness.
These limbs are interrelated, with progress in one supporting growth in the others, guiding
practitioners from ethical living to profound spiritual enlightenment.
Obstacles to Growth
Patanjali identifies five major afflictions that cause suffering: ignorance, egoism, desire,
aversion, and fear. These afflictions have gross forms (active thought waves) and subtle forms
(deep-seated subconscious tendencies).
1. Ignorance is the root cause of suffering, stemming from a mistaken identity with the
perishable world rather than recognizing the imperishable Self. It leads to misattribution of
qualities and a lack of self-awareness.
2. Egoism arises from identifying the Self with the body and mind, creating a sense of
limitation and restlessness. This identification fosters fear and emotional turbulence.
3. Desire and Aversion involve longing for pleasure and recoiling from pain, respectively.
They bind individuals to the fluctuating external world and hinder inner peace. Yoga aims to
transcend these attachments by cultivating control over reactions rather than being
controlled by them.
4. Fear, especially the fear of death, is rooted in identifying with the temporary body rather
than the eternal Self. This fear underpins many of our desires and aversions.
Yoga disciplines, including austerity, self-control, scriptural study, and devotion, gradually weaken
these afflictions and strengthen opposing subconscious tendencies, ultimately leading to
enlightenment.