Department of Physics | Faculty of Exact and Applied Sciences | University of N’Djamena-Chad

2023-2024 Academic Year

Scientific English for 3rd Year Students

READING COMPREHENSION
Text 1. What Brings about Changes in Science?
(1) Einstein published three major scientific papers. One of these put forward a new way of
calculating the size of molecules. Another explained Brownian motion, the random dance
performed by specks of dust trapped in a fluid. Einstein suggested that the tiny particles
making up the fluid, its atoms or molecules were bouncing against the specks of dust
and causing the motion. These papers helped to establish the reality of atoms and
molecules. Another of Einstein’s 1905 papers explained the photoelectric effect, the way
that metals could emit electrons (tiny charged particles) from their surface when light was
shone on them. Most scientists believed that light travelled in waves like sound or water
waves. But Einstein suggested that the photoelectric effect could be explained if light could
also behave as a stream of tiny packets of energy.
(2) Einstein’s paper on the photoelectric effect helped give birth to quantum theory, and it
was for this paper that Einstein received the Nobel Prize in 1922. Quantum theory led, in the
1920s and 1930s, to another revolution in physics. Physicists showed that, as well as light
waves behaving like particles, particles could sometimes act as waves. This theory
established “objective probability” in physics. This was the idea that completely unpredictable
chance events can take place at the subatomic level. Einstein never fully accepted the
prevalent interpretation of quantum theory. But, while many of these interpretations involve
wild metaphysical flights of fancy, the physical results are, like those of relativity, very well
established.
(3) Marrying together the two pillars of 20th century physics relativity and quantum theory is a
central problem for physics even today. Successfully doing this may require a
revolution in science similar to those begun by Newton and Einstein. There are three main
interconnected driving forces for such changes in science. The first is the development of
technology. Changes in technology can make new experiments possible and they also
influence the problems that scientists develop an interest in. Newton was fascinated by the
new machines of the 17th century. Similarly, Einstein was fascinated by electricity and
magnetism. This influence also works in a negative way. The governments and
multinationals that control technology are often able to dictate what is researched.
(4) The second factor driving scientific progress is the way that the dominant ideas in society
change. Ideas from the broader culture can impinge upon science. Newton’s ideas were part
of a revolutionary new attempt at a rational explanation of both nature and society. On the
other hand, the dominant ideas in society can also limit the development of science. This is
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Lecturer: Dr. Douksouna Youmma, (Ph.D.) Molecular Biology and Biotechnology, Mycologist
most obvious in the social sciences, where delving too deeply into how society is organized
might raise difficult questions for our rulers. Less is at stake in the natural sciences. Indeed,
improvements in natural sciences are vital to our rulers if they want to compete effectively
with each other. But the distorted worldview of capitalism still impacts on science. Extremely
narrow and specialized bodies of knowledge develop creating problems for scientists trying
to bring about the kind of sweeping revolution heralded by Einstein.
(5) Finally, science moves forward because scientists seek to develop logically consistent
theories. This can push them beyond the dominant or commonsense ideas of their time.
Einstein’s breakthrough cannot be reduced simply to changes in technology or wider cultural
and ideological shifts. Science is not simply the gathering and ordering of data about the
outside world. It also requires abstraction developing theories about the underlying laws of
nature that are usually not immediately apparent. This crucial role of theory is not just a
feature of the natural sciences.
(6) Einstein argued that “common sense is the prejudices acquired by age 18”. Marxist
theory, which is a social science topic, challenges “common sense” political ideas. If we,
according to this theory want to change the world, we need to combine our actions with theory
that digs below the surface appearance of society to understand how the system
works.

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Lecturer: Dr. Douksouna Youmma, (Ph.D.) Molecular Biology and Biotechnology, Mycologist
 Department of Physics | Faculty of Exact and Applied Sciences | University of N’Djamena-Chad
2023-2024 Academic Year
Scientific English for 3rd Year Students

Text 2. GRAVITY
Sir Isaac Newton was a physicist and mathematician who discovered the gravity of nature’s
powers while researching. An apple inadvertently fell on his head as he was lightening up under
the oak. He began to question at that moment about the natural force that drew the apple toward
the ground. He assumed this is the force that keeps the moon on its orbit and helps the earth
function properly. He called that force 'gravity' and he explained the gravity influence on all
objects.
Universe formation extends beyond human rationality, creativity, and imagination.
Understanding how it (universe) functions, moves and changes over time is subtle. In the past,
the celebrated scientists made an outstanding effort to explain the universe, and yet it persists
in the present. Isaac Newton is the first person to think about Gravity and everyone knows an
apple is falling from the tree. The advent of the ‘‘Gravity Theory’’ has stated that gravity
influences everything in the universe. Consequently, in his "The Treatise of Human Nature,"
David Hume is another man who believed that 'scientific concepts should be based on
experience and evidence rather than on reason alone.' He also indicated that time doesn’t occur
separately from object movement.
These philosophers lead to the study of relativity, Einstein himself wrote, "It is very possible
that I would not have arrived at this solution without these philosophical studies." As a result
of these ideas Albert Einstein has developed a new theory on two principles. First, he said, ‟for
all observers, the laws of physics appear the same. Secondly, he calculated the speed of light
remaining unchanged. The ultimate formation of relativity theory has emerged and he said time-
space is one continuum; therefore, time and space cannot be separated from each other. For this
Einstein describes that gravity falls in relative terms. Hence, he said gravity bends light and the
mathematical phenomena called ‘‘Gravitational Lansing’’ emerges there.
LIGHT- EMITTING DIODE (LED)
A light-emitting diode (LED) is a semiconductor light source that emits light when current
flows through it. Electrons in the semi-conductor recombine with electron holes, releasing
energy in the form of photons. The color of the light (corresponding to the energy of the
photons) is determined by the energy required for electrons to cross the band gap of the
semiconductor. White light is obtained by using multiple semiconductors or a layer of light-
emitting phosphor on the semiconductor device.

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Lecturer: Dr. Douksouna Youmma, (Ph.D.) Molecular Biology and Biotechnology, Mycologist
Appearing as practical electronic components in 1962, the earliest LEDs, emitted low- intensity
infrared (IR) light. Infrared LEDs are used in remote-control circuits, such as those used with
a wide variety of consumer electronics. The first visible-light LEDs were of low intensity and
limited to red. Modern LEDs are available across the visible, ultraviolet (UV), and infrared
wavelengths, with the high light output.
Early LEDs were often used as indicator lamps, replacing small incandescent bulbs, and in
seven-segment displays. Recent developments have produced high-output white light LEDs
suitable for room and outdoor area lighting. LEDs have led to new displays and sensors, while
their high switching rates are useful in advanced communications technology. The first white
LEDs were expensive and inefficient. However, the light output of LEDs has increased
exponentially. The latest research and development has been propagated by Japanese
manufacturers such as Panasonic, and Nichia, and by Korean and Chinese manufacturers such
as Samsung, Kingsun, and others. This trend in increased output has been called Haitz‟s law
after Dr. Roland Haitz. Light output and efficiency of blue and near-ultraviolet LEDs rose and
the cost of reliable devices fell. This led to relatively high-power white-light LEDs for
illumination, which are replacing incandescent and fluorescent lighting. Experimental white
LEDs have been demonstrated to produce 303 lumens per watt of electricity (Im/w); some can
last up to 10,000 hours. However, commercially available LEDs have an efficiency of up to
223 Im/w. Compared to incandescent bulbs, this is a huge increase in electrical efficiency, and
even though LEDs are more expensive to purchase, the overall cost is significantly cheaper
than that of incandescent bulbs.

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Lecturer: Dr. Douksouna Youmma, (Ph.D.) Molecular Biology and Biotechnology, Mycologist
 Department of Physics | Faculty of Exact and Applied Sciences | University of N’Djamena-Chad
2023-2024 Academic Year
Scientific English for 3rd Year Students

Text 3. Early History of Physics

Historically science has its roots in people’s efforts to understand and explain the world and the
universe around them. They wanted to feel some degree of control of their lives or at least be
able to explain what was going on and why. Their interest was born of concern and fear as well
as curiosity. The early history of man involves very little ability to investigate more than could
be observed with senses. Many people attributed phenomena they couldn’t understand to the
presence or actions of gods. Others didn’t accept the myths on faith, but chose to investigate
further.
The study of mathematics and the sciences, particularly astronomy and physics began in the
major centres of ancient civilizations. Alexandria was one of such centres where the
mathematician and inventor Archimedes designed various practical mechanical devices, such
as levers and screws, and measured the density of solid bodies by submerging them in a liquid.
Some famous Greek philosophers such as Socrates, Plato and Aristotle had a very significant
impact on the development of western civilization as a whole and on science in particular.
Aristotle viewed the process of learning as one of observation and thinking, but he would not
conduct experimentation. Experimentation was not something he supported in his ideas about
how to find the answers to questions.
It wasn’t until the beginning of the Renaissance that humankind realized that experimentation
and observation were equally important. The advent of modern science followed the
Renaissance and was inspired by the highly successful attempt by several outstanding
individuals to interpret the behaviour of the heavenly bodies during the 16th and 17th centuries.
The Polish natural philosopher Nicolaus Copernicus introduced the heliocentric system
claiming that the planets move around the sun. He was convinced, however, that the planetary
orbits were circular.
Some time later after heroic seven-year efforts to more accurately model the motion of the
planet Mars, Johannes Kepler concluded that the planets follow not circular but elliptical orbits
with the Sun at one focus of the ellipse. This breakthrough overturned a millennium of dogma
based on Ptolemy’s idea of ‘perfect’ circular orbits for the ‘perfect’ heavenly bodies. Kepler
also proposed the first known model of planetary motion in which a force emanating from the
Sun deflects the planets from their ‘natural’ motion, causing them to follow curved orbits.
When Galileo Galilei heard of the invention of the telescope, he constructed one of his own in
1609. By observing the phases of the planet Venus he confirmed the heliocentric system. He
also discovered the surface irregularities of the moon, the four brightest satellites of Jupiter,
sunspots and many stars in the Milky Way. During the early 17th century, Galileo pioneered
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Lecturer: Dr. Douksouna Youmma, (Ph.D.) Molecular Biology and Biotechnology, Mycologist
the use of experimentation to validate physical theories, which is the key idea in modern
scientific method. Galileo’s interests were not limited to astronomy; he also demonstrated that
bodies of different weight fall at the same rate, and that their speed increases uniformly with
the time of fall. Galileo’s astronomical discoveries and his work in mechanics foreshadowed
the work of the 17th century English mathematician and physicist Sir Isaac Newton, one of the
greatest scientists who ever lived.

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Lecturer: Dr. Douksouna Youmma, (Ph.D.) Molecular Biology and Biotechnology, Mycologist