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Unit 1: Classification of signals and systems

Signal
Signal is one that carries information and is defined as a physical quantity that varies
with one or more independent variable.
Example: Music, speech

Classification of signals
Analog and Digital signal

Analog signal:
A signal that is defined for every instants of time is known as analog signal. Analog
signals are continuous in amplitude and continuous in time. It is denoted by x(t). It is also called
as Continuous time signal. Example for Continuous time signal is shown in Fig 1.1

Amplitude Sine Wave

time 0 1 0 1 0 0 1 0

Fig 1.2 Digital Signal

Fig 1.1 Continuous time signal

Digital signal:
The signals that are discrete in time and quantized in amplitude is called digital signal
(Fig 1.2)

Continuous time and discrete time signal

Continuous time signal:

A signal that is defined for every instants of time is known as continuous time signal.
Continuous time signals are continuous in amplitude and continuous in time. It is denoted by
x(t) and shown in Fig 1.1

Discrete time signal:

A signal that is defined for discrete instants of time is known as discrete time signal.
Discrete time signals are continuous in amplitude and discrete in time. It is also obtained by
sampling a continuous time signal. It is denoted by x(n) and shown in Fig 1.3

1
 Fig 1.3 Discrete time signal

Even (symmetric) and Odd (Anti-symmetric) signal

Continuous domain:
Even signal:
A signal that exhibits symmetry with respect to t=0 is called even signal
Even signal satisfies the condition 𝑥(𝑡) = 𝑥(−𝑡)

Odd signal:
A signal that exhibits anti-symmetry with respect to t=0 is called odd signal
Odd signal satisfies the condition 𝑥(𝑡) = −𝑥(−𝑡)
Even part 𝒙𝒆(𝒕) and Odd part 𝒙𝟎(𝒕) of continuous time signal 𝒙 𝒕 :
Even part 𝑥𝑒 𝑡 = 1 [𝑥 2𝑡 + 𝑥 −𝑡 ]
Odd part 𝑥𝑜 𝑡 = 1 [𝑥 2𝑡 − 𝑥 −𝑡 ]

Discrete domain:
Even signal:
A signal that exhibits symmetry with respect to n=0 is called even signal
Even signal satisfies the condition 𝑥(𝑛) = 𝑥(−𝑛).

Odd signal:
A signal that exhibits anti-symmetry with respect to n=0 is called odd signal Odd signal
satisfies the condition 𝑥(𝑛) = −𝑥(−𝑛).
Even part 𝒙𝒆(𝒏) and Odd part 𝒙𝟎(𝒏) of discrete time signal 𝒙 𝒏 :

Even part 𝑥𝑒 𝑛 = 1 [𝑥 2𝑛 + 𝑥 −𝑛 ]
Odd part 𝑥𝑜 𝑛 = 1 [𝑥 2𝑛 − 𝑥 −𝑛 ]

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Periodic and Aperiodic signal
Periodic signal:
A signal is said to periodic if it repeats again and again over a certain period of time.

Aperiodic signal:
A signal that does not repeat at a definite interval of time is called aperiodic signal.

Continuous domain:
A Continuous time signal is said to periodic if it satisfies the condition
𝑥 𝑡 = 𝑥 𝑡 + 𝑇 𝑤𝑕𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑇 𝑖𝑠 𝑓𝑢𝑛𝑑𝑎𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑜𝑑

If the above condition is not satisfied then the signal is said to be aperiodic
Fundamental time period 𝐓 = 𝟐𝛑, where Ω is fundamental angular frequency in rad/sec
Ω

Discrete domain:
A Discrete time signal is said to periodic if it satisfies the condition
𝑥 𝑛 = 𝑥 𝑛 + 𝑁 𝑤𝑕𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑁 𝑖𝑠 𝑓𝑢𝑛𝑑𝑎𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑜𝑑

If the above condition is not satisfied then the signal is said to be aperiodic
Fundamental time period 𝐍 = 𝟐𝛑𝐦, where ω is fundamental angular frequency in rad/sec, 𝑚 is
𝛚
smallest positive integer that makes N as positive integer

Energy and Power signal

Energy signal:
The signal which has finite energy and zero average power is called energy signal. The
non periodic signals like exponential signals will have constant energy and so non periodic
signals are energy signals.
i.e., For energy signal, 0 < 𝐸 < ∞ 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑃 = 0
For Continuous time signals,
𝑇
𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝐸 = lim |𝑥 𝑡 |2𝑑𝑡
𝑇→∞ −𝑇

For Discrete time signals,

𝑁
𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝐸 = lim 𝑥(𝑛) 2
𝑁→∞
𝑛=−𝑁
Power signal:
The signal which has finite average power and infinite energy is called power signal. The
periodic signals like sinusoidal complex exponential signals will have constant power and so
periodic signals are power signals.
i.e., For power signal, 0 < 𝑃 < ∞ 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐸 = ∞
For Continuous time signals,

3
 𝑇 2
1
𝐴𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑃 = lim |𝑥 𝑡 | 𝑑𝑡
𝑇→∞ 2𝑇 −𝑇
For Discrete time signals,
1 𝑁
𝐴𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑃 = lim 𝑥(𝑛) 2
𝑁→∞ 2𝑁 + 1
𝑛=−𝑁
Deterministic and Random signals

Deterministic signal:
A signal is said to be deterministic if there is no uncertainity over the signal at any
instant of time i.e., its instantaneous value can be predicted. It can be represented by
mathematical equation.
Example: sinusoidal signal

Random signal (Non-Deterministic signal):

A signal is said to be random if there is uncertainity over the signal at any instant of time
i.e., its instantaneous value cannot be predicted. It cannot be represented by mathematical
equation.
Example: noise signal
Sinusoidal Signal Random Signal

Random signal
Deterministic signal

Causal and Non-causal signal

Continuous domain:
Causal signal:
A signal is said to be causal if it is defined for t≥0.
𝑖. 𝑒., 𝑥 𝑡 = 0 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑡 < 0
Non-causal signal:
A signal is said to be non-causal, if it is defined for t< 0 or for both
𝑡 < 0 and 𝑡 ≥ 0
𝑖. 𝑒., 𝑥 𝑡 ≠ 0 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑡 < 0

When a non-causal signal is defined only for t<0, it is called as anti-causal signal

4
 Discrete domain:
Causal signal:
A signal is said to be causal, if it is defined for n≥0.
𝑖. 𝑒., 𝑥 𝑛 = 0 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑛 < 0

Non-causal signal:
A signal is said to be non-causal, if it is defined for n< 0
or for both n < 0 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑛 ≥ 0
𝑖. 𝑒., 𝑥 𝑛 ≠ 0 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑛 < 0

When a non-causal signal is defined only for n<0, it is called as anti-causal signal

Basic(Elementary or Standard) continuous time signals

Step signal
Unit Step signal is defined as
u (t)
𝑢 𝑡 = 1 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑡 ≥ 0 1
= 0 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑡 < 0

0 t
Unit step signal

Ramp signal

Unit ramp signal is defined as

.
.
r (t)
𝑟 𝑡 = 𝑡 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑡 ≥ 0
3
= 0 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑡 < 0
2

0 1 2 3. . t
Unit ramp signal

Parabolic signal
Unit Parabolic signal is defined as

5
 p(t)
:
4.5
𝑡2
𝑥 𝑡 = 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑡 ≥ 0 2
2
= 0 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑡 < 0 0.5

0 1 2 3...t

Unit Parabolic signal

Relation between Unit Step signal, Unit ramp signal and Unit Parabolic signal:

• Unit ramp signal is obtained by integrating unit step signal

𝑖. 𝑒. , 𝑢 𝑡 𝑑𝑡 = 1𝑑𝑡 = 𝑡 = 𝑟(𝑡)
• Unti Parabolic signal is obtained by integrating unit ramp signal
𝑡2
𝑖. 𝑒. , 𝑟 𝑡 𝑑𝑡 = 𝑡𝑑𝑡 = = 𝑝(𝑡)
2

• Unit step signal is obtained by differentiating unit ramp signal

𝑑 𝑑
𝑖. 𝑒. , 𝑟 𝑡 = 𝑡 = 1 = 𝑢(𝑡)
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
• Unit ramp signal is obtained by differentiating unit Parabolic signal
𝑑 𝑑 𝑡2 1
𝑖. 𝑒. , 𝑝 𝑡 = = 2
𝑡 = 𝑡 = 𝑟(𝑡)
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 2 2

Unit Pulse signal is defined as

∏ (t)

1
∏ 𝑡 = 1 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑡 ≤ 1
2
= 0 𝑒𝑙𝑠𝑒𝑤𝑕𝑒𝑟𝑒
-1/2 1/2 t

Unit Pulse signal

Impulse signal
Unit Impulse signal is defined as

𝛿 𝑡 = 0 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑡 ≠ 0
∞
𝛿 𝑡 𝑑𝑡 = 1
−∞

Unit Impulse signal

6
Properties of Impulse
signal: Property 1:
∞

𝒙(𝒕)𝜹 𝒕 𝒅𝒕 = 𝒙(𝟎)
−∞

Proof:
∞

𝑥(𝑡)𝛿 𝑡 𝑑𝑡 = 𝑥 0 𝛿 0 = 𝑥 0 [∵ 𝛿 𝑡 𝑒𝑥𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑠 𝑜𝑛𝑙𝑦 𝑎𝑡 𝑡 = 0 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝛿 0 = 1]

−∞
Thus proved
Property 2:
∞

𝒙(𝒕)𝜹 𝒕 − 𝒕𝟎 𝒅𝒕 = 𝒙(𝒕𝟎)
−∞

Proof:
∞

𝑥(𝑡)𝛿 𝑡 − 𝑡0 𝑑𝑡 = 𝑥 𝑡0 𝛿 𝑡0 − 𝑡0 = 𝑥 𝑡0 𝛿 0 = 𝑥 𝑡0
−∞
∵ 𝛿 𝑡 − 𝑡0 𝑒𝑥𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑠 𝑜𝑛𝑙𝑦 𝑎𝑡 𝑡 = 𝑡0 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝛿 0 = 1
Thus proved

Sinusoidal signal
Cosinusoidal signal is defined as Sinusoidal signal is defined as
𝑥 𝑡 = 𝐴𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝛺𝑡 + 𝛷 𝑥 𝑡 = 𝐴𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝛺𝑡 + 𝛷

where Ω = 2πf = 2π and Ω is angular frequency in rad/sec

T
f is frequency in cycles/sec or Hertz and
A is amplitude
T is time period in seconds
𝛷 is phase angle in radians

Cosinusoidal signal Sinusoidal signal

𝑤𝑕𝑒𝑛 𝜙 = 0, 𝑥 𝑡 = 𝐴𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝛺𝑡 𝑤𝑕𝑒𝑛 𝜙 = 0, 𝑥 𝑡 = 𝐴𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝛺𝑡
x(t) φ=0
x(t) φ=0
A
A

t
t
-A
-A

7
 Sinusoidal signal

Cosinusoidal signal

Exponential signal
Real Exponential signal is defined as 𝑥 𝑡 = 𝐴𝑒𝑎𝑡
where A is amplitude

Depending on the value of ‘a’ we get dc signal or growing exponential signal or decaying
exponential signal

x(t) a=0 x(t) a>0 x(t) a<0

A t A t A t

DC signal Exponentially Exponentially

growing signal decaying signal

Complex exponential signal is defined as 𝑥 𝑡 = 𝐴𝑒𝑠𝑡

where 𝐴 is amplitude, s is complex variable and 𝑠 = 𝜎 + 𝑗Ω
𝑥 𝑡 = 𝐴𝑒𝑠𝑡 = 𝐴𝑒 𝜎+𝑗Ω 𝑡 = 𝐴𝑒𝜎𝑡 𝑒𝑗Ω𝑡 = 𝐴𝑒𝜎𝑡 (𝑐𝑜𝑠Ω𝑡 + 𝑗𝑠𝑖𝑛Ω𝑡)
𝑤𝑕𝑒𝑛 𝜎 = +𝑣𝑒, 𝑡𝑕𝑒𝑛 𝑥 𝑡 = 𝐴𝑒 𝜎𝑡 (𝑐𝑜𝑠Ω𝑡 + 𝑗𝑠𝑖𝑛Ω𝑡),
𝑤𝑕𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑥𝑟 𝑡 = 𝐴𝑒 𝜎𝑡 𝑐𝑜𝑠Ω𝑡 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑥𝑖 𝑡 = 𝐴𝑒 𝜎𝑡 𝑠𝑖𝑛Ω𝑡
xr(t) xi(t)

A A

t t

Exponentially growing sinusoidal signal

Exponentially growing Cosinusoidal signal

𝑤𝑕𝑒𝑛 𝜎 = −𝑣𝑒, 𝑡𝑕𝑒𝑛 𝑥 𝑡 = 𝐴𝑒 −𝜎𝑡 (𝑐𝑜𝑠Ω𝑡 + 𝑗𝑠𝑖𝑛Ω𝑡),

𝑤𝑕𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑥𝑟 𝑡 = 𝐴𝑒 −𝜎𝑡 𝑐𝑜𝑠Ω𝑡 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑥𝑖 𝑡 = 𝐴𝑒 −𝜎𝑡 𝑠𝑖𝑛Ω𝑡
xr(t) xi(t)

A A

t t

8
Exponentially decaying Cosinusoidal signal Exponentially decaying sinusoidal signal

Basic(Elementary or Standard) Discrete time signals

Step signal
Unit Step signal is defined as
u(n)

𝑢 𝑛 = 1 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑛 ≥ 0
= 0 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑛 < 0
1
. . .

0 1 2 3 4 n

Unit step signal

Unit Ramp signal
Unit Ramp signal is defined as
r(n)
:
4
𝑟 𝑛 = 𝑛 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑛 ≥ 0 3
= 0 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑛 < 0 2 ...
1
0 1 2 3 4 n

Unit Ramp signal

Pulse signal (Rectangular pulse function)

Pulse signal is defined as
x(n)

𝑥 𝑛 = 𝐴 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑛1 ≤ 𝑛 ≤ 𝑛2 A
... ...
= 0 𝑒𝑙𝑠𝑒𝑤𝑕𝑒𝑟𝑒
n1 -1 0 1 n2 n

Pulse signal

Unit Impulse signal

Unit Impulse signal is defined as

9
 𝛿 𝑛 = 1 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑛 = 0
𝛿 𝑛 = 0 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑛 ≠ 0

Unit Impulse signal

Sinusoidal signal
Cosinusoidal signal is defined as Sinusoidal signal is defined as
𝑥 𝑛 = 𝐴𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝜔𝑛) 𝑥 𝑛 = 𝐴𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝜔𝑛)

where 𝜔 = 2πf = 2π m and 𝜔 is frequency in radians/sample

N
m is smallest integer
f is frequency in cycles/sample, A is amplitude
Cosinusoidal signal Sinusoidal signal

Sinusoidal signal
Cosinusoidal signal

Exponential signal
Real Exponential signal is defined as 𝑥 𝑛 = 𝑎𝑛 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑛 ≥ 0

Decreasing exponential signal Increasing exponential signal

Complex Exponential signal is defined as 𝑥 𝑛 = 𝑎𝑛 𝑒𝑗 (𝜔 0𝑛) = 𝑎𝑛 [𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜔0𝑛 + 𝑗𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜔0𝑛]

𝑤𝑕𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑥𝑟 𝑛 = 𝑎𝑛 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜔0 𝑛 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑥𝑖 𝑛 = 𝑎𝑛 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜔0 𝑛

10
Exponentially decreasing Cosinusoidal signal
Exponentially decreasing sinusoidal signal

Exponentially growing Cosinusoidal signal

Exponentially growing sinusoidal signal

Classification of System
• Continuous time and Discrete time system
• Linear and Non-Linear system
• Static and Dynamic system
• Time invariant and Time variant system
• Causal and Non-Causal system
• Stable and Unstable system

Continuous time and Discrete time system

Continuous time system:
Continuous time system operates on a continuous time signal (input or excitation) and
produces another continuous time signal (output or response) which is shown in Fig 1.84. The
signal 𝑥(𝑡) is transformed by the system into signal 𝑦(𝑡), this transformation can be expressed
as,

11
 Response 𝑦 𝑡 = 𝑇 𝑥 𝑡
where 𝑥(𝑡) is input signal, 𝑦(𝑡) is output signal, and T denotes transformation

𝑥(𝑡) T 𝑦(𝑡)

Fig 1.84 Representation of continuous time system

Discrete time system:
Discrete time system operates on a discrete time signal (input or excitation) and
produces another discrete time signal (output or response) which is shown in Fig 1.85.

The signal 𝑥(𝑛) is transformed by the system into signal 𝑦(𝑛), this transformation can be
expressed as,
Response 𝑦 𝑛 = 𝑇 𝑥 𝑛
where x(n) is input signal, y(n) is output signal, and T denotes transformation
𝑥(𝑛) T 𝑦(𝑛)
Fig 1.85 Representation of discrete time system

Linear system and Non Linear system

Continuous time domain:
Linear system:
A system is said to be linear if it obeys superposition theorem. Superposition theorem
states that the response of a system to a weighted sum of the signals is equal to the
corresponding weighted sum of responses to each of the individual input signals.
Condition for Linearity:
𝑇 𝑎𝑥1 𝑡 + 𝑏𝑥2 𝑡 = 𝑎𝑦1 𝑡 + 𝑏𝑦2(𝑡)
𝑤𝑕𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑦1 𝑡 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑦2 𝑡 𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑝𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑒𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑥1 𝑡 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑥2 𝑡
𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑦 Non Linear system:
A system is said to be Non linear if it does not obeys superposition theorem.
𝑖. 𝑒. , 𝑇 𝑎𝑥1 𝑡 + 𝑏𝑥2 𝑡 ≠ 𝑎𝑦1 𝑡 + 𝑏𝑦2(𝑡)
where y1 t and y2 t are the responses of x1 t and x2 t respectively

Discrete time domain:

Linear system:
A system is said to be linear if it obeys superposition theorem. Superposition theorem
states that the response of a system to a weighted sum of the signals is equal to the
corresponding weighted sum of responses to each of the individual input signals.
Condition for Linearity:
𝑇 𝑎𝑥1 𝑛 + 𝑏𝑥2 𝑛 = 𝑎𝑦1 𝑛 + 𝑏𝑦2(𝑛)
where y1 n and y2 n are the responses of x1 n and x 2 n respectively
Non Linear system:
A system is said to be Non linear if it does not obeys superposition theorem.
𝑖. 𝑒. , 𝑇 𝑎𝑥1 𝑛 + 𝑏𝑥2 𝑛 ≠ 𝑎𝑦1 𝑛 + 𝑏𝑦2(𝑛)

12
 where y1 n and y2 n are the responses of x1 n and x2 n respectively

Static (Memoryless) and Dynamic (Memory) system

Continuous time domain:
Static system:
A system is said to be memoryless or static if the response of the system is due to
present input alone.
Example: 𝑦(𝑡) = 2𝑥(𝑡)
𝑦(𝑡) = 𝑥2 (𝑡) + 𝑥(𝑡)
Dynamic system:
A system is said to be memory or dynamic if the response of the system depends on
factors other than present input also.
Example: 𝑦(𝑡) = 2𝑥(𝑡) + 𝑥(−𝑡)
𝑦(𝑡) = 𝑥2 (𝑡) + 𝑥(2𝑡)

Discrete time domain:

Static system:
A system is said to be memoryless or static if the response of the system is due to
present input alone.
Example: 𝑦(𝑛) = 𝑥(𝑛)
𝑦(𝑛) = 𝑥2 (𝑛) + 3𝑥(𝑛)
Dynamic system:
A system is said to be memory or dynamic if the response of the system depends on
factors other than present input also.
Example: 𝑦(𝑛) = 2𝑥(𝑛) + 𝑥(−𝑛)
𝑦(𝑛) = 𝑥2 (1 − 𝑛) + 𝑥(2𝑛)

Time invariant (Shift invariant) and Time variant (Shift variant) system
Continuous time domain:
Time invariant system:
A system is said to time invariant if the relationship between the input and output does
not change with time.
If 𝑦 𝑡 = 𝑇 𝑥 𝑡
Then 𝑇 𝑥 𝑡 − 𝑡0 = 𝑦(𝑡 − 𝑡0) should be satisfied for the system to be time invariant

Time variant system:

A system is said to time variant if the relationship between the input and output changes
with time.
If 𝑦 𝑡 = 𝑇 𝑥 𝑡
Then 𝑇 𝑥 𝑡 − 𝑡0 ≠ 𝑦(𝑡 − 𝑡0) should be satisfied for the system to be time variant

Discrete time domain:

13
 Time invariant system:
A system is said to time invariant if the relationship between the input and output does
not change with time.
If 𝑦 𝑛 = 𝑇 𝑥 𝑛
Then 𝑇 𝑥 𝑛 − 𝑛0 = 𝑦(𝑛 − 𝑛0) should be satisfied for the system to be time invariant
Time variant system:
A system is said to time variant if the relationship between the input and output changes
with time.
If 𝑦 𝑛 = 𝑇 𝑥 𝑛
Then 𝑇 𝑥 𝑛 − 𝑛0 ≠ 𝑦(𝑛 − 𝑛0) should be satisfied for the system to be time variant

Causal and Non-Causal system

Continuous time domain:
Causal system:
A system is said to be causal if the response of a system at any instant of time depends
only on the present input, past input and past output but does not depends upon the future
input and future output.
Example: 𝑦(𝑡) = 3𝑥(𝑡) + 𝑥(𝑡 − 1)
A system is said to be causal if impulse response 𝑕(𝑡) is zero for negative values
of 𝑡 i.e., 𝑕(𝑡) = 0 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑡 < 0
Non-Causal system:
A system is said to be Non-causal if the response of a system at any instant of time
depends on the future input and also on the present input, past input, past output.
Example: 𝑦(𝑡) = 𝑥(𝑡 + 2) + 𝑥(𝑡 − 1)
𝑦(𝑡) = 𝑥(−𝑡) + 𝑥(𝑡 + 4)
A system is said to be non-causal if impulse response 𝑕(𝑡) is non-zero for negative values
of 𝑡 i.e., 𝑕(𝑡) ≠ 0 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑡 < 0

Discrete time domain:

Causal system:
A system is said to be causal if the response of a system at any instant of time depends
only on the present input, past input and past output but does not depends upon the future
input.
Example: 𝑦(𝑛) = 3𝑥(𝑛) + 𝑥(𝑛 − 1)
A system is said to be causal if impulse response h(n) is zero for negative values of n
i.e., 𝑕(𝑛) = 0 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑛 < 0

Non-Causal system:
A system is said to be Non-causal if the response of a system at any instant of time
depends on the future input and also on the present input, past input, past output.
Example: 𝑦(𝑛) = 𝑥(𝑛 + 2) + 𝑥(𝑛 − 1)

14
 𝑦(𝑛) = 𝑥(−𝑛) + 𝑥(𝑛 + 4)
A system is said to be non-causal if impulse response 𝑕(𝑛) is non-zero for negative values
of n i.e., 𝑕(𝑛) ≠ 0 for 𝑛 < 0

Stable and Unstable system

Continuous time domain:
A system is said to be stable if and only if it satisfies the BIBO stability criterion.
BIBO stable condition:
• Every bounded input yields bounded output.
𝑖. 𝑒. , if 0 < 𝑥 t < ∞ 𝑡𝑕𝑒𝑛 0 < 𝑦 t < ∞ should be satisfied for the system to be stable
• Impulse response should be absolutely integrable
∞

𝑖. 𝑒. , 0 < 𝑕(𝜏) 𝑑𝜏 < ∞

−∞
If the BIBO stable condition is not satisfied, then the system is said to be unstable system
Discrete time domain:
A system is said to be stable if and only if it satisfies the BIBO stability criterion.
BIBO stable condition:
• Every bounded input yields bounded output.
• Impulse response should be absolutely summable
∞

𝑖. 𝑒. , 0 < 𝑕(𝑘) < ∞

𝑘=−∞

If the BIBO stable condition is not satisfied, then the system is said to be unstable system

Solved Problems

1. Draw 𝑟(𝑡 + 3), where r(t) is ramp signal

Solution:
𝑟 𝑡 = 𝑡; 𝑡 ≥ 0
r(t) r(t+3)
: :
: 4
3

3
2

2
1

1
0 1 2 3 ... t

-3 -2 -1 0 1...t

15
 2. Sketch 𝑥(𝑡) = 3𝑟(𝑡 − 1) + 𝑟(−𝑡 + 2)

𝑥 𝑡 = 3𝑟 𝑡 − 1 + 𝑟(−𝑡 + 2)
= 0 + 4 − 𝑡 𝑓𝑜𝑟 − 2 ≤ 𝑡 ≤ −1
= 0 + 3 − 𝑡 𝑓𝑜𝑟 − 1 ≤ 𝑡 ≤ 0
= 0 + 2 − 𝑡 𝑓𝑜𝑟 0 ≤ 𝑡 ≤ 1
= 3𝑡 + 1 − 𝑡 𝑓𝑜𝑟 1 ≤ 𝑡 ≤ 2
= 3 + 3𝑡 + 0 𝑓𝑜𝑟 2 ≤ 𝑡 ≤ 3
= 6 + 3𝑡 + 0 𝑓𝑜𝑟 3 ≤ 𝑡 ≤ 4
and so on

Fig 1.163

3. Draw time reversal signal of unit step signal

Solution:
𝑢 𝑛 = 1; 𝑛 ≥ 0

16
 4. Check whether the following is periodic or not. If periodic, determine fundamental time
period

a. 𝒙 𝒕 = 𝟐 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝟓𝒕 + 𝟏 − 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝟒𝒕
Here Ω1 = 5, Ω2 = 4
2π 2π 2π
𝑇1 = Ω1 = 5 = 5
2π 2π π
𝑇2 = = =
Ω2 4 2
𝑇1 2π5
= 4
𝑇2 π = 5 (It is rational number)
2
Hence 𝑥(𝑡) is periodic
𝑇 = 5𝑇1 = 4𝑇2 = 2𝜋
∴ 𝑥(𝑡) is periodic with period 𝟐𝝅

b. 𝑥 𝑛 = 3 cos 4𝜋𝑛 + 2 sin 𝜋𝑛

Here ω1 = 4π, ω2 = π
𝑁 2πm 2πm m
1 = = =
ω1 4π 2
𝑁1 = 1 (taking m = 2)
2πm 2πm
𝑁2 = ω2 = π = 2m
𝑁2 = 2 (taking m = 1)
𝑁 = 𝐿𝐶𝑀 1,2 = 2
Hence x(n) ∴ 𝑥(𝑛) is periodic with period 2

5. Determine whether the signals are energy or power signal

𝒙 𝒕 = 𝒆−𝟑𝒕𝒖(𝒕)
𝑇 𝑇 𝑇
𝑇
𝑬𝒏𝒆𝒓𝒈𝒚 𝑬∞ = lim |𝑥 𝑡 |2𝑑𝑡 = lim |𝑒−3𝑡 |2𝑑𝑡 = lim 𝑒−6𝑡 𝑑𝑡 = lim 𝑒−6𝑡
𝑇→∞ 𝑇→∞ 𝑇→∞ 𝑇→∞ −6 0
−𝑇 0 0
−6𝑇 −0 𝟏
= lim 𝑒 − 𝑒 = <∞ ∵ 𝑒−∞ = 0, 𝑒−0 = 1
𝑇→∞ −6 −6 𝟔

17
 1 𝑇 1 𝑇 1 𝑇
𝑷𝒐𝒘𝒆𝒓 𝑷 = lim 𝑥 𝑡 2𝑑𝑡 = lim 𝑒−3𝑡 2𝑑𝑡 = lim 𝑒−6𝑡 𝑑𝑡
∞
𝑇→∞ 2𝑇 𝑇→∞ 2𝑇 𝑇→∞ 2𝑇
−𝑇 0 0
1 𝑇 −0 1 1 1
= lim 𝑒−6𝑡 = lim 1 𝑒
−6𝑇
−𝑒 = lim =𝟎 =0 ∵ 𝑒 −∞ = 0, 𝑒 −0 = 1,
𝑇→∞ 2𝑇 −6 0 𝑇→∞ 2𝑇 −6 −6 𝑇→∞ 2𝑇 6 ∞
Since energy value is finite and average power is zero, the given signal is an energy signal.

6. Determine whether the signals are energy or power signal

𝝅𝒏 𝝅
𝒋 𝟒 +𝟐
𝒙𝒏=𝒆
𝑁 𝑁
𝑁 𝝅𝒏 𝝅 2
𝑬𝒏𝒆𝒓𝒈𝒚 𝑬∞ = lim 𝑥(𝑛) 2 = lim 𝒆 𝒋( 𝟒 +𝟐) = lim 12 = lim 2𝑁 + 1 = ∞
𝑁→∞ 𝑁→∞ 𝑁→∞ 𝑁→∞
𝑛=−𝑁 𝑛=−𝑁 𝑛=−𝑁
𝑁

∵ 𝑒𝑗 (𝜔𝑛 +𝜃) = 1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 1 = 2𝑁 + 1

𝑛=−𝑁
𝑁 𝑁
1 1 𝝅𝒏 𝝅 2
𝑨𝒗𝒆𝒓𝒂𝒈𝒆 𝒑𝒐𝒘𝒆𝒓 𝑷 ∞ = lim 𝑥(𝑛) 2 = lim 𝒆 𝒋( 𝟒 +𝟐)
𝑁→∞ 2𝑁 + 1 𝑁→∞ 2𝑁 + 1
𝑛=−𝑁 𝑛=−𝑁
𝑁
1 1
lim 12 = lim 2𝑁 + 1 = 𝟏
=𝑁→∞ 2𝑁 + 1 𝑁→∞ 2𝑁 + 1
𝑛=−𝑁

Since energy value is infinite and average power is finite, the given signal is power signal

7. Determine whether the following systems are linear or not

𝒅𝒚(𝒕)
+ 𝒕𝒚 𝒕 = 𝒙𝟐(𝒕)
𝒅𝒕
Output due to weighted sum of inputs:
𝑑[𝑎𝑦1 𝑡 + 𝑏𝑦2 𝑡 ]
+ 𝑡 𝑎𝑦 𝑡 + 𝑏𝑦 𝑡 = 𝑎𝑥 𝑡 + 𝑏𝑥 𝑡 2 … (1)
1 2 1 2
𝑑𝑡

Weighted sum of outputs:

For input 𝑥1 𝑡 :
𝑑𝑦1 𝑡
+ 𝑡𝑦 𝑡 = 𝑥 2 𝑡 … (2)
1 1
𝑑𝑡
For input 𝑥2 𝑡 :
𝑑𝑦2 𝑡
+ 𝑡𝑦 𝑡 = 𝑥 2 𝑡 … (3)
2 2
𝑑𝑦1 𝑡 𝑑𝑡𝑑𝑦 𝑡
2
2×𝑎+3×𝑏⇒𝑎 + 𝑎𝑡𝑦 𝑡 + 𝑏 + 𝑏𝑡𝑦 𝑡 = 𝑎𝑥 2 𝑡 + 𝑏𝑥 2 𝑡 … (4)
2 1 2
𝑑𝑡 1 𝑑𝑡

18
 1 ≠ (4)
The given system is Non-Linear

8. Determine whether the following systems are linear or not

𝒚 𝒏 = 𝒙 𝒏 − 𝟐 + 𝒙(𝒏𝟐)
Output due to weighted sum of inputs:
𝑦3 𝑛 = 𝑎𝑥1 𝑛 − 2 + 𝑏𝑥2 𝑛 − 2 + 𝑎𝑥1 𝑛2 + 𝑏𝑥2(𝑛2)
Weighted sum of outputs:
For input 𝑥1 𝑛 :
𝑦1 𝑛 = 𝑥1 𝑛 − 2 + 𝑥1 𝑛 2
For input 𝑥2 𝑛 :
𝑦2 𝑛 = 𝑥2 𝑛 − 2 + 𝑥2(𝑛2 )
𝑎𝑦1 𝑛 + 𝑏𝑦2 𝑛 = 𝑎𝑥1 𝑛 − 2 + 𝑎𝑥1 𝑛2 + 𝑏𝑥2 𝑛 − 2 + 𝑏𝑥2(𝑛2 )
∵ 𝑦3 𝑛 = 𝑎𝑦1 𝑛 + 𝑏𝑦2 𝑛

9. Determine whether the following systems are static or dynamic

𝒚 𝒕 = 𝒙 𝟐𝒕 + 𝟐𝒙 𝒕
𝑦 0 = 𝑥 0 + 2𝑥 0 ⇒ present inputs
𝑦 −1 = 𝑥 −2 + 2𝑥 −1 ⇒ past and present inputs
𝑦 1 = 𝑥 2 + 2𝑥 1 ⇒ future and present inputs
Since output depends on past and future inputs the given system is dynamic system

10. Determine whether the following systems are static or dynamic

𝒚(𝒏) = 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝒙(𝒏)
𝑦 0 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥(0) ⇒ present input
𝑦 −1 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥(−1) ⇒ present input
𝑦 1 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥(1) ⇒ present input
Since output depends on present input the given system is Static system

11. Determine whether the following systems are time invariant or not
𝒚(𝒕) = 𝒙(𝒕)𝒔𝒊𝒏𝒘𝒕
Output due to input delayed by T seconds
𝑦(𝑡, 𝑇) = 𝑥(𝑡 − 𝑇)𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑤𝑡
Output delayed by T seconds
𝑦(𝑡 − 𝑇) = 𝑥(𝑡 − 𝑇)𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑤(𝑡 − 𝑇)
∵ 𝑦 𝑡, 𝑇 ≠ 𝑦 𝑡 − 𝑇
The given system is time variant
12. Determine whether the following systems are time invariant or not
𝒚 𝒏 = 𝒙(−𝒏 + 𝟐)
Output due to input delayed by k seconds
𝑦 𝑛, 𝑘 = 𝑥(−𝑛 + 2 − 𝑘)
Output delayed by k seconds
𝑦 𝑛 − 𝑘 = 𝑥 −(𝑛 − 𝑘 + 2) = 𝑥(−𝑛 + 𝑘 + 2)
∵ 𝒚 𝒏, 𝒌 ≠ 𝒚 𝒏 − 𝒌
The given system is time variant

19
 13. Determine whether the following systems are causal or not
𝒅𝒙(𝒕)
𝒚𝒕= + 𝟐𝒙(𝒕)
𝒅𝒕
The given equation is differential equation and the output depends on past input. Hence the
given system is 𝐂𝐚𝐮𝐬𝐚𝐥

14. Determine whether the following systems are causal or not

𝒚(𝒏) = 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝒙(𝒏)
𝑦 0 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥(0) ⇒ present input
𝑦 −1 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥(−1) ⇒ present input
𝑦 1 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥(1) ⇒ present input
Since output depends on present input the given system is Causal system

15. Determine whether the following systems are stable or not

𝒉 𝒕 = 𝒆−𝟒𝒕𝒖(𝒕)
∞

Condition for stability 𝑕(𝜏) 𝑑𝜏 < ∞

−∞
∞ ∞ ∞ ∞
𝑒−4𝜏 1
𝑕(𝜏) 𝑑𝜏 = 𝑒 −4𝜏 𝑢(𝜏) 𝑑𝜏 = 𝑒 −4𝜏 𝑑𝜏 = =
−40 4
−∞ −∞ 0
∞

∵ 𝑕(𝜏) 𝑑𝜏 < ∞ the given system is 𝐬𝐭𝐚𝐛𝐥𝐞

−∞

16. Determine whether the following systems are stable or not

𝒚 𝒏 = 𝟑𝒙(𝒏)
Let 𝑥 𝑛 = 𝛿 𝑛 , 𝑦 𝑛 = 𝑕(𝑛)
⇒ 𝑕 𝑛 = 3𝛿(𝑛)
∞

Condition for stability 𝑕(𝑘) < ∞

𝑘=−∞
∞ ∞ ∞

𝑕(𝑘) = 3𝛿(𝑘) = 3𝛿(𝑘) = 3

𝑘=−∞ 𝑘=0 𝑘=0
∵ 𝛿 𝑘 = 0 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑘 ≠ 0 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝛿 𝑘 = 1 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑘 = 0
∞

∵ 𝑕(𝑘) < ∞ the given system is 𝐬𝐭𝐚𝐛𝐥𝐞

𝑘=−∞

20
 Unit 2: Analysis of continuous time signals
Fourier series analysis

The Fourier representation of signals can be used to perform frequency domain analysis of
signals in which we can study the various frequency components present in the signal, magnitude
and phase of various frequency components.

Conditions for existence of Fourier series:

The Fourier series exist only if the following Dirichlet’s conditions are satisfied.
• The signal 𝑥(𝑡) must be single valued function.
• The signal 𝑥(𝑡) must possess only a finite number of discontinuous in the period T.
• The signal must have a finite number of maxima and minima in the period T.
𝑇
• 𝑥(𝑡) must be absolutely integrable. i.e., ∫ |𝑥(𝑡)|𝑑𝑡 < ∞
0

Types of Fourier series:

• Trigonometric Fourier series
• Exponential Fourier series
• Cosine Fourier series

Trigonometric Fourier series

The trigonometric form of Fourier series of a periodic signal, 𝑥(𝑡) with period 𝑇 is defined
as
∞ ∞

𝑥(𝑡) = 𝑎0 + ∑ 𝑎𝑛 cos 𝑛Ω0𝑡 + ∑ 𝑏𝑛 sin 𝑛Ω0𝑡 … … … (1)

𝑛=1 𝑛=1
𝑎0, 𝑎𝑛 , 𝑏𝑛 → Fourier coefficients of trigonometric form of Fourier series

𝑡0+𝑇
1
𝑎0 = ∫ 𝑥(𝑡)𝑑𝑡
𝑇
𝑡0
𝑡0+𝑇
2
𝑎𝑛 = ∫ 𝑥(𝑡) cos 𝑛Ω0𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑇
𝑡0
𝑡0+𝑇
2
𝑏𝑛 = ∫ 𝑥(𝑡) sin 𝑛Ω0𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑇
𝑡0

1
 Example 1 Find the trigonometric Fourier series for the periodic signal x(t) as shown in Figure
x(t)
1 x(t)
1
-7 -5 -3 -1 0 1 3 5 7 9 t
-1 --1 0 1 3 t
T -1

Solution:
𝑇 = 3 − (−1) = 4 𝑎𝑛𝑑 Ω0 = 2𝜋 = 𝜋
𝑇 2
Evaluation of 𝒂𝟎 1 1
[[ ]1 [ ]3] [ )
1 𝑡0 +𝑇 1 1 3
( )
𝒂𝟎 = ∫𝑡0 𝑥 𝑡 𝑑𝑡 = [∫−11 𝑑𝑡 + ∫1 −1 𝑑𝑡] = 𝑡 −1 − 1 𝑡 1 = (1 − (−1 ) − (3 − 1)]
𝑇 4 4 4
1
= [2 − 2] = 𝟎
4
Evaluation of 𝒂𝒏
2 𝑡0+𝑇 2 1 3
( )
𝒂𝒏 =
∫ 𝑥 𝑡 cos 𝑛𝛺0𝑡 𝑑𝑡 =
[∫ cos 𝑛𝛺0𝑡 𝑑𝑡 + ∫1 (−1)cos 𝑛𝛺0𝑡 𝑑𝑡]
𝑇 𝑡0 4 −1 1 3
1 sin 𝑛𝛺 𝑡 1 sin 𝑛𝛺 𝑡 3 1 sin 𝑛 𝜋 𝑡 sin 𝑛 𝜋 𝑡
2
= [[ 0 ] −[ 0 ] ] = [[ 𝜋2 ] −[ 𝜋 ] ]
2 𝑛𝛺0 −1 𝑛𝛺0 1 2 𝑛2 𝑛
−1 2 1
1 2 𝜋 𝜋 𝜋 𝜋
= ( ) [sin 𝑛 − (sin 𝑛 (−1)) − (sin 𝑛 (3) − sin 𝑛 )]
2 𝑛𝜋 2 1 2 𝜋 2 2 𝑛𝜋 𝑛𝜋
= [ ][ 𝜋 𝜋 𝜋 1 [3sin − sin(2n𝜋 − )]
]=
𝑛𝜋 sin 𝑛 + sin 𝑛 − sin 3𝑛 + sin 𝑛 𝑛𝜋 2 2
1 𝑛𝜋2 2𝜋 𝟒2 𝝅2
= [3sin − (−sin 𝑛 )] = [𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒏 ]
𝑛𝜋 2 2 𝒏𝝅 𝟐
Evaluation of 𝒃𝒏
2 𝑡0+𝑇 2 1 3
( )
𝒃𝒏 = ∫𝑡0 𝑥 𝑡 sin 𝑛𝛺0𝑡 𝑑𝑡 = [∫−1 sin 𝑛𝛺0𝑡 𝑑𝑡 + ∫1 − sin 𝑛𝛺0𝑡 𝑑𝑡]
𝑇 4 1 3
1 −cos 𝑛𝛺 𝑡 1 −cos 𝑛𝛺 𝑡 3 1 −cos 𝑛 𝜋 𝑡 cos 𝑛 𝜋 𝑡
2
= [[ 0 ] −[ 0 ] ] = [[ 𝜋 2 ] +[ 𝜋 ] ]
2 𝑛𝛺0 −1 𝑛𝛺 0 1 2 𝑛 𝑛
𝜋 2 𝜋 2 −1 𝜋 2 1
1 −2 𝜋 (−1)) + (cos 𝑛 (3) − cos 𝑛 )]
= [ (
1 𝑛𝜋 cos
2 2 𝑛 − cos 𝑛 𝑛𝜋 𝑛𝜋𝜋 21 𝜋 2 𝜋
= [0 + (cos 2 (2𝑛𝜋 −2 ) − cos 𝑛 )] = [ ( )] = 𝟎
2 𝑛𝜋 2 2 𝑛𝜋 cos 𝑛 − cos 𝑛
2 2
Trigonometric Fourier
∞ ∞
series
𝑥(𝑡) = 𝑎0 + ∑ 𝑎𝑛 cos 𝑛𝛺0𝑡 + ∑ 𝑏𝑛 sin 𝑛𝛺0𝑡
𝑛=1
∞ 4 𝑛𝜋𝑛=1 ∞ 4 𝑛𝜋 𝜋
=∑ sin ( ) cos 𝑛𝛺 𝑡 = ∑ sin ( )
0 cos 𝑛 𝑡
𝑛𝜋 2 𝑛𝜋 2 2
𝑛=1 𝑛=1

Example 2 Obtain Fourier series of the following full wave rectified sine wave shown in figure

2
 x(t)

-2 -1 0 1 2 t

Solution:
𝑥(𝑡) = 𝑥(−𝑡); ∴ 𝐺𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑛 𝑠𝑖𝑔𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑖𝑠 𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑛 𝑠𝑖𝑔𝑛𝑎𝑙, 𝑠𝑜 𝒃𝒏 = 𝟎
2𝜋
𝑇 = 1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 Ω0 = = 2𝜋1
The given signal is sinusoidal signal, ∴ 𝑥(𝑡) = 𝐴 sin Ω𝑡
2π 2π
Here Ω = = = π and A = 1
T 2
∴ 𝒙(𝒕) = 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝝅𝒕
Evaluation of 𝒂𝟎
𝑇 1 1
2 𝖥 2 2 1 cos 𝜋𝑡 12 2 𝜋 𝟐
𝒂 = 2 ∫ 𝑥(𝑡) 𝑑𝑡 = 2 ∫ 𝑥(𝑡) 𝑑𝑡 = I2 ∫ sin 𝜋𝑡 𝑑𝑡I = 2 [− ] = − [cos − cos 0] =
𝟎 𝑇 1 I I 𝜋 0 𝜋 2 𝝅
0 0
L 0

Evaluation of 𝒂𝒏
𝑇 1 1
4 2
4 2 2
𝒂 = ∫ 𝑥(𝑡) cos 𝑛Ω 𝑡 𝑑𝑡 = ∫ sin 𝜋𝑡 cos 𝑛2𝜋𝑡 𝑑𝑡 = 2 ∫[sin((1 + 2𝑛)𝜋𝑡) + sin((1 − 2𝑛)𝜋𝑡)] 𝑑𝑡
𝒏 0
𝑇 1
0 0 0
1
cos((1 + 2𝑛)𝜋𝑡) − cos((1 − 2𝑛)𝜋𝑡) 2
= 2 [− (1 + 2𝑛)𝜋 ]
(1 − 2𝑛)𝜋
0
2 cos ((1 + 2𝑛) 𝜋) cos ((1 − 2𝑛) 𝜋) 1 1
= [− 2 − 2 + + ]
𝜋 1 + 2𝑛 1 − 2𝑛 1 + 2𝑛 1 − 2𝑛
2 1 1 2 1 − 2𝑛 + 1 + 2𝑛 𝟒
= [ + ]= [ 2
] =
𝜋 1 + 2𝑛 1 − 2𝑛 𝜋 1 − 4𝑛 𝝅(𝟏 − 𝟒𝒏𝟐)

Trigonometric Fourier series

∞ ∞

𝑥(𝑡) = 𝑎0 + ∑ 𝑎𝑛 cos 𝑛𝛺0𝑡 + ∑ 𝑏𝑛 sin 𝑛𝛺0𝑡

𝑛=1 𝑛=1
∞
2 4 cos 𝑛2𝜋𝑡
∴ 𝑥(𝑡 ) = +∑
𝜋 𝜋(1 − 4𝑛2)
𝑛=1

Exponential Fourier series

The exponential form of Fourier series of a periodic signal 𝑥(𝑡) with period 𝑇 is defined as,
∞

𝑥(𝑡) = ∑ 𝑐𝑛 𝑒𝑗𝑛 Ω0 𝑡
𝑛=−∞
The Fourier coefficient 𝑐𝑛 can be evaluated using the following formulae

3
 𝑇
2
1
−𝑗𝑛 Ω0 𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑐𝑛 = 𝑇 ∫ 𝑥(𝑡)𝑒
𝑇
−2

Example 3 Find exponential series for the signal shown in figure

x(t)

0 1 2 3
Fig 2.26

Solution:
𝑇 = 1, Ω0 = 2π = 2π = 2π
T 1
Consider the equation of a straight line
𝑦 − 𝑦1 𝑥 − 𝑥1 … … … (9)
=
𝑦 2 − 𝑦 1 𝑥2 − 𝑥 1
Consider one period of the given signal Fig 2.26 as shown in Fig 2.27Consider x(t)

points P,Q as shown in fig 2.27 1 Q[1,1]

Coordinates of point 𝑃 = [0,0]
Coordinates of point 𝑄 = [1,1]
0 1 t
On substituting the coordinates of points 𝑃 and 𝑄 in eq (9) P[0,0]
𝑥(𝑡) − 0 𝑡 − 0 Fig 2.27
= ⇒ 𝑥(𝑡) = 𝑡
1−0 1−0
[∵ 𝑥 = 𝑡, 𝑦 = 𝑥(𝑡)]
Evaluation of 𝒄𝟎
1 𝑇 1 1 𝑡2 1 1
𝑐0 = ∫ 𝑥(𝑡)𝑑𝑡 = ∫ (𝑡)𝑑𝑡 = [ ] =
𝑇 0 1 0 2 0 2
Evaluation of 𝒄𝒏
1
1 𝑇 1 1 𝑒−𝑗𝑛 2𝜋𝑡 1 𝑒−𝑗𝑛 2𝜋𝑡
𝑑𝑡
𝑐𝑛 = ∫ 𝑥(𝑡)𝑒−𝑗𝑛 Ω0 𝑡 𝑑𝑡 = ∫ 𝑡𝑒−𝑗𝑛 2𝜋𝑡 𝑑𝑡 = [𝑡 ] − ∫ −𝑗𝑛2𝜋
𝑇 1 −𝑗𝑛2𝜋
0 0 0 0
1
𝑒−𝑗𝑛 2𝜋 𝑒−𝑗𝑛 2𝜋𝑡 1
𝑒−𝑗𝑛 2𝜋 𝑒−𝑗𝑛 2𝜋
= +0+[ 2 ] = 𝑗 + −
−𝑗𝑛2𝜋 −𝑗 (𝑛2𝜋)2 0 𝑛2𝜋 𝑛24𝜋2 𝑛24𝜋2
𝑗 1 1 𝑗
=
𝑛2𝜋 + 𝑛24𝜋2 − 𝑛24𝜋2 = 𝑛2𝜋
𝑗
𝑐𝑛 =
𝑗 𝑛2𝜋
𝑐 = , 𝑐 𝑗 , 𝑐 𝑗 , 𝑐 = 𝑗 , 𝑐 𝑗 , 𝑐 𝑗
= = = =
1 2𝜋 2 4𝜋 3 6𝜋 −1 −2𝜋 −2 −4𝜋 −3 −6𝜋
Exponential Fourier
∞
series
𝑥(𝑡) = ∑ 𝑐𝑛 𝑒𝑗𝑛 𝛺0 𝑡
𝑛=−∞

4
 𝑗 𝑗 𝑗 1 𝑗 𝑗 𝑗
∴ 𝑥(𝑡) = + ⋯ − 𝑒−𝑗 6𝜋𝑡 − 𝑒−𝑗 4𝜋𝑡 − 𝑒−𝑗 2𝜋𝑡 𝑒𝑗
+ 𝑒𝑗 4𝜋𝑡 +2𝜋𝑡
𝑒𝑗 6𝜋𝑡 + ⋯
+ +
6𝜋 4𝜋 2𝜋 2 2𝜋 4𝜋 6𝜋
1 𝑗 𝑗 2𝜋𝑡 𝑗 𝑗 4𝜋𝑡 𝑗
= + [𝑒 −𝑒 −𝑗 2𝜋𝑡 ]+ [𝑒 −𝑒 −𝑗 4𝜋𝑡 ]+ [𝑒𝑗 6𝜋𝑡 − 𝑒−𝑗 6𝜋𝑡 ] + ⋯
2 2𝜋 4𝜋 6𝜋
1 1 𝑒𝑗 2𝜋𝑡 − 𝑒−𝑗 2𝜋𝑡 1 𝑒𝑗 4𝜋𝑡 − 𝑒−𝑗 4𝜋𝑡 1 𝑒𝑗 6𝜋𝑡 − 𝑒−𝑗 6𝜋𝑡
= + [ ] [ ] [ ]
2 𝜋 (−1)2𝑗 + (−1)2𝑗 + (−1)2𝑗
1 −1 1 2𝜋 1 3𝜋
= + ( ) 𝑠𝑖𝑛 2𝜋𝑡 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛 4𝜋𝑡 − sin 6𝜋𝑡
2 𝜋 2𝜋 3𝜋
1 1 1 1
[ ]
= − 𝑠𝑖𝑛 2𝜋𝑡 + 𝑠𝑖𝑛 4𝜋𝑡 + 𝑠𝑖𝑛 6𝜋𝑡 + ⋯
2 𝜋 2 3

Cosine Fourier series

Cosine representation of 𝑥(𝑡) is

∞

𝑥(𝑡) = 𝐴0 + ∑ 𝐴𝑛 𝑐𝑜𝑠 (𝑛𝛺0𝑡 + 𝜃𝑛 )

𝑛=1
Where 𝐴0 is dc component, 𝐴𝑛 is harmonic amplitude or spectral amplitude and 𝜃𝑛 is phase
coefficient or phase angle 𝑜𝑟 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑙 𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒

Example 4 Determine the cosine Fourier series of the signal shown in Figure

x(t)

-2π -π 0 π 2π 3π t

Solution:
The signal shown in is periodic with period 𝑇 = 2𝜋 𝑎𝑛𝑑 Ω = 2𝜋 = 1
0 2𝜋
The given signal is sinusoidal signal, ∴ 𝑥(𝑡) = 𝐴 sin Ω𝑡
2π 2π
Here Ω = = = 1, A = 1
T 2π
∴ 𝒙(𝒕) = 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝒕
Evaluation of 𝒂𝟎
1 𝑇 1 𝜋 1 1 1 1
[− 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑡 ]𝜋
𝑎0 = ∫0 𝑥(𝑡)𝑑𝑡 = ∫ 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑡 𝑑𝑡 = 0 = [− 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜋 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠 0] = [2] =
𝑇 2𝜋 0 2𝜋 2𝜋 2𝜋 𝜋

Evaluation of 𝒂𝒏

5
 𝑇
2
( ) 2 𝜋 1 𝜋
[ ( ) ( ) ]
𝑎𝑛 = ∫0 𝑥 𝑡 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑛𝛺0𝑡 𝑑𝑡 = ∫ 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑡 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑛𝑡 𝑑𝑡 = ∫0 𝑠𝑖𝑛 1 + 𝑛 𝑡 + 𝑠𝑖𝑛 1 − 𝑛 𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑇 2𝜋 0 2𝜋
1 𝑐𝑜𝑠(1 + 𝑛)𝑡 𝑐𝑜𝑠(1 − 𝑛)𝑡 𝜋
= [− − ]
2𝜋 (1 + 𝑛) (1 − 𝑛) 0
1 𝑐𝑜𝑠(1 + 𝑛)𝜋 𝑐𝑜𝑠(1 − 𝑛)𝜋 1 + 1 ]
= [− − +
2𝜋 (1 + 𝑛) (1 − 𝑛) 1+𝑛 1−𝑛
1 [− 1 1 1 1
𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑛 = 𝑜𝑑𝑑 ∶ 𝑎𝑛 = − + + ]=0
2𝜋 1 + 𝑛 1 − 𝑛 1 + 𝑛 1 − 𝑛
1 1 1 1 1 ]= 1 2 + 2 )
𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑛 = 𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑛 ∶ 𝑎𝑛 = [ + + + (
2𝜋 1 + 𝑛 1 − 𝑛 1 + 𝑛 1 − 𝑛 2𝜋 1 + 𝑛 1 − 𝑛
1 1−𝑛+1+𝑛 2
= [ ]=
𝜋 1 − 𝑛2 𝜋(1 − 𝑛2)
𝟎 𝒇𝒐𝒓 𝒏 = 𝒐𝒅𝒅
∴ 𝒂𝒏 = { 𝟐
𝒇𝒐𝒓 𝒏 = 𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒏
𝝅(𝟏 − 𝒏𝟐)
Evaluation of 𝒃𝒏
2 𝑇 2 𝜋 1 𝜋( ( ) ( ) )
𝒃𝒏 = ∫0 𝑥(𝑡) 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑛𝛺0𝑡 𝑑𝑡 = ∫ 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑡 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑛𝑡 𝑑𝑡 = ∫ 𝑐𝑜𝑠 1 − 𝑛 𝑡 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠 1 + 𝑛 𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑇 2𝜋 0 2𝜋 0
1 𝑠𝑖𝑛(1 − 𝑛)𝑡 𝑠𝑖𝑛(1 + 𝑛)𝑡 𝜋 1 𝑠𝑖𝑛(1 − 𝑛)𝜋 𝑠𝑖𝑛(1 + 𝑛)𝜋
= [ − ] = [ − − 0] = 𝟎
2𝜋 (1 − 𝑛) (1 + 𝑛) 0 2𝜋 (1 − 𝑛) (1 + 𝑛)

Evaluation of Fourier coefficients of Cosine Fourier series from Trigonometric Fourier series:
1
𝐴0 = 𝑎0 =
𝜋
2 2
𝐴𝑛 = √𝑎𝑛 2 + 𝑏𝑛 = , 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑛 = 𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑛
𝜋(1 − 𝑛2)
𝑏𝑛
𝜃𝑛 = −𝑡𝑎𝑛 =0
−1

𝑎𝑛

Cosine Fourier
series ∞

x(t) = A0 + ∑ An cos(nΩ0t + θn )
n=1
∞
1 2 1 2 2
∑
∴ 𝑥(𝑡) = + 𝑛=1 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑛𝑡 = + 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2𝑡 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠 4𝑡 + ⋯
𝜋 (𝑛=𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑛 ) 𝜋(1 − 𝑛2) 𝜋 𝜋(1 − 4) 𝜋(1 − 16)
1 2 2 1 2 1 1
= − 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2𝑡 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠 4𝑡 + ⋯ = − [ 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2𝑡 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠 4𝑡 + ⋯ ]
𝜋 3𝜋 15𝜋 𝜋 𝜋 3 15

Fourier transform
The Fourier representation of periodic signals has been extended to non-periodic signals by
letting the fundamental period T tend to infinity and this Fourier method of representing non-
periodic signals as a function of frequency is called Fourier transform.
Definition of Continuous time Fourier Transform

6
 The Fourier transform (FT) of Continuous time signals is called Continuous Time Fourier
Transform
𝐿𝑒𝑡 𝑥(𝑡) = 𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑢𝑜𝑢𝑠 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑠𝑖𝑔𝑛𝑎𝑙
𝑋(𝑗Ω) = 𝐹{𝑥(𝑡)}
The Fourier transform of continuous time signal, x(t) is defined as,
∞

𝑋(𝑗Ω) = 𝐹{𝑥(𝑡)} = ∫ 𝑥(𝑡)𝑒−𝑗Ω𝑡 𝑑𝑡

−∞
Conditions for existence of Fourier transform
The Fourier transform 𝑥(𝑡) exist if it satisfies the following Dirichlet condition
1. 𝑥(𝑡) should be absolutely integrable
∞

𝑖𝑒 , ∫ 𝑥(𝑡)𝑑𝑡 < ∞
−∞

2. 𝑥(𝑡) should have a finite number of maxima and minima with in any finite interval.
3. 𝑥(𝑡) should have a finite number of discontinuities with in any interval.

Definition of Inverse Fourier Transform

The inverse Fourier Transform of 𝑋(𝑗Ω) is defined as,
1 ∞
𝑥(𝑡) = 𝐹−1{𝑋(𝑗Ω)} =
2𝜋 ∫ 𝑋(𝑗Ω)𝑒𝑗Ω𝑡 𝑑Ω
−∞

Example 5 Find Fourier transform of impulse signal

Solution:
By definition of Fourier transform
∞

𝐹{𝑥(𝑡)} = 𝑋(𝑗Ω) = ∫ 𝑥(𝑡)𝑒−𝑗Ω𝑡 𝑑𝑡

−∞
∞
∴ 𝐹[𝛿(𝑡)] = ∫ 𝛿(𝑡)𝑒−𝑗 𝛺𝑡 𝑑𝑡
−∞
1 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑡 = 0
𝐹[𝛿(𝑡)] = 𝛿(0)𝑒−𝑗 𝛺(0) =1 [∵ 𝐼𝑚𝑝𝑢𝑙𝑠𝑒 𝑠𝑖𝑔𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝛿(𝑡) = { ]
0 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑡 ≠ 0

Example 6 Find Fourier transform of double sided exponential signal

Solution:
Double sided exponential signal is given by
𝑒−𝑎𝑡 ∶𝑡≥0
𝐹[𝑒−𝑎|𝑡|] = {
𝑒 𝑎𝑡 ∶𝑡≤0
0 ∞ 0 ∞
𝐹[𝑒−𝑎|𝑡|] = ∫ 𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝑒−𝑗 𝛺𝑡 𝑑𝑡 + ∫ 𝑒−𝑎𝑡 . 𝑒−𝑗 𝛺𝑡 𝑑𝑡 = ∫ 𝑒(𝑎−𝑗 𝛺)𝑡 𝑑𝑡 + ∫ 𝑒−(𝑎+𝑗 𝛺)𝑡 𝑑𝑡
−∞ 0 −∞ 0
0 ∞ 1 𝑎+𝑗𝛺+𝑎−𝑗𝛺
=[ 𝑒(𝑎−𝑗 𝛺)𝑡 ] +[ 𝑒−(𝑎+𝑗 𝛺)𝑡 ] 1
𝑎−𝑗𝛺 −(𝑎 + 𝑗 𝛺 = + =
) 𝑎−𝑗𝛺 𝑎+𝑗𝛺 𝑎2 + 𝛺2
−∞ 0
2𝑎
=
𝑎2 + 𝛺2

7
 Example 7 Find Fourier transform of rectangular pulse function shown in figure
x(t)

-T/2 0 T/2 t

Solution:
−𝑇 𝑇
𝑥(𝑡) = 𝜋(𝑡) = 𝐴 ; ≤𝑡≤
2 2
𝑇 𝑇 𝑇
𝑇
2 𝑒−𝑗𝛺𝑡 2 𝐴 𝑇
−𝑗𝛺 2 𝑗𝛺
𝑇 2𝐴 𝑒 𝑗𝛺 2 − 𝑒 −𝑗𝛺 2 2𝐴 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝛺 𝑇
𝐹[𝜋(𝑡)] = ∫ 𝐴𝑒 −𝑗𝛺𝑡 𝑑𝑡 = 𝐴 [ ] = [𝑒 − 𝑒 2 ]= [ ]=
−𝑇2
−𝑗𝛺 𝑇 −𝑗𝛺 𝑗𝛺 2 𝛺 2
− 2

2𝐴 𝑇 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝛺2𝑇 𝑇
= 𝑇 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝛺 = 𝐴𝑇 𝑇 𝐴𝑇 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑐 𝛺
𝛺𝑇 2 𝛺2 2

Example 8 Find inverse Fourier transform 𝑋(𝑗 𝛺) = 𝛿(𝛺)

Solution:
∴ 𝐹−1[𝑋(𝑗 𝛺)] =
1 𝐹−1
∞ [𝛿(𝛺)]
1
( ) ( ) 𝑗 𝛺𝑡 1 ∞ ) 𝑗 𝛺𝑡 [ ] 1 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝛺 = 0
( )
𝑥 𝑡 = ∫ 𝑋 𝑗𝛺 𝑒 𝑑𝛺 = ∫ 𝛿 ( 𝛺 𝑒 𝑑𝛺 = 1 ∵ 𝛿 𝛺 ={
2𝜋 −∞ 2𝜋 −∞ 1 2𝜋 0 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝛺 ≠ 0
𝐹−1[𝛿(𝛺)] =
2𝜋

Laplace transform
It is used to transform a time domain to complex frequency domain signal(s-domain)

Two Sided Laplace transform (or) Bilateral Laplace transform

Let 𝑥(𝑡) be a continuous time signal defined for all values of 𝑡. Let 𝑋(𝑆) be Laplace transform of
𝑥(𝑡).
∞

𝐿{𝑥(𝑡)} = 𝑋(𝑆) = ∫ 𝑥(𝑡)𝑒−𝑆𝑡 𝑑𝑡

−∞

One sided Laplace transform (or) Unilateral Laplace transform

Let 𝑥(𝑡) be a continuous time signal defined for 𝑡 ≥ 0 (ie If 𝑥(𝑡) is causal) then,
∞

𝐿{𝑥(𝑡)} = 𝑋(𝑆) = ∫ 𝑥(𝑡)𝑒−𝑆𝑡 𝑑𝑡

0

Inverse Laplace transform

The S-domain signal 𝑋(𝑆) can be transformed to time domain signal x(t) by using inverse Laplace
transform.

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The inverse Laplace transform of X(S) is defined as,
1 𝑠=𝜎+𝑗Ω
𝐿−1{𝑋(𝑠)} = 𝑥(𝑡) =
2𝜋𝑗 ∫ 𝑋(𝑆)𝑒𝑠𝑡 𝑑𝑠
𝑠=𝜎−𝑗Ω

Existence of Laplace transform

The necessary and sufficient conditions for the existence of Laplace transform are
• 𝑥(𝑡) should be continuous in the given closed interval
• 𝑥(𝑡)𝑒−𝜎𝑡 must be absolutely intergrable
∞
𝑖. 𝑒. , 𝑋(𝑆) 𝑒𝑥𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑠 𝑜𝑛𝑙𝑦 𝑖𝑓 ∫−∞|𝑥(𝑡)𝑒−𝜎𝑡 |𝑑𝑡 < ∞

Example 9 Find unilateral Laplace transform for the following signals

𝒊) 𝒙(𝒕) = 𝜹(𝒕)
( ) ∞ ( ) −st ∞ −st −s(0) () 1 for t = 0
()
X S = ∫ x t e dt = ∫ δ t e dt = e =1 ∵δ t ={
0 0 0 for t ≠ 0

𝒊𝒊) 𝒙(𝒕) = 𝒖(𝒕)

∞ 1 for t ≥ 0
∞ ∞ 𝑒−𝑠𝑡
∞ 1
𝑋(𝑆) = ∫0 x(t)e dt = ∫0 u(t)e dt = ∫0 1𝑒 𝑑𝑡 = [
−st −st −𝑠𝑡 ] = ∵ u(t) = {
−𝑠 0 𝑠 0 for t < 0

Example 10 Find Laplace transform of 𝑥(𝑡) = 𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝑢(𝑡)

Solution:
∞ ∞ ∞
−(𝑠−𝑎)𝑡
𝑋(𝑆) = 𝐿[𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝑢(𝑡)] = ∫ 𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝑒−𝑠𝑡 𝑑𝑡 = ∫ 𝑒−(𝑠−𝑎)𝑡 𝑑𝑡 = [ 𝑒 ] = 1
(
− 𝑠 − 𝑎) 0 𝑠−𝑎
0 0

Example 11 Determine initial value and final value of the following signal 𝑋(𝑆) = 1
𝑠( 𝑠+2)
Solution:
Initial value
1 1
𝑥(0) = Lt 𝑆𝑋(𝑆) = Lt 𝑠 = =0
𝑠→∞ 𝑠→∞ 𝑠(𝑠 + 2) ∞
Final value
1 1
𝑥(∞) = Lt 𝑆𝑋(𝑆) = Lt 𝑠 =
𝑠→0 𝑠→0 𝑠(𝑠 + 2) 2
2+9𝑆+1
Example 12 Find inverse Laplace Transform of 𝑋(𝑆) = 𝑆
𝑆[𝑆2 +6𝑆+8]. Find ROC for 𝑖) 𝑅𝑒(𝑠) > 0
𝑖𝑖) 𝑅𝑒(𝑠) < −4 𝑖𝑖𝑖) − 2 > 𝑅𝑒(𝑠) > −4
Solution:

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 𝑆2 + 9𝑆 + 1 𝑆2 + 9𝑆 + 1 𝐴 𝐵 𝐶
( )
X 𝑆 = = = + +
𝑆[𝑆2 + 6𝑆 + 8] 𝑆(𝑆 + 4)(𝑆 + 2) 𝑆 (𝑆 + 4) (𝑆 + 2)
𝑆2 + 9𝑆 + 1 = 𝐴(𝑆 + 4)(𝑆 + 2) + B𝑆(𝑆 + 2) + C𝑆(𝑆 + 4)
at 𝑆 = 0 𝑆 = −4 𝑆 = −2
1 19 13
𝐴= 𝐵=− 𝐶=
8 8 1 19 13 4
∴ 𝑋(𝑆) = 8 + − 8 4
( +
𝑆 𝑆 + 4 ) (𝑆 + 2)
Applying inverse Laplace transform 1
( ) ( ) 19 −4𝑡 13 −2𝑡

𝑥 𝑡 = 𝑢 𝑡 − 𝑒 𝑢(𝑡) + 𝑒 𝑢(𝑡)
8 8 4

ROC
𝒊) 𝑹𝒆(𝒔) > 𝟎
jΩ
ROC lies right
1 side of all poles
( ) ( ) 19 −4𝑡 13 −2𝑡
∴𝑥 𝑡 = 𝑢 𝑡 − 𝑒 𝑢(𝑡) + 𝑒 𝑢(𝑡)
-4 -2 0 σ 8 8 4

𝒊𝒊) 𝑹𝒆(𝒔) < −𝟒

jΩ
ROC lies left side of all poles
1 19
∴ 𝑥(𝑡) = − 𝑢(−𝑡) + 𝑒 −4𝑡 𝑢(−𝑡) − 13 𝑢(−𝑡)
-4 -2 0 σ 8 8
𝑒−2𝑡
4

𝒊𝒊𝒊) − 𝟐 > 𝑅𝑒(𝒔) > −𝟒

ROC lies left side of poles s=-2, s=0 and right side of
jΩ pole s=-4 1
( ) ( ) 19 −4𝑡 ( ) 13 −2𝑡
∴ 𝑥 𝑡 = − 𝑢 −𝑡
8
-4 -2 0 σ

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