Presentations

 Group 1 (1-10) 1.Finite Impulse Response Filters

2.Infinite impulse Response Filters

 Group 2(11-20) 1. Digital filters

2.Ideal and Practical Digital Filters
3.Realization of Digital Filters
 Digital Signal Processing
Applications
HETT403

LECTURE 1

Eng. Matsiya B
brianmatsiya@gmail.com
 Chapter 1

Introduction to signal processing

 What is Digital Signal Processing?

To understand what is Digital Signal Processing (DSP) we need to examine what does each of its words mean.
 Definitions
Signal
A signal is defined as any physical quantity that varies with time, space, or ay other independent variable or variables.

Signal Processing
Signal processing is the manipulation of the properties of a specific signal to obtain a signal with more desirable
properties.

System
A system may be defined as a physical device that performs an operation on a signal; For our purposes, it is convenient to
broaden the definition of a system to include not only physical devices, but also software realizations of operations on a
signal.
For instance: When we pass a signal through a “system”, as in filtering, we say we have processed the signal.
Examples of Signals
 Examples of Signals

• ex human voice , voltage etc.

• Signals can be :
• voice
• videos or images
• temperature records
• stock prices
• health records
• Human voice
• Voltage
Examples of Systsems
 Examples of Systems
 Aircraft : -Input position of control stick output :position of aircraft
 Stereo Amplifier : -Input voltage from CD player , Output voltage to speakers
 Cell phone ; Input RF signal into antenna Output Voltage to Speaker
 etc…
DSP Areas of Application ?
DSP Areas of Application ?

 Audio compression,
 digital image processing,
 compression of videos,
 speech processing and recognition,
 digital communications,
 radio detection ,
 seismology, and sound navigation
 Satellite communication
 The Components of Digital Signal
Processing

 Computation: performs mathematical operations and processes by accessing the

program from the program memory and the information stored in the data memory
 Data Memory: stores the information to be processed and works with program
memory
 Program Memory: stores the programs; the processor uses the program memory to
compress or manipulate data.
 Input/Output Ports: used for data processing and analysis.
Signal classification and Properties
 Continuous Time (CT) Sinusoidal Signals
A simple harmonic oscillation is mathematically describe by the following continuous-time sinusoidal signal:
𝑥𝑎 𝑡 = 𝐴𝑐𝑜𝑠 Ω𝑡 + 𝜃 , −∞ < 𝑡 < ∞ (1.1)
The subscript 𝒂, used with 𝑥(𝑡) denotes an analog signal. This signal is completely characterized by three
parameters:
𝑨 is the amplitude of the sinusoid;
𝜴 is the frequency n radians per second (𝒓𝒂𝒅Τ𝒔), and
𝜽 is the phase in radians. Instead of 𝜴, we often use the frequency 𝐹 in cycles per second or hertz (𝐻𝑧) where;

Ω = 2𝜋𝐹 (1.2)
Substituting (1.2) into (1.1) we get:
(1.3)
𝑥𝑎 𝑡 = 𝐴𝑐𝑜𝑠 2𝜋𝐹𝑡 + 𝜃 , −∞ < 𝑡 < ∞
 Continuous Time Signal
The Fig. below is an illustration of a continuous time signal because we can get value of signal at each instant of time

.
 Signal Definition: Discrete Time (DT) signal
Discrete-time signals are a set of numbers or sequences formed from a set of samples taken
from an analog signal or they may be words taken from digital binary data.
These are signals defined at distinct instances of time, i.e. a discrete time signal is a sequence of
numbers 𝑥, where the 𝑛𝑡ℎ number in the sequence is represented 𝑥 𝑛 where 𝑛 is an integer.

Therefore, every independent variable, 𝑛, has distinct value.

Discrete-time signals are often created from sampling continuous time signal.
 Discrete Time Signal
The Fig. below is an illustration of a discrete time signal.
Mathematically, a discrete time signal can be formularized as: 𝑥 = 𝑥 𝑛 , −∞ < 𝑛 < ∞, where 𝑛 is an integer.

.
 Discrete Time (DT) Sinusoidal Signals
A discrete time sinusoidal signal may be expressed as:
𝑥 𝑛 = 𝐴𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜔𝑛 + 𝜃 , −∞ < 𝑛 < ∞ (1.4)
Where n is an integer variable called the sample number, 𝐴 is the amplitude of the sinusoid; 𝜔
is the frequency in radians per sample (𝑟𝑎𝑑ൗ𝑠𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑒), and 𝜃 is the phase in radians.
If instead of 𝜔, we use the frequency variable 𝑓 defined by:

(1.5)
𝜔 = 2𝜋𝑓
Substituting (1.5) into (1.4) we get:

𝑥 𝑛 = 𝐴𝑐𝑜𝑠 2𝜋𝑓𝑛 + 𝜃 , −∞ < 𝑡 < ∞ (1.6)

The frequency 𝑓 has dimensions of cycles per sample.
 Properties of Discrete Time (DT) Sinusoids
A discrete time sinusoid is periodic only if its frequency, 𝒇, is a rational number.
By definition, a discrete-time signal 𝑥 𝑛 is periodic with period N (𝑵 > 0) if and only if :
𝑥 𝑛 + 𝑵 = 𝑥 𝑛 , for all n (1.7)
The smallest value of N for (1.7) is true is called the fundamental period.
The proof of periodicity property is simple.
For a sinusoid with frequency 𝑓0 to be periodic, we should have:
𝑐𝑜𝑠 2𝜋𝑓0 𝑵 + 𝑛 + 𝜃 = cos(2𝜋𝑓0 + 𝜃),

This relation is true if and only if there exists an integer k such that;
2𝜋𝑓0 𝑵 = 2𝑘𝜋,
Or equivalently:
𝑘
𝑓0 = (1.8)
𝑵
 Properties of Discrete Time (DT) Sinusoids
The highest rate of oscillation in a discrete-time sinusoid is attained when
𝟏 𝟏
𝝎 = 𝝅 (𝝎 = −𝝅) or equivalently, 𝒇 = (𝒇 = − ).
𝟐 𝟐
To illustrate this property, let us investigate the characteristics of the sinusoidal signal
sequence.
By definition, a definition a discrete-time signal 𝑥 𝑛 is periodic with period N (𝑵 >
0) if and only if :
𝑥 𝑛 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜔0 𝑛
 Basic Continuous Time Signals

In general, to test a system, standard or basic signals are used. These signals
are the basic building blocks for many complex signals. Hence, they play a
very important role in the study of signals and systems.
 Analog vs Digital
Recap on basic continuous time signals and DT signals.

Analog Signals Digital Signals

Continuous Discrete

Infinite range of values Finite range of values

More exact values, but Not as exact as analog, but easier

more difficult to work with to work with
Signal types:

• Unit Step Function (Heaviside)

• Unit Step impulse Function
• Ramp Signal
• Parabolic Signal
• Signum Function
• Exponential Function
• Rectangular Signal
• Triangular Signal
 Basic Discrete-Time (DT) signals: Unit impulse signal
It is denoted as 𝛿(𝑛) in discrete time domain and can be defined as;
 Basic Discrete-Time (DT) signals: Unit step signal
Discrete time unit step signal is defined as
 Basic Discrete-Time (DT) signals: Unit ramp signal
A discrete unit ramp function can be defined as;
 Basic DT signals: The discrete-time sinusoidal sequence
The discrete-time sinusoidal sequence is given by:

Where 𝜔0 is the normalized digital frequency is 𝑟𝑎𝑑/𝑠.

Classification of signals
Deterministic and Non-deterministic Signals

 A signal is said to be deterministic if there is no uncertainty with respect to its value at

any instant of time. Or, signals which can be defined exactly by a mathematical formula
are known as deterministic signals
 Classification: Even or Odd signals
Discrete time signals can be classified according to the conditions or operations on the
signals.
Even Signal
A signal is said to be even or symmetric if it satisfies the following condition;
𝑥(−𝑛) = 𝑥(𝑛)
Odd Signal
A signal is said to be odd if it satisfies the following condition;
𝑥 −𝑛 = −𝑥(𝑛)
Exercise (Even vs Odd)
 Classification: Periodic or Non-Periodic signals
Periodic Signal
A discrete time signal is periodic if and only if, it satisfies the following condition:
𝑥(𝑛 + 𝑁) = 𝑥(𝑛)
Here, the sequence 𝑥 𝑛 repeats after a period 𝑁. This can be best understood by considering
a cosine signal: 𝑥(𝑛) = 𝐴cos(2𝜋𝑓0 𝑛 + 𝜃)
Now,
𝑥(𝑛 + 𝑁) = 𝐴cos(2𝜋𝑓0 (𝑛 + 𝑁) + 𝜃) = 𝐴cos(2𝜋𝑓0 𝑛 + 2𝜋𝑓0 𝑁 + 𝜃)

For the signal to become periodic, the following condition should be satisfied;
𝑥(𝑛 + 𝑁) = 𝑥(𝑛) => 𝐴cos(2𝜋𝑓0 𝑛 + 2𝜋𝑓0 𝑁 + 𝜃) = 𝐴cos(2𝜋𝑓0 𝑛 + 𝜃)
i.e. 2𝜋𝑓0𝑁 is an integral multiple of 2𝜋
2𝜋𝑓0𝑁 = 2𝜋𝐾
=> 𝑁 = 𝐾/𝑓0
Frequencies of discrete sinusoidal signals are separated by integral multiples of
2𝜋.
 Classification: Energy or Power signal
Discrete time signals can be classified according to the conditions or operations on the
signals.
Energy Signal
The energy of a discrete time signal, 𝐸, can be written as;

If each individual values of 𝑥(𝑛) are squared and added, we get the energy signal. Here
𝑥(𝑛) is the energy signal and its energy is finite over time i.e. 0 < 𝐸 < ∞
Power Signal
Average power of a discrete signal is represented as 𝑃. Mathematically, this can be written
as;

Here, power is finite i.e. 0 < 𝑃 < ∞.

However, there are some signals, which belong to neither energy nor power type signal.
Classification of systems

 Linear vs Non Linear

 Time Variant and Time Invariant Systems
 Static and Dynamic
 Causal and Non-Causal
 Linearity
A discrete-time system is said to be linear if the superposition principle holds.

This implies that if the response to the input 𝑥1 (𝑛) is 𝑦1 (𝑛) and the response to
the input 𝑥2 (𝑛) is 𝑦2 (𝑛) then the response to a linear combination
𝛼𝑥1 𝑛 + 𝛽𝑥1 (𝑛) is 𝛼𝑦1 𝑛 + 𝛽𝑦2 (𝑛), where 𝛼 and 𝛽 are arbitrary constants
and 𝑥1 𝑛 and 𝑥2 𝑛 are signals of any value.

This property makes it possible to represent a complex sequence as a weighted

sum of simple sequences and determine the response of the complex sequence
as a sum of the responses of the weighted simple sequences.
Linear Systems : The system which
follows the principle of superposition
 1. Laws of additivity
 Law of homogeneity
 Stability
A stable system satisfies the BIBO (bounded input for bounded output)
condition. Here, bounded means finite in amplitude. For a stable system, output
should be bounded or finite, for finite or bounded input, at every instant of
time.
Some examples of bounded inputs are functions of sine, cosine, DC, signum and
unit step.

Examples: 𝒚(𝒕) = 𝒙(𝒕) + 𝟏𝟎

Here, for a definite bounded input, we can get definite bounded output i.e. if we put
𝑥(𝑡) = 2, 𝑦(𝑡) = 12 which is bounded in nature. Therefore, the system is stable.
 Unstable Systems
Unstable systems do not satisfy the BIBO conditions. Therefore, for a bounded
input, we cannot expect a bounded output in case of unstable systems.
Example: 𝒚(𝒕) = 𝒕𝒙(𝒕)
Here, for a finite input, we cannot expect a finite output. For example, if we
will put 𝑥(𝑡) = 2 => 𝑦(𝑡) = 2𝑡. This is not a finite value because we do not
know the value of t. So, it can be ranged from anywhere. Therefore, this system
is not stable. It is an unstable system.
 Basic System Properties
Causal Systems
For the system to be causal, it should dependent on present and past input values
only, i.e. should be independent from the future input values.
Causal systems are practically or physically realizable system.
Non-causal Systems
A non-causal system dependends on future values of the input at any instance of time.
Causal system vs Non Causal system

 Causal System : Output of a system is independent of future values of input

 Non-Causal System: Output of system depends on future values of input at

any instant of time
Static System vs Dynamic

 Static system :Output of system depend only on present values of input

 Dynamic System : Output of system depends on past or future values of

input at any instant of time
Dynamic Systems
If a system depends upon the past and future value of the signal at any instant of the
time then it is known as dynamic system. Unlike static systems, these are not
memory less systems. They store past and future values. Therefore, they require some
memory. Let us understand this theory better through some examples.
Example
Find out whether the following systems are dynamic.
𝒚(𝒕)=𝒙(𝒕+𝟏)
In this case if we put t=1 in the equation, it will be converted to x(2), which is a
future dependent value. Because here we are giving input as 1 but it is showing
value for x(2). As it is a future dependent signal, so clearly it is a dynamic system.
 Time-Invariance
This property is sometimes referred to as the shift-invariance property. A system is said to be
time invariant if the output is independent of time at which the input is applied.

Mathematically we can state that the system is time invariant if the response to
the input 𝑥(𝑛) is 𝑦(𝑛) then the response to input 𝑥(𝑛 − 𝑛0 ) is y(𝑛 − 𝑛0 ).

A system that satisfies both the linearity and the time-invariance properties is referred
to as a Linear-Time Invariant (LTI) system. LTI systems are easy to model and analyze;
the input output relationship can be represented by a convolution process.
Time Variant and Time Invariant
Systems
Basic Operations on DT signals
 Shifting
Shifting means movement of the signal, either in time domain (around X-axis) or in
amplitude domain (around Y-axis). We can classify the shifting into two categories named as
Time shifting and Amplitude shifting

Time Shifting
Time shifting means, shifting of signals in the time domain. Mathematically, it can be written as
𝑥(𝑛) → 𝑦(𝑛 + 𝑘)
This 𝑘 value may be positive or it may be negative. According to the sign of 𝑘 value, we have two
types of shifting named as Right shifting and Left shifting.
 Shifting: Left shifting
Left shifting
When 𝑘 is greater than zero, the shifting of the signal takes place to the left in
the time domain. Therefore, this type of shifting is known as Left Shifting of
the signal.

Right shifting
When 𝑘 s less than zero the shifting of signal takes place towards right in the
time domain. Therefore, this type of shifting is known as Right shifting.
 Multiplication
The multiplication of two sequences 𝑥(𝑛) and 𝑦(𝑛) to form a new sequence 𝑧(𝑛) is
achieved by multiplying corresponding samples.

If the sequences are not the sample length they are padded with zeros to make them defined in
exactly the same range.
 Multiplication by constant
The multiplication of a sequences 𝑥 𝑛 by a constant 𝛼 to obtain a new sequence 𝑦(𝑛) is
achieved if each sample of the sequence 𝑥(𝑛) is multiplied by the constant.
 Addition
The addition of two sequences 𝑥 𝑛 and y 𝑛 to obtain a new sequence 𝑧(𝑛) is achieved by
adding corresponding samples. If the sequences are not the sample length they are padded
with zeros to make them defined in exactly the same range.
subtraction
 Delay
A sequences 𝑥 𝑛 is delayed by one unit delay to give a new sequence y 𝑛 if each sample
of 𝑥 𝑛 is delayed by the same unit delay. A unit delay is represented by a multiplication by
𝑧 −1 in the 𝑧 − domain.
 Convolution
The convolution of two signals in the time domain is equivalent to the multiplication of their
representation in frequency domain.

Mathematically, we can write the convolution of two signals as:

Steps for convolution

)
 Properties of Convolution
Commutative
It states that the order of convolution does not matter, which can be shown
mathematically as
𝑥1(𝑡)∗𝑥2(𝑡)=𝑥2(𝑡)∗𝑥1(𝑡)

Associative
It states that order of convolution involving three signals, can be anything.
Mathematically, it can be shown as;
𝑥1(𝑡)∗[𝑥2(𝑡)∗𝑥3(𝑡)]=[𝑥1(𝑡)∗𝑥2(𝑡)]∗𝑥3(𝑡)
Distributive
Two signals can be added first, and then their convolution can be made to the
third signal. This is equivalent to convolution of two signals individually with
the third signal and added finally. Mathematically, this can be written as;
𝑥1(𝑡)∗[𝑥2(𝑡)+𝑥3(𝑡)]=[𝑥1(𝑡)∗𝑥2(𝑡)+𝑥1(𝑡)∗𝑥3(𝑡)]
Delay
Suppose a signal 𝑦(𝑡) is a result from the convolution of two signals 𝑥1(𝑡) and 𝑥2(𝑡). If the two signals are
delayed by time t1 and 𝑡2 respectively, then the resultant signal 𝑦(𝑡) will be delayed by
(𝑡1 + 𝑡2). Mathematically, it can be written as-

If,
𝑥1(𝑡) ∗ 𝑥2(𝑡) = 𝑦(𝑡)
Then,
𝑥1(𝑡 − 𝑡1) ∗ 𝑥2(𝑡 − 𝑡2) = 𝑦[𝑡 − (𝑡1 + 𝑡2)]
 Stability
A stable system satisfies the BIBO (bounded input for bounded output)
condition. Here, bounded means finite in amplitude. For a stable system, output
should be bounded or finite, for finite or bounded input, at every instant of
time.
Some examples of bounded inputs are functions of sine, cosine, DC, signum and
unit step.

Examples: 𝒚(𝒕) = 𝒙(𝒕) + 𝟏𝟎

Here, for a definite bounded input, we can get definite bounded output i.e. if we put
𝑥(𝑡) = 2, 𝑦(𝑡) = 12 which is bounded in nature. Therefore, the system is stable.
 Unstable Systems
Unstable systems do not satisfy the BIBO conditions. Therefore, for a bounded
input, we cannot expect a bounded output in case of unstable systems.
Example: 𝒚(𝒕) = 𝒕𝒙(𝒕)
Here, for a finite input, we cannot expect a finite output. For example, if we
will put 𝑥(𝑡) = 2 => 𝑦(𝑡) = 2𝑡. This is not a finite value because we do not
know the value of t. So, it can be ranged from anywhere. Therefore, this system
is not stable. It is an unstable system.
END OF LECTURE 1