basics-of-electronics-chapter-2

Semiconcuctors and Diodes & Transistors 1
Chapter-2
Semiconcuctors Diodes & Transistors
Contents
 Semiconcuctors and Diodes: Energy Band of Insulators, Conductors and Semi Conductors Intrinsic and
extrinsic semiconductors.
 PN junction diode, barrier potential, V-I characteristics.
 Special Purpose Diodes: Zener diode, Varactor diodes ,Light Emitting Diodes (LEDs),photo diodes,
Solar cell.
 Specification parameters of diodes and numbering.
 Bipolar Junction Transistors: Structure, typical doping, Principle of operation,Detailed study of input
and output characteristics of common emitter configuration,Transistor specifications.
2.1 Introduction
A semiconductor material is one whose electrical properties lie in between those of insulators and
good conductors. Examples are: germanium and silicon. In terms of energy bands, semiconductors can be
defined as those materials which have almost an empty conduction band and almost filled valence band with a
very narrow energy gap (of the order of 1 eV) separating the two. Some materials are intrinsic semiconductors.
An intrinsic semiconductor is one which is made of the semiconductor material in its extremely pure form. The
semiconducting properties occur in these materials naturally. However, most of the semiconducting materials
used in electronics are extrinsic. Those intrinsic semiconductors to which some suitable impurity or doping
agent has been added in extremely small amounts are called extrinsic or impurity semiconductors. Depending
on the type of doping material used, extrinsic semiconductors can be sub-divided in to N-type and P-type
semiconductors.
The p-n junction is a homojunction between a p-type and an n-type semiconductor. It acts as a diode, which
can serve in electronics as a rectifier, logic gate, voltage regulator (Zener diode), switching or tuner (varactor
diode); and in optoelectronics as a light-emitting diode (LED), photodiode or solar cell. In a relatively simplified
view of semiconductor materials, we can envision a semiconductor as having two types of charge carriers-
holes and free electrons which travel in opposite directions when the semiconductor is subject to an external
electric field, giving rise to a net flow of current in the direction of the electric field.
Muhammed Riyas A.M,Assistant Professor,Dept. of ECE,MCET Pathanamthitta

2.2 Semi Conductors and Junction Diodes
The electrical properties of a material depend largely upon how tightly outer electrons with in the
atoms of that material are bound to the central nucleus. On the basis of this, materials can be classified in to
the following three groups.
 Conductors
 Insulators
 Semi conductors
Material in which the electrons are loosely bound to the central nucleus is called conductor.In the
conductor electrons are free to drift around the material at random from one atom to another.
Examples: Copper, Aluminium, Silver etc.
Material in which the outer electrons are tightly bound to the nucleus is called insulator. There are no free
electrons in insulator to move around the material.
Examples: PVC, Rubber, Wood etc.
Semi conductors are those materials their conductivity lies in between the conductivity of conductors and
insulators and are called Semi conductors.
Examples: Germanium, Silicon, Carbon etc.
As per the rule of octate, the electrical properties of materials can again be defined on the basis of valance
electrons (the electrons in the outer most orbits) numbers.
If the number of valance electrons is less than 4, the material is generally called conductor. Instead of
accepting electrons, it is easier to donate electrons to fill the outer sub shell as 8. If the number of valance
electrons is more than 4, the material is generally called insulator. Instead of donating electrons, it is easier to
accept lesser electrons to fill the outer sub shell. If the number of valance electrons is equal to 4, the material
is generally called semi conductor. Here the probability of donating and accepting electrons is equal.
2.2.1 Energy Bands:
In a single isolated atom, the electrons in the any orbit possess a definite energy. However an atom in
solid is greatly influenced by the closely packed neighboring atoms. The electrons of the outer sub shell are
shared by more than one atom in solid, the energy levels of outer shell electrons are changed considerably.

Because of this, electrons in the same shell have a range of energies rather than a single energy. This range of
energy is known as energy bands.
The figure shows the basic concept of energy bands in solid. The electrons in the first orbit have range
st nd
of energy and form the 1 energy band. In the same way second orbit electrons form the 2 energy band;
third orbit electrons form the 3rd energy band and so on. The following are the more important energy bands.
 Valance Band
Valance band in a solid is the energy band possessed by the valance electrons. Under normal
condition valance band has the electrons of highest energy. Depending on materials this band may be filled
completely or partially.
 Conduction Band
The energy band which possesses the conduction electrons in a solid is called Conduction Band. In
metals, the valance electrons are loosely attached to the nucleus and they can be easily detached. These
electrons are called free electrons or conduction electrons. They are responsible for the conduction of current
through the material. The current conduction is not possible, if there are no free electrons in the conduction
band.
The gap between the valance band and conduction band is called forbidden energy gap. The width of
energy gap represent, how stronger the valance electrons are bonded to the nucleus. The greater the gap
more tightly the valance electrons are bonded to the nucleus. To make valance electron free, an external
energy equal to the forbidden energy gap must be supplied to lift the electrons from the valance band to the
conduction band. The forbidden energy gap is usually expressed in terms of electron volt (eV).

2.2.1.2 Energy Band of Insulators, Conductors and Semi Conductors:
The electrical behavior of solid can be explained with the help of energy bands.
 Insulators
Fig (a) shows the energy band diagram of insulators. Here the valance band is full while the
conduction band is empty. More over the energy gap between valance band and conduction band is very large
(15 eV).Therefore a very high electric field is required to lift the valance electrons to the conduction band. Due
to this reason the electrical conductivity of insulator is extremely small and can be regarded as zero under
normal condition.
 Conductors
In the energy band diagram of conductors, there is no forbidden energy gap between the valance
band and the conduction band .The two bands actually overlap as shown in fig(b).It indicates that, the valance
band energies are the same as the conduction band energies and it is very easy for a valance electron to
become a conduction electron. Therefore without supplying additional energy these materials can have a large
number of free electrons and act as good conductors.

 Semi Conductors
In the case of semi conductors, the valance band is almost filled and conduction band is empty. But
the forbidden energy gap is very small (1 eV) as shown in fig(c).There fore comparatively a smaller electric field
(smaller than required in the case of insulator but greater than conductor) is required to lift the valance
electrons to the conduction band. Thus the conductivity of semiconductor lies between a conductor and
insulator.
2.2.2 Intrinsic Semi Conductor:
A semi conductor in its purest form is known as intrinsic semi conductor. To form molecules of
matters, the atoms in every element are held together by the bonding action of valance electrons. Each atom
has the tendency to fill its outer most shell by acquiring eight electrons in it. In the case of an intrinsic
semiconductor such as Ge or Si, it has only four electrons in its outer shell of its atom. To fill the shell as eight it
requires four electrons more. This is acquired by forming bond through sharing one valance electron from
each of the neighboring atoms. Such bonds are called Co-valent bond. Thus in semi-conductors the atoms are

arranged themselves in a uniform three dimensional pattern, so that each atom is surrounded by four atoms.
This orderly pattern is known as crystal.
Figure shows a two dimensional symbolic representation of silicon crystal. Here each of the valance
electrons of silicon atom is shared by one of its four nearest neighbors to form covalent bond. At this state all
the valance electron within the crystal are tightly bond to the parent atoms and no free electrons are available
to cause electrical conduction. Therefore at absolute zero temperature, intrinsic semi conductor act as a
perfect insulator.
Due to temperature, covalent bond with in an intrinsic semi conductor will break and free electrons
and holes are produced. This process is called electron hole pair generation. The number of free electrons is
equal to the number of holes. These free electrons and holes moves in the crystal in a random manner. If an
electron meeting a hole in a broken covalent bond and covalent bond is re-established. This process is called
electron hole recombination.
2.2.3 Extrinsic Semi Conductor:
The conductivity of the intrinsic semiconductor can be increased by adding small amount of
impurities. The process of adding impurities to the intrinsic (pure) semiconductor is called doping. The doped
semiconductor is then called extrinsic (impure) semi conductor.
Depending on the dopant (impurity) used, extrinsic semi conductor can be divided in to two classes.
 N-type Semi conductor.

 P-type Semi conductor.
 N-type Semi conductor
N-type semi conductor is an extrinsic semi conductor doped with a pentavalent impurity like
Antimony, Phosphorus and Arsenic etc.The fig(a) shows the crystal structure obtained when a silicon is doped
with a pentavalent impurity.
Here four of the five valance electrons of impurity atom form covalent bonds with the surrounding
four silicon atoms and the fifth will be nominally unbounded and is free to move about the crystal. This
electron can be easily exited from the valance band to the conduction band by applying negligible amount of
energy. Here each impurity atom provides one free electron into the silicon crystal. This type of impurity
provides millions of free electrons and hence fifth valent elements are called donors. In N-type semi
conductor, the number of free electrons provided by the pentavalent impurity is far exceeding the number of
holes (thermally generated) in the crystal. Thus N-type semi conductor has a relatively large number of free
electrons called majority carriers and few thermally generated holes called minority carriers. Due to the
predominance of negative charged electrons over positive charged holes, this type of semiconductor is called
N-type semi conductor. The N-type semi conductor can be represented as shown in fig (b).It consists of
 Free electrons (Majority carriers).
 Holes (Minority Carriers).
 Immobile positive ions.

 P-type Semi conductor
P-type semi conductor is an extrinsic semi conductor doped with a trivalent impurity like Gallium,
indium and Boron etc.The fig (a) shows the crystal structure obtained when silicon is doped with a trivalent
impurity.
Here three valance electrons of impurity atom form covalent bonds with the surrounding three silicon
atoms. The fourth neighboring atom of silicon is unable to form a covalent bond with the impurity atom,
because the impurity atom does not have the fourth electron in its valence orbit. Hence the fourth covalent
bond is incomplete because of shortage of one electron. This vacancy of electron existing in the fourth bond
constitutes a hole with the positive charge associated with it. Hole has a tendency to snatch the electron from
the neighboring atom. Here each atom of trivalent impurity gives one free hole to the crystal .Hence this type
of impurity is called accepter. Thus P-type semi conductor has a relatively large number of holes called
majority carriers and few thermally generated free electrons called minority carriers.

Due to the predominance of positive charged holes over negative charged electrons, this type of
semiconductor is called P-type semi conductor. The P-type semi conductor can be represented as shown in fig
(b).
It consists of
 Holes (Majority carriers).
 Free electrons (Minority Carriers).
 Immobile negative ions.
2.2.4 PN Junction:
When P-type and N-type semi conductor is suitably joined to an N-type semi conductor, PN junction is
formed. Such a PN junction is the basic building block on which the operation of all semi conductor devices
depends.PN junction is cannot be made by simply pushing the pieces together but fabricated by special
techniques such as growing, allowing diffusing etc.
The P-region has holes and acceptor ions and N-region has electrons and doner ions. Here electrons
and holes are mobile and ions are immobile. The electrons in the N-type material diffuse into the P-type and
combine with holes in P-type material, creating negatively charged ions in the P-type material nearby junction.
Similarly holes from P-type material diffuse into the N-type material and combine with electrons in the N-type
material, creating positively charged ions particularly in the region close to the junction in N-type material.
After a few recombinations of electrons and holes, a narrow width of fixed positive charge on N-side
of the junction and fixed negative charge on P-side of the junction formed as shown in figure. This region is
known as depletion region. This region has immobile ions which are electrically charged, hence the region is
also called space charge region. Due to this region further diffusion is prevented, because now positive charge
on N-side repels holes to cross from P-type to N-type and negative charge on P-type repels electrons to enter
from N-type to P-type. Thus barrier is setup against further movement of charge carriers and is called potential

barrier or junction barrier. For Silicon PN junction barrier potential is about .7 volt where as for Germanium, it
is .3 volt.
PN Junction with Forward Bias:
When an external voltage is applied to the PN junction in such a way that positive terminal of the
battery is connected to the P-type and negative terminal of the battery is connected to the N-type. This
arrangement is called forward biased. At this arrangement holes in P-type will be repelled by the positive
terminal of the battery and moves towards the junction. Similarly electrons in N-type are repelled by the
negative terminal of the battery and moves towards the junction. As a result potential barrier is weakened and
width of the depletion region is reduced. Thus majority carriers diffuse across the junction. If the forward
voltage is greater than the potential barrier voltage, the depletion region will be completely eliminated and as
a result current will increases through the junction. This current is called forward current. Current is carried by
free electrons in the N-region and holes in P-region. But through the external circuit, current is carried by only
free electrons.

PN Junction with Reverse Bias:
When an external voltage is applied to the PN junction in such a way that positive terminal of the
battery is connected to the N-type and negative terminal of the battery is connected to the P-type. This
arrangement is called reverse biased. At this arrangement holes in P-type will be attracted by the negative
terminal of the battery and moves away from the junction. Similarly electrons in N-type are attracted by the
positive terminal of the battery and moves away from the junction. As a result potential barrier is increased
and depletion region is widened. The increased potential barrier prevents the flow of majority charge carriers
across the junction. Thus a high resistance is established by the junction and practically no current will flow
through the junction. But this potential barrier helps the minority carriers to cross the junction. Minority
carriers are thermally generated and are temperature dependent but independent of reverse bias voltage up
to certain limit. The current due to the flow of minority carriers is known as reverse saturation current.
Break down in PN Junction:
If the reverse bias voltage is increased beyond a certain limit, a new phenomenon called break down
occurs. In this region high current may be passed through the junction. This high current may generate large
amount of heat to destroy the junction. The two processes are responsible for junction break down in reverse
biased condition namely,
 Avalanche break down
 Zener break down
Avalanche Break Down:
When a very large negative bias is applied to the p-n junction, sufficient energy is imparted to charge
carriers that reverse current can flow, well beyond the normal reverse saturation current. In addition, because
of the large electric field, electrons are energized to such levels that if they collide with other charge carriers at
a lower energy level, some of their energy is transferred to the carriers with low energy, and these can now

contribute to the reverse conduction process, as well. This process is called impact ionization. Now, these new
carriers may also have enough energy to energize other low energy electrons by impact ionization, so that
once a sufficiently high reverse bias is provided, this process of conduction takes place very much like an
avalanche: a single electron can ionize several others. This phenomenon is known as avalanche break down.
Zener Break Down:
When increasing reverse bias voltage across the junction, the electric field at the junction also
increases. This high electric field causes covalent bonds within the crystal to break. Thus a large number of
charge carriers become available. Thus a large current to flow through the junction, This phenomenon is called
zener break down.
2.2.5 Semi conductor Diodes:
Diode is a two terminal device consisting of a PN junction formed either in Ge or Si crystal. Here the
terminal on the P-side is called the anode and the terminal on the N-side is called the cathode. In the symbol
of the diode anode is identified by large arrow. The forward current direction in the diode is in the direction of
the arrow(ie,from P to N).The PN junction conducts the current only when it is in forward biased and no
current flows through it when it is in reverse biased(i.e. ,current flows in only one direction). Thus the diode is
called uni directional device.
2.2.5.1 VI characteristics of junction Diode:
VI characteristics of a junction Diode represents the relation between the applied voltage across the
diode and the current that flows through it. The circuit arrangement to plot the VI characteristic of a diode is
shown in fig (a).

In the circuit the potentiometer P can be varied to set the bias across the diode at different levels, the
corresponding voltage and current can be noted from the voltmeter and ammeter connected in the circuit. Fig
(b) shows a typical VI characteristic of a Silicon junction Diode. From the curve it is clear that, when no external
voltage is applied across the diode, no current flow through the circuit (point ‘o’ in the graph).
During forward bias condition (anode is connected to positive terminal and cathode is connected to
negative terminal of the supply), the diode current is very small and increases very slowly till external voltage
exceeds the barrier voltage (.3V in Ge and .7V in Si). The reason for slow increase of current in this region is
that the external voltage applied is used to overcome the potential barrier. Above this voltage even a small
increase of forward voltage produces a sharp increase in current. This voltage at which current starts to
increase rapidly is called the cut in voltage or knee voltage.
The reverse characteristic of the diode can be obtained by the same circuit arrangement shown in fig
(a).In a reverse bias state a very small current known as leakage current or reverse saturation current flows
through the diode. If the reverse bias is increased continuously, a stage reaches when the kinetic energy of
electrons (minority carriers) become so high that they knock out electrons from the covalent bonds. At this
stage break down occurs and high current will be passed through the diode. The voltage at which break down
occur is called break down voltage.

Ideal Diode
An ideal diode is a diode that acts like a perfect conductor when voltage is applied forward biased and
like a perfect insulator when voltage is applied reverse biased. When the anode is more positive than the
cathode, the diode conducts and acts as a short circuit. When the cathode is more positive than the cathode,
the diode does not conduct and act as an open circuit. The v-I characteristics of an ideal diode is shown below.
From the characteristics, it is clear that the diode is conducting, or “on,” in the forward bias region and the
current is flowing in the direction of the arrow in the diode symbol. Conversely, the diode is not conducting, or
“off,” in the reverse bias region.
Fig: Ideal Diode Characteristics

2.2.5.2 Diode Equation

The ideal diode characteristic equation is known as the Shockley equation, or simply the diode equation.It
gives an expression for the current through a diode as a function of voltage.
i = i s [exp ( )-1]
Where,V is the applied voltage across the terminals of the diode.

VT is called thermal voltage and is given by VT = kT/q.
Therefore the equation become,
i = is [exp ( )-1]
k = Boltzmann’s constant = 1.38 x 10-23 J/K

T= Temperature in Kelvin and
q = magnitude of charge on an electron = 1.6 x 10-19 C
2.2.5.3 Diode specifications characteristics and parameters

The following are the different diode parameters.
 Semiconductor material: The semiconductor material used in the PN junction diode is of paramount
importance because the material used affects many of the major diode characteristics and properties.
Silicon is the most widely used material as if offers high levels of performance for most applications
and it offers low manufacturing costs. The other material that is used is germanium. Other materials
are generally reserved for more specialist diodes. The semiconductor material choice is of particular
importance as it governs the turn on voltage for the diode - around 0.6volts for silicon and 0.3 volts
for germanium, etc..
 Forward voltage drop (Vf): Any electronics device passing current will develop a resulting voltage
across it and this diode characteristic is of great importance, especially for power rectification where
power losses will be higher for a high forward voltage drop. Also RF diodes often need a small forward
voltage drop as signals may be small but still need to overcome it.
The voltage across a PN junction diode arise for two reasons. The first of the nature of the
semiconductor PN junction and results from the turn-on voltage mentioned above. This voltage
enables the depletion layer to be overcome and for current to flow. The second arises from the
normal resistive losses in the device. As a result a figure for the forward voltage drop are a specified
current level will be given. This figure is particularly important for rectifier diodes where significant
levels of current may be passed.

 Peak Inverse Voltage (PIV): This diode characteristics is the maximum voltage a diode can withstand
in the reverse direction. This voltage must not be exceeded otherwise the device may fail. This
voltage is not simply the RMS voltage of the incoming waveform. Each circuit needs to be considered
on its own merits, but for a simple single diode half wave rectifier with some form of smoothing
capacitor afterwards, it should be remembered that the capacitor will hold a voltage equal to the
peak of the incoming voltage waveform. The diode will then also see the peak of the incoming
waveform in the reverse direction and therefore under these circumstances it will see a peak inverse
voltage equal to the peak to peak value of the waveform.
 Maximum forward current: When designing a circuit that passes any levels of current it is necessary
to ensure that the maximum current levels for the diode are not exceeded. As the current levels rise,
so additional heat is dissipated and this needs to be removed.
 Leakage current: If a perfect diode were available, then no current would flow when it was reverse
biased. It is found that for a real PN junction diode, a very small amount of current flow in the reverse
direction as a result of the minority carriers in the semiconductor. The level of leakage current is
dependent upon three main factors. The reverse voltage is obviously significant. It is also temperature
dependent, rising appreciably with temperature. It is also found that it is very dependent upon the
type of semiconductor material used - silicon is very much better than germanium.
The leakage current characteristic or specification for a PN junction diode is specified at a certain
reverse voltage and particular temperature. The specification is normally defined in terms of in
microamps, μA or picoamps, pA.
 Junction capacitance: All PN junction diodes exhibit a junction capacitance. The depletion region is
the dielectric spacing between the two plates which are effectively formed at the edge of the
depletion region and the area with majority carriers. The actual value of capacitance being dependent
upon the reverse voltage which causes the depletion region to change (increasing reverse voltage
increases the size of the depletion region and hence decreases the capacitance). This fact is used in
varactor or varicap diodes to good effect, but for many other applications, especially RF applications
this needs to be minimised. As the capacitance is of importance it is specified. The parameter is
normally detailed as a given capacitance (in pF) at a given voltage or voltages. Also special low
capacitance diodes are available for many RF applications.
 Package type: Diodes can be mounted in a variety of packages according to their applications, and in
some circumstances, especially RF applications, the package is a key element in defining the overall RF
diode characteristics. Also for power applications where heat dissipation is important, the package
can define many of the overall diode parameters because high power diodes may require packages
that can be bolted to heatsinks, whereas small signal diodes may be available in leaded formats or as
surface mount devices.

Excessive forward current and reverse breakdown voltage are the most common causes of diode
failure. In both cases the diode gets very hot, what destroys the pn junction. Occasional peaks of voltage or
current exceeding these rates for very short times (few milliseconds)may not overheat the junction, but
repeated peaks may fatigue the junction. By design, diodes are selected with ratings that exceed two or three
times the expected peaks in the circuit.
2.3 Types of diodes
We can distinguish the following types of diodes:
• Rectifier diodes are typically used for power supply applications. Within the power supply, you will see
diodes as elements that convert AC power to DC power.
• Switching diodes have lower power ratings than rectifier diodes, but can function better in high frequency
application and in clipping and clamping operations that deal with short-duration pulse waveforms.
A number of special purpose diodes for specific applications in this fast developing world. Some of the more
common special-purpose diodes are (a) Zener diode (b) Light-emitting diode (LED) (c) Photo-diode (d) Tunnel
diode (e) Varactor diode and solar sells.
Applications
The main applications of semiconductor diodes in modern electronic circuitry are as under :
1. As power or rectifier diodes. They convert ac current into dc current for dc power supplies of electronic
circuits.
2. As signal diodes in communication circuits for modulation and demodulation of small signals.
3. As Zener diodes in voltage stabilizing circuits.
4. As varactor diodes–for use in voltage-controlled tuning circuits as may be found in radio and TV receivers.
2.3.1 Zener Diode:
Suppose that the reverse bias on the diode is greatly increased. When the voltage is sufficient, valence
electrons will be freed from their positions around the nuclei that bind them. Since these electrons possess
excess energy, their collisions with other atoms will knock loose additional electrons; these, in turn, will knock
loose more electrons, and the reverse current becomes an "avalanche." This effect was first noted and utilized
by Clarence Zener, for whom the phenomenon is named. Note that, for reverse voltages greater than the
breakdown voltage, it takes only a very small change in voltage to cause a large change in current; essentially,
the diode goes from OFF to ON as the voltage becomes more negative. The breakdown or Zener voltage of a
diode can be controlled in the manufacturing process.
Zener diodes are also called breakdown diodes. These are specially doped PN junction diodes to
produce controlled break down characteristics without damage and are operated in the break down region.

The break down in zener diode is influenced by two phenomenon, zener effect and avalanche effect. Here
zener effect is predominant for break down voltages less than about 4V and avalanche break down is
predominant for voltages greater than 6V.Between 4V and 6V, both effects are present. Because of high
temperature and current capability, Silicon is usually preferred for the manufacture of zener diodes. The break
down voltage Vz and resistance Rz of zener diode is controlled by varying the doping level of the PN junction.
Increasing the impurity will decrease both break down voltage and resistance.
Fig (b) shows the VI characteristics curve of a zener diode. Here the forward characteristic is similar to
an ordinary junction diode. But in reverse characteristic, if the voltage is increased a small but subsequently
constant leakage current begins to flow as for other diodes. This current remains constant until certain voltage
is reached. Beyond this voltage the reverse current increases rapidly to a high value Izmax.This voltage is called
break down voltage.The current corresponding to this voltage is called break down current. This is the
minimum current required to sustain break down. When zener diode operates in this region the voltage Vz
across it remains fairly constant even though the current flowing through it is varied.
Applications
 Voltage regulator
 Fixed reference voltage source
 Over voltage protection circuit.
2.3.2 Light Emitting Diode (LED):

Light emitting diode is a PN junction that emits optical radiation generated by the
recombination of electrons and holes, when the junction is forward biased. Most of the commercial LEDs are
realized using a highly doped N and a P Junction.
Principle of Operation
+
The figure (a) shows the energy band diagram of a pn (heavily n-type doped) junction without any
bias. Here,EC is the conduction band energy,EV is the valance band energy and EF indicates the fermi level. Eg is
the forbidden energy gap between the valance band and the conduction band. There is a potential barrier
from EC on the n-side to the EC on the p-side, called the built-in potential, Vo. This built-in potential Vo prevents
the electrons diffusing from n+ to p side.
+
Fig:The energy band diagram of a pn junction under unbiased and biased conditions
In the figure (b), forward bias voltage V is applied across the junction.This forward bias voltage V
reduces Vo and thereby allows electrons to diffuse or be injected into the p-side.Since electrons are the
minority carriers in the p-side, this process is called minority carrier injection. But the hole injection from the p
side to n+ side is very less and so the current is primarily due to the flow of electrons into the p-side. These
electrons injected into the p-side recombine with the holes. This recombination causes a release of energy.
The released energy can appear in the form of heat (non radiative release of energy) or in the form of
photon (radiative release of energy). Both type of release of energy occur in any semi conductor material. But
certain special type of materials has a high degree of probability of radiative release of energy. Junction made
of such semi conductor materials act as light-emitting diodes. Gallium arsenide (GaAs) is one of such materials

and the optical radiation emitted has a wave length of 885nm (infrared).Gallium phosphide (GaP) and Gallium
Arsenide Phosphide (GaAsP) are also used for constructing LEDs. In the case of GaAsP, the actual wave length
emitted can be controlled by varying the proportion of Phosphorus to Arsenic, and visible radiation of different
colors can be obtained. Red, yellow, and green LEDs are commercially available in a variety of sizes and shapes.
Advantages:
 High reliability
 Fast response
 Low cost
 Low power consumption
Disadvantages:
 Temperature dependence of radiation
 Sensitivity to over voltage damage
Applications:
 Indicator lamp and displays in equipments such as digital watches, calculators etc.
 Optical communication system
2.3.2 Photo-diode
A photo-diode is a reverse-biased silicon or germanium pn junction in which reverse current increases

when the junction is exposed to light. The reverse current in a photo-diode is directly proportional to the
intensity of light falling on its pn junction. This means that greater the intensity of light falling on the pn
junction of photo-diode, the greater will be the reverse current.

Working principle
When light (photons) falls on the pn junction, the energy is imparted by the photons to the atoms in
the junction. This will create more free electrons (and more holes). These additional free electrons will
increase the reverse current. As the intensity of light incident on the pn junction increases, the reverse current
also increases. In other words, as the incident light intensity increases, the resistance of the device (photo-
diode) decreases.
The figure below shows the basic photo-diode circuit. The circuit has reverse biased photo-diode, resistor R
and D.C supply V.
Fig: Basic Photo diode Circuit
When no light is incident on the pn junction of photo-diode, the reverse current Ir is extremely small.
This is called dark current. The resistance of photo-diode with no incident light is called dark resistance (RR).
When light is incident on the pn junction of the photo-diode, there is a transfer of energy from the
incident light (photons) to the atoms in the junction. This will create more free electrons (and more holes).
These additional free electrons will increase the reverse current. As the intensity of light increases, the reverse
current IR goes on increasing till it becomes maximum. This is called saturation current.
Modes of Operation
Photodiodes can be operated in different modes, which are as follows:

 Photovoltaic mode – It is also known as zero bias mode, in which a voltage is generated by the
illuminated photodiode. It provides a very small dynamic range and non-linear dependence of the
voltage produced.
 Photoconductive mode - The diode used in this mode is more commonly reverse biased. The application
of reverse voltage increases the width of the depletion layer, which in turn reduces the response time
and capacitance of the junction. This mode is very fast, and exhibits electronic noise
 Avalanche diode mode - Avalanche photodiodes are operated in a high reverse bias condition, which
allow multiplication of an avalanche breakdown to each photo-generated electron-hole pair. This results
in internal gain within the photodiode, which gradually increases the responsivity of the device.
Photodiode Applications
Photodiodes find application in the following:

 Cameras
 Medical devices
 Safety equipment
 Optical communication devices
 Automotive devices
2.4 Solar Cells
In recent years, there has been increasing interest in the solar cell as an alternative source of energy. When we
2 2
consider that the power density received from the sun at sea level is about 100 mW/cm (1 kW/m ), it is
certainly an energy source that requires further research and development to maximize the conversion
efficiency from solar to electrical energy.
The basic construction of a silicon p-n junction solar cell appears in Figure. The metallic conductor
connected to the p-type material and the thickness of the p-type material are such that they ensure that a
maximum number of photons of light energy will reach the junction. A photon of light energy in this region
may collide with a valence electron and impart to it sufficient energy to leave the parent atom. The result is a
generation of free electrons and holes. This phenomenon will occur on each side of the junction. In the p-type
material, the newly generated electrons are minority carriers and will move rather freely across the junction as
explained for the basic p-n junction with no applied bias.

Fig: Structure of a Solar Cell

A similar discussion is true for the holes generated in the n-type material. The result is an increase in
the minority-carrier flow, which is opposite in direction to the conventional forward current of a p-n junction.
This increase in reverse current. Since V = 0 anywhere on the vertical axis and represents a short-circuit
condition, the current at this intersection is called the short-circuit current and is represented by the notation
ISC. Under open-circuit conditions (id =0), the photovoltaic voltage VOC will result. This is a logarithmic function
of the illumination as shown in figure. VOC is the terminal voltage of a battery under no-load (open-circuit)
conditions. Note, however, in the same figure that the short-circuit current is a linear function of the
illumination. That is, it will double for the same increase in illumination ( fC1 and 2fC1 in Figure) while the
change in VOC is less for this region. The major increase in VOC occurs for lower-level increases in illumination.
Eventually, a further increase in illumination will have very little effect on VOC, although ISC will increase,
causing the power capabilities to increase.
Fig: Vsc and Isc versus illumination for a solar cell
Selenium and silicon are the most widely used materials for solar cells, although gallium arsenide,
indium arsenide, and cadmium sulfide, among others, are also used.
The efficiency of operation of a solar cell is determined by the electrical power output divided by the
power provided by the light source.
( )
Ƞ= ×100%
( )

1.5 Numbering and coding schemes for diodes

There are a number of common, standard and manufacturer-driven numbering and coding schemes for
diodes; the two most common being the EIA/JEDEC standard and the European Pro Electron standard:
EIA/JEDEC
A standardized 1N-series numbering system was introduced in the US by EIA/JEDEC (Joint Electron Device
Engineering Council) about 1960. Among the most popular in this series were: 1N34A/1N270 (Germanium
signal), 1N914/1N4148 (Silicon signal), 1N4001-1N4007 (Silicon 1A power rectifier) and 1N54xx (Silicon 3A
power rectifier)
Pro Electron
The European Pro Electron coding system for active components was introduced in 1966 and comprises two
letters followed by the part code. The first letter represents the semiconductor material used for the
component (A = Germanium and B = Silicon) and the second letter represents the general function of the part
(for diodes: A = low-power/signal, B = Variable capacitance, X = Multiplier, Y = Rectifier and Z = Voltage
reference), for example:
 AA-series germanium low-power/signal diodes (e.g.: AA119)
 BA-series silicon low-power/signal diodes (e.g.: BAT18 Silicon RF Switching Diode)
 BY-series silicon rectifier diodes (e.g.: BY127 1250V, 1A rectifier diode)
 BZ-series silicon zener diodes (e.g.: BZY88C4V7 4.7V zener diode)
Other common numbering / coding systems (generally manufacturer-driven) include:
 GD-series germanium diodes (ed: GD9) — this is a very old coding system
 OA-series germanium diodes (e.g.: OA47) — a coding sequence developed by Mullard, a UK company
Introduction
The invention of the BJT in 1948 at the Bell Telephone Laboratories ushered in the era of solid-state
circuits, which led to electronics changing the way we work, play, and indeed, live. The invention of
the BJT also eventually led to the dominance of information technology and the emergence of the
knowledge-based economy.
The transistor is the main building block “element” of electronics. It is a semiconductor device and it
comes in two general types: the Bipolar Junction Transistor (BJT) and the Field Effect Transistor
(FET). Here we will discuss the structure and operation of the BJT and also describe the different BJT
configurations.We also explain amplifying and switching action of BJT.
3.2 Structure and Principle of Operation
Transistor is a three terminal active device which transforms current flow from low resistance path to
high resistance path. This transfer of current through resistance path, given the name to the device ‘transfer
resistor’ as transistor. Transistors consists of junctions within it, are called junction transistors. The bipolar
junction transistor (BJT) is a three terminal device consists of two P-N junctions connected back to back.

Emitter junction Collector junction Region of operation
Reverse biased Reverse biased Cut-off region
Forward biased Reverse biased Active region
Forward biased Forward biased Saturation region
Reverse biased Forward biased Inverse action

Current carries inside is by two opposite polarities of charge carriers (electrons and holes), hence the name
bipolar junction transistor.
If a P-type material is sandwiched between two N-type materials as shown in fig (a), the resulting
structure is called NPN transistor. Similarly when N-type material is sandwiched between the two P-type
materials as shown in fig (b), the resulting structure is called PNP transistor. In both cases, the first layer where
the emission or injection of the carriers starts is called emitter. The second layer through which carriers passes
is called the base and the third layer which collects the injected carriers is called collector. In the symbol, the
emitter has an arrowed head; it points the direction of the conventional emitter current (from P to N region).
Although the emitter and collector are same type of material, they have different physical and
electrical properties. The collector section is physically larger than the emitter section, since it has to collect all
injected carriers and to withstand the large reverse bias voltage. The base is very thin and lightly doped. The
size of the emitter falls between the base and collector region and is heavily doped. The doping level of
collector region is between heavily doped emitter and lightly doped base.
A transistor has two junctions namely emitter base junction(emitter junction) and collector base
junction(collector junction).These two junctions can be biased in four different ways, so that transistor
operates in four different regions as stated in the following table.

3.3 Operation of NPN Transistor:
In the case of NPN transistor, forward biased applied across the emitter junction (by using VEE) lowers
the emitter-base potential barrier, where reverse biased applied across the collector-base junction increases
the collector base potential barrier. Due to this, electron in the emitter moves into the base and holes in the
base moves into the emitter. The injected electrons, which are minority carriers in the base, diffuse across the
base layer and gives rise to a current InE. Injected holes from base to emitter constitute hole current IpE. The InE
is very greater than IpE. As the base is thin lightly doped P-material, the number of holes in the base is small
and only few electrons will recombine with the holes at the base constitute base current. Due to high reverse
bias at the collector junction (by using VCC). The remaining electrons reaches the collector constitute collector
current InC.
3.4 Transistor Configurations:
The most common application of a transistor is as amplifier. An amplifier requires two input terminals and
two output terminals. But while using a three terminal device such as transistor as amplifier, one of its
terminals has to be common to the input and output circuits. A transistor can be arranged to have any one of
its terminal is common to both input and output. Thus it can be connected in following three configurations.
 Common Base (CB).
 Common Emitter (CE).
 Common Collector (CC).
Input and Output Characteristics of Bipolar Transistors
To describe the behavior of a three terminal device, it requires two sets of characteristics. The
relation between the input voltage and input current for different values of the output voltage is called the
input characteristics and output characteristics show the relation between the output current and output
voltage for different values of input current.

3.4.1 Common Base Configuration
The common base configuration for NPN transistor is shown in fig (a). In this arrangement input is
given between emitter and base, while output is taken across the collector and base. Here base is common to
both input and output. The forward-biased emitter –base voltage is regarded as the input voltage and emitter
current is considered to be the input current where as the reversed-biased collector -base voltage is regarded
as the output voltage and collector current is the output current.
Fig(b) shows the circuit arrangement for determining CB characteristics of a NPN transistor. Here the
emitter-base voltage can be varied by means of rheostat R1. The collector voltage can be varied by adjusting
the rheostat R2.The required currents and voltages can read from the milliammeters and voltmeters
connected in the circuit.
 Input Characteristics:

Input characteristics of a CB configuration is the plot of emitter current IE as a function of emitter

base voltage VEB at constant collector-base voltage VCB. Different curves can be plotted for different values of
VCB. Fig (c) shows a set of typical input characteristic curves for a NPN transistor, plotted at different VCB (0,
10,and 20 volts).
For a given value of VCB (for eg: 0volt) the input characteristic curve of a CB configuration is just like
the forward characteristic of a junction diode (because the emitter base is a PN junction and is forward
biased).However due to early effect an increase in the magnitude of the collector-base voltage VCB, slightly
increases the emitter current for a given VEB.
Input Resistance:
Dynamic input resistance is the ratio of change in emitter base voltage to resulting change in emitter
current at a constant collector-base voltage.
=∆ ⁄∆ |
EARLY EFFECT
Because of reverse bias at collector junction, the depletion layer is wide and it penetrates both in
to the base region and collector region. But the doping of the base region is much smaller than that of
collector region. Hence the penetration of the depletion layer into the base region is much greater than the
penetration into the collector region. Therefore the effective width of the base gets reduced. As the
magnitude of the reverse bias at the junction increases, the effective base width decreases. This
phenomenon is known as early effect or Base width modulation.
 Output Characteristics:
The plot of the collector current Ic as a function of the collector to the base voltage VCB with constant
emitter current IE is referred to as common base output characteristics. A set of typical output characteristics
of NPN transistor is shown in fig(d).
The output characteristics can be divided in to three distinct regions.
 Active region
 Saturation region
 Cut off region
Active region:

This is the normal operating region of the transistor, when used as an amplifier. In this region the
emitter junction will be in forward bias and collector junction will be in reverse bias. When the emitter current
is zero, collector current Ic is not zero and there will be a very small current in the collector. This is the reverse
leakage current ICBO. When the emitter-base junction is forward biased to get emitter current IE: Note that as
the emitter current increases above zero, the collector current increases to a magnitude essentially equal to
that of the emitter current as determined by the basic transistor-current relations. Note also that the collector
current will raise even when VCB is zero. As the collector voltage VCB is increased, there will no much change in
collector current. But an increase in emitter current, there will be a corresponding change in Ic.Thus collector
current is almost independent of collector to base voltage VCB and is dependent only on emitter current.
Therefore the curve appears to be almost flat. The curves clearly indicate that a first approximation to the
relationship between IE and IC in the active region is given by
IC≅IE
Saturation region:
The region, where both the emitter-base and collector-base junctions remain forward biased is known
as the saturation region of the transistor. The region is located to the left of the line VCB=0.When VCB is slightly
negative, the collector to base becomes forward biased. Here collector current decreases sharply for a small
increase in forward bias across collector junction.
Cut off region:
The region to the right of the line VCB=0 and below the characteristics for IE=0 is the cut off region of
the transistor. In this region both junctions of the transistor are reverse biased and hence only leakage current
will flow through the transistor.
Output Resistance:
The dynamic output resistance is the ratio of change in collector to base voltage to the corresponding
change in collector current at constant emitter current.
=∆ ⁄∆ |
Common Base Current Gain
The current gain for a common base configuration is denoted by ‘α’ and is given by
= ⁄

Fig(d) : Common Base output characteristics
3.4.2 Common Emitter Configuration
The common emitter configuration for NPN transistor is shown in fig(a). In this arrangement input is given
between base and emitter, while output is taken across the collector and emitter. Here emitter is common to
both input and output. The forward-biased emitter –base voltage is regarded as the input voltage and base
current is considered to be the input current where as the reversed-biased collector –emitter voltage is
regarded as the output voltage and collector current is the output current.
 Input Characteristics:

Input characteristics of a CE configuration is the plot of emitter current IB as a function of emitter base
voltage VBE at constant collector-emitter voltage VCE. Different curves can be plotted for different values of
VCE.Fig (c) shows a set of typical input characteristic curves for a NPN transistor, plotted at different VCE(2,6,and
10 volts).
For a given value of VCE (for eg: 2volt) the input characteristic curve of a CE configuration is just like
the forward characteristic of a junction diode (because the emitter base is a PN junction and is forward
biased).How ever due to early effect an increase in the magnitude of the collector-emitter voltage VCE, slightly
decreases the base current for a given VBE.
Input Resistance:
Dynamic input resistance in CE configuration is the ratio of change in emitter base voltage to resulting change
in base current at a constant collector-emitter voltage.
=∆ ⁄∆ | =
 Output Characteristics:
The plot of the collector current Ic as a function of the collector to the emitter voltage VCE with constant
emitter current IB is referred to as common emitter output characteristics. A set of typical output
characteristics of NPN transistor is shown in fig(d). Note that on the characteristics, the magnitude of IB is in
microamperes, compared to milliamperes of IC. Consider also that the curves of IB are not as horizontal as
those obtained for IE in the common-base configuration, indicating that the collector-to-emitter voltage will
influence the magnitude of the collector current.
The output characteristics can be divided into three distinct regions.
 Active region
 Saturation region
 Cut off region

Active region:
This is the normal operating region of the transistor, when used as an amplifier. In this region the base-emitter
junction will be in forward bias and collector-emitter junction will be in reverse bias. When the base current is
zero, collector current Ic is not zero and there will be a very small current in the collector. This is the reverse
leakage current ICEO. When the emitter-base junction is forward biased to get base current IB. The collector
current will raise even when VCE is zero. As the collector voltage VCE is increased, the collector current first
increases and then rate of increase is quite small and Ic become nearly constant. But the curves are not
horizontal, because for a fixed values of base current IB the magnitude of collector current increases slightly
with increase in VCE. The active region of the common-emitter configuration can be employed for voltage,
current, or power amplification.
Saturation region:
The region, where both the base- emitter and collector-emitter junctions remain forward biased is
known as the saturation region of the transistor. Under this condition, the collector current is independent and
it doesn’t depend upon the input current IB.
Cut off region:
The region to the right of the line VCE=0 and below the characteristics for IB=0 is the cut off region of the
transistor. In this region both junctions of the transistor are reverse biased and hence only leakage current will
flow through the transistor.
Output Resistance:
The dynamic output resistance in CE configuration is the ratio of change in collector to emitter voltage to the
corresponding change in collector current at constant base current.
=∆ ⁄∆ | =
Common Emitter Current Gain
The current gain for a common emitter configuration is denoted by ‘β’ and is given by
= ⁄

3.4.3 Common Collector Configuration
In common collector configuration, collector terminal is common to both input and output. Circuit
arrangement in CC configuration for NPN transistor is shown in figure below. Here input is applied between
base and collector, while output is taken from emitter.CC configuration provides very high input resistance and
very low output resistance. Due to this reason the voltage gain of this configuration is less than unity.
Therefore this circuit is not used for amplification. It can be used for impedance matching for driving a low
impedance load from a high impedance source.
Comparison between Three Transistor Configurations

Properties Common Base Common Emitter Common Collector
Input Impedance Low Medium High
Output Impedance Very High High Low
Voltage Gain High Medium Low
Current Gain Low Medium High
Power Gain Low Very High Medium

Relation between and
= ⁄ = ⁄
We know that = +
= = −
+
Dividing numerator and denominator by Dividing numerator and denominator by
Therefore, Therefore,
⁄ ⁄
= =
+ +
=
= −
+
Transistor Specification Parameters
The type number of the device is a unique identifier given to each type of
Type transistor. There are three international schemes that are widely used:
number European Pro-Electron scheme; US JEDEC (numbers start with 2N for
transistors); and the Japanese system (numbers start with 2S).
There are two types of transistor: NPN and PNP. It is important to choose
Polarity
the correct type otherwise all the circuit polarities will be wrong.
The two main types of material used for transistors are germanium and
silicon. Other materials are used, but in very specialised transistors. A
Material knowledge of the type of material used is important because it affects
many properties, e.g. forward bias for the base emitter junction is 0.2 -
0.3 V for germanium and ~0.6 V for silicon.
Collector to Emitter breakdown voltage. This is the maximum voltage that

can be placed from the collector to the emitter. It is normally measured
VCEO with the base open circuit - hence the letter "0" in the abbreviation. The
value should not be exceeded in the operation of the circuit otherwise
damage may occur.
Collector to base breakdown voltage. This is the maximum collector base

VCBO voltage - gain it is generally measured with the emitter left open circuit.
This value should not be exceeded in the operation of the circuit.

Collector current, normally defined in milliamps, but high power

transistors may be quoted in amps. The important parameter is the
IC
maximum level of collector current. This figure should not be exceeded
otherwise the transistor may be subject to damage.
The collector emitter saturation voltage, i.e. the voltage across the
VCEsat transistor (collector to emitter) when the transistor is turned hard on. It is
normally quoted for a particular base and collector current values.
hfe (common-emitter current gain or static forward current transfer ratio)

is defined as the ratio of the input dc current and the output dc current of
the transistor (static current gain). This parameter is also known as β. The
ratio of collector current to base current, β is the fundamental parameter
characterizing the amplifying ability of a bipolar transistor. β is usually
assumed to be a constant figure in circuit calculations, but unfortunately
hfe this is far from true in practice. As such, manufacturers provide a set of β
(or "hfe") figures for a given transistor over a wide range of operating
conditions, usually in the form of maximum/minimum/typical ratings. One
popular small-signal transistor, the 2N3903, is advertised as having a β
ranging from 15 to 150 depending on the amount of collector current.
Generally, β is highest for medium collector currents, decreasing for very
low and very high collector currents.
Transistor Numbering
There are two main numbering systems for semiconductor diodes, transistors. One numbering or code system
is used more widely in Europe and the other in the USA. The European based system is known as the Pro-
electron system, sometimes also written as Pro-Electron system, and the one used more widely in North
America is the JEDEC coding system.
Joint Electron Device Engineering Council (JEDEC)
These part numbers take the form: digit, letter, sequential number, [suffix]
The letter is always 'N', and the first digit is 1 for diodes, 2 for transistors, 3 for four-leaded devices, and so
forth. But 4N and 5N are reserved for opto-couplers. The sequential numbers run from 100 to 9999 and
indicate the approximate time the device was first made. If present, a suffix could indicate various things. For
example, a 2N2222A is an enhanced version of a 2N2222. It has higher gain, frequency, and voltage ratings.
Always check the data sheet.

Examples: 1N914 (diode), 2N2222, 2N2222A, 2N904 (transistors).

NOTE: When a metal-can version of a JEDEC transistor is remade in a plastic package, it is often given a
number such as PN2222A which is a 2N2222A in a plastic case.
Pro-Electron
These part numbers take the form: two letters, [letter], sequential number, [suffix]
The first letter indicates the material:
A = Ge
B = Si
C = GaAs
R = compound materials.
The second letter indicates the device type and intended application:
A: diode, RF
B: diode,varactor
C: transistor, AF, small signal
D: transistor, AF, power
E: Tunnel diode
F: transistor, HF, small signal
K: Hall effect device
L: Transistor, HF, power
N: Opto-coupler
P: Radiation sensitive device
Q: Radiation producing device
R: Thyristor, Low power
T: Thyristor, Power
U: Transistor, power, switching
Y: Rectifier
Z: Zener, or voltage regulator diode
The third letter indicates if the device is intended for industrial or commercial applications. It's usually a W, X,
Y, or Z. The sequential numbers run from 100-9999.
Examples: BC108A, BAW68, BF239, BFY51.
Instead of 2N and so forth, some manufacturers use their own system of designations. Some common prefixes
are:
MJ: Motorola power, metal case
MJE: Motorola power, plastic case
MPS: Motorola low power, plastic case
MRF: Motorola HF, VHF and microwave transistor

RCA: RCA device

TIP: Texas Instruments (TI) power transistor, plastic case
TIPL: TI planar power transistor
TIS: TI small signal transistor (plastic case)
ZT: Ferranti
ZTX: Ferranti
Examples: ZTX302, TIP31A, MJE3055.

basics-of-electronics-chapter-2

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

basics-of-electronics-chapter-2

Uploaded by

Document Information

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

basics-of-electronics-chapter-2

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Semiconcuctors and Diodes & Transistors 1

Semiconcuctors Diodes & Transistors

Muhammed Riyas A.M,Assistant Professor,Dept. of ECE,MCET Pathanamthitta

2.2 Semi Conductors and Junction Diodes

Examples: Copper, Aluminium, Silver etc.

Examples: PVC, Rubber, Wood etc.

Examples: Germanium, Silicon, Carbon etc.

2.2.1 Energy Bands:

Muhammed Riyas A.M,Assistant Professor,Dept. of ECE,MCET Pathanamthitta

Muhammed Riyas A.M,Assistant Professor,Dept. of ECE,MCET Pathanamthitta

2.2.1.2 Energy Band of Insulators, Conductors and Semi Conductors:

Muhammed Riyas A.M,Assistant Professor,Dept. of ECE,MCET Pathanamthitta

2.2.2 Intrinsic Semi Conductor:

Muhammed Riyas A.M,Assistant Professor,Dept. of ECE,MCET Pathanamthitta

2.2.3 Extrinsic Semi Conductor:

 N-type Semi conductor.

Muhammed Riyas A.M,Assistant Professor,Dept. of ECE,MCET Pathanamthitta

 P-type Semi conductor.

 N-type Semi conductor

 Free electrons (Majority carriers).

 Holes (Minority Carriers).

 Immobile positive ions.

Muhammed Riyas A.M,Assistant Professor,Dept. of ECE,MCET Pathanamthitta

 P-type Semi conductor

Muhammed Riyas A.M,Assistant Professor,Dept. of ECE,MCET Pathanamthitta

 Holes (Majority carriers).

 Free electrons (Minority Carriers).

 Immobile negative ions.

Muhammed Riyas A.M,Assistant Professor,Dept. of ECE,MCET Pathanamthitta

PN Junction with Forward Bias:

Muhammed Riyas A.M,Assistant Professor,Dept. of ECE,MCET Pathanamthitta

PN Junction with Reverse Bias:

Break down in PN Junction:

 Avalanche break down

 Zener break down

Avalanche Break Down:

Muhammed Riyas A.M,Assistant Professor,Dept. of ECE,MCET Pathanamthitta

Zener Break Down:

2.2.5 Semi conductor Diodes:

2.2.5.1 VI characteristics of junction Diode:

Muhammed Riyas A.M,Assistant Professor,Dept. of ECE,MCET Pathanamthitta

Muhammed Riyas A.M,Assistant Professor,Dept. of ECE,MCET Pathanamthitta

Fig: Ideal Diode Characteristics

Muhammed Riyas A.M,Assistant Professor,Dept. of ECE,MCET Pathanamthitta

2.2.5.2 Diode Equation

Where,V is the applied voltage across the terminals of the diode.

k = Boltzmann’s constant = 1.38 x 10-23 J/K

2.2.5.3 Diode specifications characteristics and parameters

Muhammed Riyas A.M,Assistant Professor,Dept. of ECE,MCET Pathanamthitta

Muhammed Riyas A.M,Assistant Professor,Dept. of ECE,MCET Pathanamthitta

2.3 Types of diodes

We can distinguish the following types of diodes:

2.3.1 Zener Diode:

Muhammed Riyas A.M,Assistant Professor,Dept. of ECE,MCET Pathanamthitta

 Fixed reference voltage source

 Over voltage protection circuit.

2.3.2 Light Emitting Diode (LED):

Muhammed Riyas A.M,Assistant Professor,Dept. of ECE,MCET Pathanamthitta

Muhammed Riyas A.M,Assistant Professor,Dept. of ECE,MCET Pathanamthitta

 Low power consumption