Robotic Sensor Systems (RSS)

1 L06: Thermoelectric and Ultrasonic

© Werkzeugmaschinenlabor WZL Sensors
Prof. Dr.-Ing. Robert H. Schmitt Winter Semester 2022/23
Agenda

1 Thermoelectric Sensors

2 Ultrasonic Sensors

2 © Werkzeugmaschinenlabor WZL
Agenda

1 Thermoelectric Sensors

2 Ultrasonic Sensors

3 © Werkzeugmaschinenlabor WZL
What is Temperature?
• Temperature is a physical state variable. Absolute zero point: 0K | -273,15℃
• Macroscopically, the temperature of an object reflects how hot or
cold it is.

• Microscopically, temperature is a measure of the force of motion,

i.e. the kinetic energy of the particles of an object.

• Kelvin (unit symbol: K)

− is one of the seven basic units of the International System of

Units (SI).

− is defined as the 273.16th part of the thermodynamic y

temperature of the triple point of water.

0K : the theoretically lowest possible temperature at which the molecules of an object are at rest
Source: Michalski, L 2001 John Wiley & Sons Ltd ISBN 0-470-84613-5

4 © Werkzeugmaschinenlabor WZL
Order of Magnitude of Temperature
Lowest temperature on earth Body temperature Boiling point water Solar surface

183,95 K 309,65 K 5700 K

373,15 K

Absolute
zero point
50 100 150 200 250 300

1000 2000 3000 4000 5000 6000

(Kelvin)
2,7 K 273,15 K 331,15 K 1808 KK
1808

Mean temperature of the cosmic microwave Freezing point water Highest temperature on earth Melting point iron
background

5 © Werkzeugmaschinenlabor WZL
Application Temperature Measurement

Temperature monitoring in the manufacturing process Error detection in composites

Thermoelastic deformation of large components

6 © Werkzeugmaschinenlabor WZL
Relevance of Temperature Measurement
• Practically all mechanical, electrical, magnetic or optical material Temperature dependence
properties are more or less temperature-dependent. • Mechanical
• For many processes, the temperature usually has to be set within • Electrical
• Magnetic
narrow tolerances. • Optical
• An additional determination of the temperature is required for material properties are more or less temperature-dependent.
most measurements of other quantities.
• The common thermometers are constructed according to the
following physical principles:
− Contact thermometry (mechanical or electronic)
− Non-contact radiation thermometry

Pressel, H.-G, Accurate Measurements using CMMs:

“Temperature measurement is not everything in length measurement
technology, but without it everything is nothing..“

Practically all material properties are more or less temperature-dependent.

7 © Werkzeugmaschinenlabor WZL
Heat Transfer and Temperature Measurement
• There are essentially three different mechanisms of heat What does this mean for temperature measurement?
transport: • The influence of the thermometer should be as small as possible.
− Convection (→ heat flux density) • It takes some time for the temperature to equalize.

𝑗𝑄 = 𝛼∆𝑇, 𝛼 = 𝐻𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝑇𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑓𝑒𝑟 𝐶𝑜𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡

− Conduction
𝑗𝑄 = −𝜆𝛻𝑇, 𝜆 = 𝑇ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑙 𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑦
− Heat radiation (Stefan-Boltzmann law for heat output)
𝑃 = 𝐴𝜎𝑇 4 , 𝜎 = 𝑆𝑡𝑒𝑓𝑎𝑛 − 𝐵𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑧𝑚𝑎𝑛𝑛 𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡

Heat Transport
If temperature differences occur between different objects, the heat
is transported in the direction of the colder object.

Source: John M. Seddon and Julian D. Gale Thermodynamics and statistical mechanics, Royal Society of Chemistry, 2002 ISBN 978-1-84755-218-1 page 59 ff.

8 © Werkzeugmaschinenlabor WZL
Overview of Temperature Measuring Instruments and Methods
Common temperature measuring instruments and methods − Other measuring principles
− Mechanical contact thermometers [−200, 630℃] ▪ Quartz thermometer
▪ Liquid in glass thermometer ▪ Noise thermometer
▪ Liquid crystals or fiber optic luminescence thermometers
▪ Bimetallic thermometers
− Electronic contact thermometers [−220, 1500℃]
▪ Resistance thermometers
▪ Metal resistance thermometer
▪ Semiconductor resistance thermometer
▪ Thermocouples
− Radiation thermometer [−100, 3500℃]
▪ Radiation pyrometer
▪ Thermography (e.g. infrared camera)

A detailed description in VDI/VDE-Richtlinie 3511

source: Wetteronline, EH, Heizelement, PCE und Thermotemp

9 © Werkzeugmaschinenlabor WZL
Theoretical Basics
Main Laws of Thermodynamics

0th Law of Thermodynamics: If system A is in the state of thermal equilibrium with system B, as well as the
system B with system C, then the systems A and C are also in the state of thermal equilibrium.
U
1st Law of Thermodynamics: In a closed system, the energy is preserved. The sum of work and heat
exchanged by a system with its environment is equal to the change of the internal energy of the system. W Q
T
2nd Law of Thermodynamics: The second law of thermodynamics describes the convertibility of forms of 𝑄ሶ 𝑖𝑛
energy. A well-known example is the Carnot process. The amount of heat supplied by a cyclic process cannot 3 4
be completely converted into energy. Part of the heat is dissipated to the environment in the form of a heat
loss stream. W
2 1
3rdLaw of Thermodynamics: The absolute temperature zero point is characterized by a state of maximum 𝑄ሶ 𝑜𝑢𝑡
order. This state has only one realization possibility W=1.
System (p, T, v…)

lim S T = 0
T→0

The 3rd law can prove that the absolute zero point cannot be reached.

Source: John M. Seddon and Julian D. Gale Thermodynamics and statistical mechanics, Royal Society of Chemistry, 2002 ISBN 978-1-84755-218-1

10 © Werkzeugmaschinenlabor WZL
Theoretical Basics
Temperature Scales

Ttr
Empirical Temperature Scale 1K = 1C = 1 K
• Determination of the magnitude of the temperature in relation to a reference value.
273,16
TC = TK - 273,15 TF = TC 1,8 + 32
Thermodynamic Temperature Scale
• Originally, the Celsius and Fahrenheit scales were defined by two and three fixed points
respectively.
International Temperature Scale Kelvin Tk Celsius Tc Fahrenheit TF

• International temperature scale from 1990 (ITS-90)

Common units of temperature 373,15 K 100 °C 212 °F
• Kelvin (K), TK
273,15 K 0 °C 32 °F
• Degree Celsius (℃), TC
• Degree Fahrenheit, (℉), TF

0K - 273,15 °C - 459,67,15 °F
Absolute zero point

Source: DIN 1301-1:2010

11 © Werkzeugmaschinenlabor WZL
Liquid Glass Thermometer
Measuring Principle

• Measuring Principle
Measuring Filament
− Effect of volume change on temperature change is used
• Functionality
Scale
− Volume change in the vessel (and in the filament)
− Better reading accuracy due to the extremely thin thread
− Temperature is numerically recorded with the aid of a scale
• Measurement Materials Thermometer
− Mercury with the measuring range −35, 300℃ Vessel

− For temperatures below -35 ℃ : pentane, alcohol and toluene

• Sensitivity
∆𝑉 = 𝑉0 ∙ 𝛽 ∙ ∆𝑇, 𝛽 = 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑒𝑥𝑝𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑐𝑜𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡
𝑑ℎ 𝑉0 ∙𝛽
∆𝑉 = 𝜋 ∙ 𝑟 2 ∙ ∆ℎ
𝑆= =
𝑑𝑇 𝜋∙𝑟 2
➔ The smaller the diameter of the filament and the larger the
volume of the vessel, the higher the sensitivity. V0
Source: Michalski, L ; Temperature Measurement; 2001 John Wiley & Sons Ltd ISBN 0-470-84613-5 page 19 ff.

12 © Werkzeugmaschinenlabor WZL
Bimetallic Thermometers
Measuring Principle

• Use of thermal expansion as measuring principle 𝑙

• Two metal layers of approximately the same thickness with different coefficients of T=T0
expansion are directly connected to each other over their entire length.
• When the temperature changes, the metals expand differently y

• Temperature range: −50, 400℃

T>T0
• Stroke flexible point y of a bimetal strip clamped on one side:

𝑙2
𝑦 = 𝛼 ⋅ ⋅ Δ𝑇
𝑑

𝑦 Deflection
𝑙 Length of strip
𝑑 Thickness of strip
Δ𝑇 Temperature change
Source: engineeringtoolbox.com 𝛼 Deflection 𝐶𝑜𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡

Source: Michalski, L ; Temperature Measurement; 2001 John Wiley & Sons Ltd ISBN 0-470-84613-5 page 25 ff.

13 © Werkzeugmaschinenlabor WZL
Bimetallic Thermometers
Measuring Principle

Courtesy of WIKA Group – source: youtube.com

14 © Werkzeugmaschinenlabor WZL
Bimetallic Thermometers
Properties and Application

• Thermal expansion is decisive for length measuring technology Advantages:

− Very robust measuring method
− Insensitive to shock and vibration
− Unbreakable
• Disadvantages:
− Limited measurement accuracy
− Possible fatigue of the metals and therefore need for calibration measures
• Applications:
− Dial thermometer with spiral bimetal strip for use in small weather stations
− Indoor climate meter
− Refrigerator thermometer
− Boiler thermometer axis of rotation

fixture bimetal strip

Source: Michalski, L ; Temperature Measurement; 2001 John Wiley & Sons Ltd ISBN 0-470-84613-5 page 25 ff.

15 © Werkzeugmaschinenlabor WZL
Resistance Thermometers
Types of Resistance Thermometers

• Metal Resistance Thermometer

− Resistance increases with increasing temperature
− Measurement materials:
▪ Nickel (measuring range: −60, 150℃ for reproducible measurements)
▪ Platinum (measuring range: −200, 850℃ for very accurate measurements)
▪ Today, platinum is almost exclusively used as a material for technical temperature
measurement.
• Semiconductor Resistance Thermometer
− NTC thermistor (negative temperature coefficient)
▪ Resistance decreases with increasing temperature
▪ Material: e.g. silicon, zinc oxide
− PTC thermistor (positive temperature coefficient)
▪ Resistance increases with increasing temperature Metal and Semiconductor

▪ Material: e.g. selenium Resistance Thermometers

Source: LuConDa und EPCOS

16 © Werkzeugmaschinenlabor WZL
Resistance Thermometers
Measuring Principle

• Measuring Principle RL1

1
− With resistance thermometers, the temperature-dependent change in the electrical R1 3
Rm 2
resistance of a conductor (metal or semiconductor) is used for temperature measurement. Tm + ~
• Functionality of this thermometer: RL2 - =
− The resistance is measured in an electrical measuring circuit (see Wheatstone's bridge R3 R2

circuit):
Tm : measuring temperature U
Rm : resistance value of the thermocouple
RL1,2 : line resistances UA
R1,2,3 : bridge resistances
UA : unbalanced voltage
1 : measuring resistor / thermocouple
2 : measuring bridge
3 : constant voltage source
U A ~ Rm + RL1 + RL 2 − R1
Source: VDI/VDE 3511-3

17 © Werkzeugmaschinenlabor WZL
Resistance Thermometers
Characteristic Curves of Metal Resistance Thermometers

• Temperature range 0, 100℃ (Pt curve) characteristic curves (Metal resistance thermometers)
𝑅𝑡 = 𝑅0 1 + 𝛼𝑡
400
𝛼 = 3,851 ∙ 10−3 °𝐶 −1
350
• Temperature range 0, 850℃
𝑅𝑡 = 𝑅0 1 + 𝐴𝑡 + 𝐵𝑡 2 300 Ni 100

Resistance RT []
• Temperature range −200, 0℃ 250 0℃ 100℃
𝑅𝑡 = 𝑅0 1 + 𝐴𝑡 + 𝐵𝑡 2 + 𝐶 𝑡 − 100°𝐶 𝑡 3 Pt 100
200
𝐴 = 3,9083 ∙ 10−3 °𝐶 −1
150
𝐵 = −5,775 ∙ 10−7 °𝐶 −2
𝐶 = −4,183 ∙ 10−12 °𝐶 −4 100

50
Platinum curve in the chart
0
• Resistance almost linear with platinum -200 0 200 400 600 800
• Identifier "Pt 100": Nominal resistance of 100 Ω at 0℃ Temperature T [℃]

𝑅0 : 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑎𝑡 0℃ 𝑅𝑡 : 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑎𝑡 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒𝑑 𝑡𝑒𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑡 𝑖𝑛 ℃

Source: VDI/VDE 3511-3

18 © Werkzeugmaschinenlabor WZL
Resistance Thermometers
Characteristic Curves Thermally-Sensitive Resistor
1 1
𝑅𝑡 = 𝑅0 ∙ 𝑒
𝐵 −
𝑇 𝑇0 Temperature Resistance characteristic

− 𝐵: 𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡
− 𝑇0 : 𝑟𝑒𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑡𝑒𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒
1M
• NTC
− 𝑅𝑡 (𝑇) described approximately by an exponential function PTC

Resistance RT []
− Measuring temperature range : [-50, 250°C] 100 k

− Resistance of the sensors is considerably higher than metal

resistance thermometer and their nominal value is in the kΩ 10 k

range.
• PTC 1k
▪ Have a very large positive temperature coefficient in a
NTC
restricted temperature range
▪ Applications: Temperature control, protection of plant 0 200 400

against overheating Temperature T [℃]

19 © Werkzeugmaschinenlabor WZL
Resistance Thermometers
Properties and Application

• Properties of resistance thermometers: Application example: Heat meter

− Metal resistance thermometer Flow temperature sensor
▪ Large measuring range Heater
▪ Relatively low price
calorieme
▪ Relatively good linearity ter
▪ good long-term stability
heat
− Semiconductor thermometer gene-
rator
volume measuring
▪ Very good sensitivity
sensor
▪ Small response delay Return flow
temperature sensor
• Applications:
𝑄 = 𝑚 ∗ 𝑐𝑝 ∗ ∆𝑡 Q = heat flow
− Heat meter: for determining the amount of heat supplied to a
𝑄 = 𝑐𝑝 ∙ 𝑉 ∙ 𝜌 ∙ ∆𝑡 V = volume flow
consumer via a heating circuit. 𝑄 = 𝑘 ∙ 𝐴 ∙ ∆𝑡𝑚,𝑙𝑜𝑔 m = mass flow
𝑐𝑝 = specific heat capacity
− Heat quantity:
∆𝑡 = temperature difference
− Temperature sensors for recording the heating flow and return ∆𝑡𝑚,𝑙𝑜𝑔 =< av. log. Temp.-
are usually platinum resistance thermometers. difference
k = ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑓𝑒𝑟 𝑐𝑜𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡
Source: Stahn

20 © Werkzeugmaschinenlabor WZL
Resistance Thermometers
Properties and Application

Courtesy of WIKA Group – source: youtube.com

21 © Werkzeugmaschinenlabor WZL
Thermocouple
Seebeck Effect

• The Seebeck effect creates an electrical voltage between two Application example: Heat meter
ends of an electrical conductor when they have different
temperatures T1
• Metals have free electrons. The electrons at the hot end have a T2
higher kinetic energy than the electrons at the cold end.
• This leads to an unequal distribution of the electrons because the T1 > T2
Metal wire
electron density at the cold end increases.
Electron
• The resulting voltage is determined by:
T
𝑈𝑆𝑒𝑒𝑏𝑒𝑐𝑘 = 𝛼 ∙ ∆𝑇 1

where 𝛼 is the Seebeck coefficient. Metal B

• For technical application, two different electrical conductors are
USeebeck
connected in one circuit. Metal A

• A voltage is generated between the contact points, which only

Metal B
depends on the temperature difference and the materials.

T2
Source: Nitaigour P. Mahalik, Micromanufacturing and Nanotechnology Springer Science & Business Media, 2006 ISBN 9783540253778

22 © Werkzeugmaschinenlabor WZL
Thermocouple
Measuring Principle

Measuring Cold junction

• Measuring principle:
point
− Exploitation of the Seebeck effect. Cu
Metal A
− Two thermoelectrically different electrical conductors (e.g. made of different metals)
UT
connected at their ends.
Metal B Cu
− Measuring point: connection point with the temperature to be measured 𝑇𝑀
TM TV
− Cold junction: Junction with known temperature 𝑇𝑉
− If the two temperatures are different, a thermal force (thermoelectric voltage) 𝑈𝑇 is Material KX/PT
(mV/100K)

generated in the circuit. Constantan -3,2

Nickel -1,9
− The temperature measurement is based on the voltage
Platum 0
• The thermal sensitivity of a material X is given as 𝐾𝑋𝑃𝑇 with the dimension 𝑚𝑉Τ
100𝐾 relative Platinum rhodium (10% Rh) +0,65
Wolfram +0,7
to platinum. 𝑈𝑇 = 𝐾𝐴/𝑃𝑡 ⋅ 𝑇𝑀 − 𝑇𝑉 + 𝐾 𝐵 𝑇𝑉 − 𝑇𝑀 Copper +0,7
𝑃𝑡
• The resulting voltage between the two points is: 𝑈𝑡 = 𝐾𝐴𝐵 (𝑇𝑀 − 𝑇𝑉 ) Iron +1,9
Nichrome +2,2
where the parameter 𝑲𝑨𝑩 = 𝑲 𝑨 − 𝑲 𝑩 is referred to as the thermal sensitivity of the material Thermoelectric voltage series
𝑷𝒕 𝑷𝒕
Each against platinum for a temperature difference of 100K
A to the material B
Source: L. Michalski, K. Eckersdorf, J. Kucharski, J. McGhee; Temperature Measurement; Second Edition; John Wiley & Sons Ltd,2001; ISBN 0-470-84613-5 page 67 ff.)

23 © Werkzeugmaschinenlabor WZL
Thermocouple
Characteristics and Properties

• Temperature characteristics: 𝑈𝑡 = 𝐾𝐴𝐵 (𝑇𝑀 − 𝑇𝑉 )

− For small temperature variations, linearization without
excessive loss of accuracy is permissible for many
50
combinations of metals (thermocouples).
Fe-Constantan
− Measuring ranges differ according to thermocouples. NiCr-Ni
40
− Preferred thermocouples are:

Voltage UT [mV]
− iron constantan
30
− nickel-chromium-nickel
− platinum rhodium platinum 20 PtRh-Pt
• Advantages:
− Versatile applicability 10
− High distribution rate
− Relatively cheap
0 400 800 1200 1600
• Disadvantages:
− Cold junction temperature compensation necessary (Tm-Tv) [℃]
Source: L. Michalski, K. Eckersdorf, J. Kucharski, J. McGhee; Temperature Measurement; Second Edition; John Wiley & Sons Ltd,2001; ISBN 0-470-84613-5 page 44 ff.)

24 © Werkzeugmaschinenlabor WZL
Thermocouple
Characteristics and Properties

Courtesy of REALPARS – source: youtube.com

25 © Werkzeugmaschinenlabor WZL
Thermocouple and Resistance Thermometer
Comparison

These two systems are the most frequently used thermometers in Thermocouples and Resistance Thermometer
industrial temperature measurement because of their advantages:
Thermocouples
• Relatively cheap
• Versatile applicability
• High distribution rate
• Relatively accurate

Thermocouples
• Temperature range (precious metal thermocouples up to 1700 ℃)
• Better mechanical stability compared to resistance thermometers
• Small size / fast response rate
• Passive sensor Resistance Thermometer

Resistance Thermometer

• Temperature range (Watlow platinum sensor from -200 ℃ to 850 ℃)

• High power: stronger output signal than the output of a thermocouple.
• Better absolute measurement accuracy than thermocouples
• Active sensor

Source: endress.com

26 © Werkzeugmaschinenlabor WZL
Pyrometer and Thermography

Pyrometer Thermography ◼ Both work according to the same measuring principle

◼ Temperature derivation due to infrared detection
◼ A spot pyrometer just gives you a temperature number -
thermal imaging cameras generate an image
◼ A spot pyrometer reads the temperature of one single spot
- a thermal imaging camera gives you temperature
readings for each pixel of the entire thermal image
(160x120 pixels in this case)

Src: flir.com

27 © Werkzeugmaschinenlabor WZL
Thermography – Field of Application

Anregung Infrarotkamera • Application:

- Measurements that require very small response times

Objekt - Moving measuring objects

- At very high temperatures
Riss

• Example application „Crack testing“

- Increasing the local temperature of the component through eddy current-,
laser- or ultrasonic excitation
- Heat accumulates at the crack, because the heat flow is interrupted by a
crack
- Temperature measurement by thermographic camera and identification
of the crack by thermal image
- Mounted on robots for automatized setup

28 © Werkzeugmaschinenlabor WZL
Example: 5G Robots using thermography to reduce contact risk during virus outbreak

29 © Werkzeugmaschinenlabor WZL
Further Measurement Methods
Quartz Thermometer

• Measuring Principle
− The dependence of the resonance frequency of a quartz crystal on the temperature is
used.
• Functionality
− The thermometer usually consists of an oscillating quartz, which is used in the form of
small plates or discs.
− A connected oscillator causes the quartz plate to vibrate mechanically.
− A second quartz is exposed to a reference temperature. The temperature can be
determined by the difference of the frequencies.
• Properties and Applications
− Measuring range: [-80, 300 °C]
− Resolution: 10E-3 ~ 10E-6 / K
− Quartz thermometers are mainly used for precision measurements because they are
very complex.

Source: L. Michalski, K. Eckersdorf, J. Kucharski, J. McGhee; Temperature Measurement; Second Edition; John Wiley & Sons Ltd,2001; ISBN 0-470-84613-5 page 139 ff.)

30 © Werkzeugmaschinenlabor WZL
Further Measurement Methods
Distributed Temperature Sensing (DTS)

• Measuring Principle fiber, up to 20 km

− Temperature influences the properties of the optical fibre so that the fibre can serve as a LASER

locally distributed measurement sensor. In temperature-dependent light scattering (novel Cold Point Warm Point
effect), there is an anti-Stokes band and a Stokes band in the backscattering. By
determining the two back scatterings, the temperature can be determined with spatial
Detector
resolution. Raman Scattering
• How it Works
− The OTDR method (Optical Time Domain Reflectometry), a pulse-echo method, is used. Temperature of the fibre
The scattering location is determined from the transit time difference between emission
and detection of the light pulses. The temperature is determined from the ratio of the
intensities of anti-Stokes and Stokes of light.
• Specification and Field of Applications
− Measurement range: 25 km
− Positional resolution: 1 m Ratio of the Intensities of Distance
− Temperature resolution: ± 1 K Anti-Stokes and Stokes Light
− Thermal monitoring of cables and pipelines
− Detection of leaks at dams and dikes
• Advantages
− Not influenced by magnetic fields
− No influence on the temperature field
Time
− Distributed measurement

31 © Werkzeugmaschinenlabor WZL
Further Measurement Methods
Fibre Bragg Grating

• FBG (Fibre-Bragg-Grating) Fiber Optic Cable 

Fibre Optic Temperature Measurement n1
n2
Fibre Core n3

• FBG are optical interference filters inscribed in optical waveguides. Wavelengths within the Refractive Index of the Core
n
n3
filter bandwidth around 𝜆𝐵 are reflected.
n2

• The individual layers are inserted into the glass fibre by UV light. In the fibre core, a periodic Spectral Sensitivity
modulation of the refractive index occurs, which reflects back the light of a certain P P P B
wavelength.
  
Inbound Transmitted Reflected
• Due to thermal expansion, the grating period Λ changes with temperature. By measuring
n2 + n3
the wavelength 𝜆𝐵 of the reflected light, the temperature can be determined. B =  2
2
 : Gitterperi
Grating period ode

32 © Werkzeugmaschinenlabor WZL
Further Measurement Methods
Noise Thermometer

• Measuring Principle
− In an electrical conductor, electrons move due to their thermal energy and thus generate
a voltage. This voltage is related to the resistance and temperature of the electrons.
• Functionality
− The thermal noise of the resistor is measured. Since this signal is very fine, however,
other sources of interference must be filtered with great effort.
• Applications
− Depending on the choice of the electrical conductor, the noise thermometer can be used
in ranges up to 2500K.
− Due to its high accuracy it is used for the calibration of other thermometers.

Source: http://www.fz-juelich.de/zel/datapool/page/30/Abb151s.jpg

33 © Werkzeugmaschinenlabor WZL
Roundup

Temperature
Measuring Instrument Features Scope
range (℃)

− Control measurement
− No additional equipment required
Liquid Glass Thermometer -35 to 300 − Standard instruments for calibration
− No remote measurement possible
and verification
− Versatile applicability, high penetration rate
Resistance Thermometer -200 to 850 − Industrial temperature monitoring
− Relatively accurate

− Versatile applicability, high penetration rate

Thermocouple -200 to 1700 − Industrial temperature monitoring
− Compensate reference junction temperature

− High measuring range

Pyrometer -100 to 3000 − High temperature monitoring
− Non-reactive measurement

− Measure moving objects − Construction industry for testing the

Thermography -50 to 1500
− Recording temperature fields in a planar manner thermal insulation of buildings

Quartz Thermometer -80 to 300 − Elaborate, very accurate − Precision measurement

− Distributed measurement − Thermal monitoring of cables and

DTS -200 to 350
− Not influenced by magnetic fields pipelines

34 © Werkzeugmaschinenlabor WZL
Agenda

1 Thermoelectric Sensors

2 Ultrasonic Sensors

35 © Werkzeugmaschinenlabor WZL
Sonic
Theory

▪ Sonic is a mechanical wave

− these waves are generated by movement of matter
▪ Unlike electro-magnetic waves, acoustic waves always need a medium for
propagation
− able to propagate in gas, liquid or solid bodies
▪ Inside a sonic wave the particles oscillate periodically around their rest position
− They transmit these movement to the particles next to them
− due to transmission sonic and sonic speed are detectable
▪ The oscillations repeat themselves at constant distances
− This distance is called wavelength (λ)
𝑐
▪ λ= (vectorial: 𝑐 = 𝜆 × 𝑓)
𝑓 The ■red square moves with the phase
velocity c, and the ●green circles
▪ 𝑐 : phase velocity propagate with the group velocity.
▪ 𝑓 : frequency Source: Freegarde, Tim, Introduction to the physics of waves , University of Southhampton, 2013 ISBN 978-1-2838-3597-8 (ISBN 978-0-521-19757-1)

36 © Werkzeugmaschinenlabor WZL
Sonic
Theory

• In general these waves are subdivided in

− Longitudinal waves
▪ oscillation parallel to direction of propagation (only in fluid or gas )
− Transversal waves
▪ oscillation perpendicular to direction of propagation
• Ultrasonic is not audible for human sense of hearing (above / “ultra” 20kHz)
• In general the acoustic velocity is constant in a certain material for all
frequencies and wavelength. However, the velocity depends on:
acoustic velocity in different matrials at
− temperature 20℃

matertial acoustic velocity c in m/s

− wave direction (longitudinal / transversal)
air 325-355
− physical state water 1470-1540

− crystalline structure Epoxy resin 2400-2900

steel 5850-5920
− static pressure in transmission medium. aluminum 6200-6360

Source: Freegarde, Tim, Introduction to the physics of waves , University of Southhampton, 2013 ISBN 978-1-2838-3597-8 (ISBN 978-0-521-19757-1)

37 © Werkzeugmaschinenlabor WZL
Ultrasonic
sonic generation

• Common for industrial material tests: frequencies in the MHz-range

(ultrasonic microscopy: up to 2GHz)
• Sonic intensities within range of few milliwatt
− Sonic doesn’t cause any changes in tested materials
• To generate Ultrasonic, the Piezoelectric Effect is used
− more specifically: the inverted Piezoelectric Effect
▪ Instead of detecting an electrical voltage caused by mechanical deformation,
mechanical deformation is generated by applying a voltage
• an AC current generates an Ultrasonic wave by deforming the surface of a piezo element
periodically
• An alternative way to generate Ultrasonic is using a laser
− The laser transmits a laser pulse onto the material
▪ the electro-magnetic energy is transformed into heat, leading to expansion in tiny layers
near to the surface → tensions leads to ultra sonic wave generation

Source: Daining Fang, Ji Wang, Weiqiu Chen. ; Analysis of Piezoelectric Structures and Devices, De Gruyter, 2013; ISBN 9783110297997)

38 © Werkzeugmaschinenlabor WZL
Ultrasonic
Theoretics

• Common applications
− Measuring of wall thickness if there is one-sided accessibility
− Testing of
▪ cast materials
▪ welded / glued connections
− Inspection of turbine blade (aviation or power plant technology)
• the intensity of the sonic is weakened by
− absorption and scattering at the grain boundaries and inhomogeneities
− the weakening follows the Lambert-Beer-law
▪ 𝐼 = 𝐼𝑜 ∙ 𝑒 −𝛼𝑥
- 𝐼𝑜 : intensity at the beginning
- 𝛼 : Attenuation coefficient The beam radiant power
- 𝑥 : way through the material becomes weaker as it
passes through solution

Source: Günter Gauglitz and David S. Moore. ; Handbook of spectroscopy; Villey-VCH Verlag GmbH % Co. KGaG, 2014; ISBN 978-3-527-65470-3 page 514-515 and 1195)

39 © Werkzeugmaschinenlabor WZL
Ultrasonic
Theoretics
▪ If sound waves pass through the interface between two different materials, reflection,
transmission and refraction take place, depending on the acoustic impedances of the
materials involved
▪ Acoustic impedance Z
− 𝑍 =𝑐×𝜌
▪ 𝜌 : density
▪ Coefficients for reflection 𝑅 and transmission 𝑇 if a sonic wave hits a flat boundary layer
between two materials (Z1 and Z2)
𝑍2 − 𝑍1
− 𝑅= (sound pressure reflection coefficient)
𝑍2 + 𝑍1

𝐼𝑟
▪ 𝑅2 = 𝜚 = (sound power reflection coefficient)
𝐼0

▪ To avoid total reflectance on the surface of the component to be tested, couplant is used

Source: Pain, H. J., Introduction to vibrations and waves, Wiley & Sons Ltd 2015 ISBN 1-118-44108-7 page 154 ff.

40 © Werkzeugmaschinenlabor WZL
Ultrasonic
Industrial realization

• The two most important measurement methods

− Pulse-echo method
▪ Pros
- depth of defects can be determined
- allows testing with only one-sided accessibility
▪ Cons
- sonic needs to pass through the material two times (thick components)
− through-transmission method
▪ Pros
- sonic needs to pass through the material only for one time (thick components)
▪ Cons
- sender and receiver must be aligned as precisely as possible
- depth of defects cannot be determined
- Requires access from both sides

41 © Werkzeugmaschinenlabor WZL
Ultrasonic
Industrial realization

• Regardless of the used method (Pulse-echo / through-

transmission), the data must be visualized and evaluated
• Simplest type of measurement data visualization
− A-scan
▪ short for amplitude-scan
▪ shows amplitude height (signal strength) over transmit
time
• Measuring of wall thickness
𝑡𝑑 ∗𝑐𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑎𝑙
𝑑=
2

• Determining the depth of an error

dx
𝑡𝑥 ∗𝑐𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑎𝑙
x=
2

Source: Müller, G., Möser, M.; Handbook of Engineering Acoustics, Springer 2013 ISBN 978-3-540-69460-1 page 642 ff.

42 © Werkzeugmaschinenlabor WZL
Ultrasonic
Industrial realization

• B-scans are derived from an A-scan

− It shows a section through the material in the direction of ultrasonic
− Via an evaluation algorithm a number of A-scans are displayed side by side
• C-scans are derived from an A-scan as well
− It shows a section through the material parallel to the direction of the ultrasonic
− It is extremely time-consuming and much of the information in the data from the A-scan is
lost.
• A common way for 3D-visualization is the projection of 2D images, for example B or C
images, onto an existing 3D CAD model.
− This procedure is called Mapping
− Disadvantage of mapping
▪ Often it is only possible to visualize the sectional view of a defined depth
▪ Much information from the A-pictures are ignored
• Alternative: put several B- or C-scans side by side

Source: Müller, G., Möser, M.; Handbook of Engineering Acoustics, Springer 2013 ISBN 978-3-540-69460-1 page 642 ff.

43 © Werkzeugmaschinenlabor WZL
Ultrasonic
Principles of robot assisted wall-thickness measurements

• Characteristics of robotic sensor or

workpiece handling during the
measurement
− Orientation: the sensor must be
oriented perpendicular to the
surface of the workpiece
− Distance: the sensor must be
guided within a distance range of
1,00 to 3,00 mm to the workpiece
surface
− Both orientation and distance must
• Workpiece is stationary in a fixture • Workpiece is moved by the robot be controlled in realtime by
• Ultrasonic sensor is moved by the robot • Ultrasonic sensor is stationary in fixture evaluating the ultrasonic signal
within a robot pose adjustment loop

44 © Werkzeugmaschinenlabor WZL
Ultrasonic
Main components of a robotic cell for ultrasonic measurements

workpiece robot
3D-Scanner as add-on option fixture
to generate the spacial
measurement points and Ultrasonic squirter sensor
rotating table and probe holder
robot trajectories
funnel
Water circuit (ultrasonic coupling medium)

Water tank
and pump
Water drain

Station control unit and

ultrasonic workstation

45 © Werkzeugmaschinenlabor WZL
Ultrasonic
Automated robotic measurement cell for wall-thickness measurements

Image credits: Siemens AG

46 © Werkzeugmaschinenlabor WZL
Lessons learned
Lecture 7

• Thermoelectric sensors
− Temperature measurement is of vital importance for many technical applications
− There are multiple different concepts for temperature measurement with different
advantages and disadvantages depending on the field of application

• Ultrasonic sensors
− Ultrasonic sonic sensors can be used for wall thickness, error depth or even temperature
measurements
− For industrial realization usually the pulse-echo or through-transmission method are
used
− For ultrasonic wave generation the inverse piezo effect is used

47 © Werkzeugmaschinenlabor WZL
Do you have any question regarding the contents of the lecture?
Please do not hesitate to contact me

Contact:

Lennart Stohrer, M.Sc.

L.Stohrer@wzl-mq.rwth-aachen.de

48 © Werkzeugmaschinenlabor WZL