G. KIRUTHIKA., MBA., M.COM., M.PHIL.

, (PHD), AP/ MBA RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

Meaning and Definition of research:

Research in common parlance refers to a search for Knowledge. One can
also define research as a scientific and systematic research for pertinent information on a
specific topic. In fact, research is an art of scientific investigation.
Research is a careful investigation or inquiry especially through
search for new facts in any branch of knowledge.
According to Redman & mory,” Research is a systemized effort to gain new knowledge”
According to Francis Rummel ,“Research is a careful inquiry or examination to
discover new information or relationships and to verify existing knowledge”.
Nature of Research:
 Research is a systematic and critical investigation into a
phenomenon.
 It is not mere compilation, but purposive investigation; it aims at
describing, interpreting and explaining a phenomenon.
 It adopts scientific method.
 It is objective and logical, applying possible tests to validate the
measuring tools and the conclusions reached.
 It is based upon observable experience or empirical evidence.
 Research is directed towards finding answers to pertinent
questions and solution to problems.
 It emphasizes the development of generalization, principles or
theories.
 It is trans-disciplinary in nature.
Objectives of Research:
 Research extends knowledge
 Research unravels the Mysteries of nature
 Research establishes generalization and general Law
 Research verifies and tests
 General laws developed through research
 Research analyze inter-relationships
 Applied research aims at finding solutions
 It aims to develop tools, concepts
 Research aids in planning
 Rational Decision making
Research Approaches:
1. Quantitative Approach:
The quantitative approach involves the generation of data in
quantitative form, which can be subjected to rigorous quantitative analysis in a formal and
rigid fashion. This approach can be further classified into inferential, experimental and
simulation approaches to research.
2. Qualitative Approach:
It is concerned with subjective assessment of attitudes, opinions and behavior. Generally, the
techniques of focus group interviews, projective techniques and depth interviews are used.

Basis of Qualitative Quantitative

comparison
Focus on research Understand and interpret Describe, explain and predict
Researcher High-researcher is Limited; controlled to prevent
involvement participant or catalyst bias

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Research purpose In-depth understanding Describe or predict

Sample design No probability Probability

Sample size small Large
Participant Pre-tasking is common No preparation describes to
preparation avoid biasing the participant
Data security More absolute given use of Act of research in progress is
restricted access facilities and often known by competitors;
smaller sample sizes insights may be gleaned by
competitors for some visible,
field based studies.

Significance of research:
 Research inculcates scientific thinking
 Increasing role of research
 Research provides the basis
 Solving operational and planning problems
 Important for social scientists
Significance of research can also be understood keeping in view the following points:
 To those students who are to write a master’s or ph.D thesis,
research may mean a careerism or a way to attain a high
position in the social structure.
 To professionals in research methodology, research may mean
a source of livelihood.
 To philosophers and thinkers, research may mean the outle for
new ideas
 To literary men and women, research may mean the
development of new styles and creative work.
Limitations of Research:
 Research can provide a number of facts, but it doesn’t
provide actionable results.
 Some problems just cannot be researched, e.g., a precise
estimate of sales directly attributable to advertising.
 It cannot provide the answer to any problem but can only
provide a set of guidelines.
 Managers normally do not include research in the overall
problem or total decision making. Partial decisions on specific
issues and without proper timing and budget may not help in
satisfactory solutions.
 Managers rely more on intuition and judgement rather than on
research.
Criteria for Good research:
 The purpose of the research should be clearly defined and
common concepts be used.
 The research procedure used should be described in sufficient
detail to permit another researcher to repeat the research for
further advancement, keeping the continuity of what has
already been attained.
 The procedural design of the research should be carefully
planned to yield results that and estimate their effects upon the

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findings.
 The researcher should report with complete frankness, flaws in
procedural design and estimate their effects upon the findings.
 The analysis of data should be sufficiently adequate to reveal its
significance and the methods of analysis used should be
appropriate.
 The validity and reliability of the data should be checked
carefully.
 Conclusions should be confined to those justified by the data of
he research and limited to those for which the data provide an
adequate basis.
Greater confidence in research is warranted if the researcher is experienced, has a good
reputation in research and is a person of integrity.

Research process:
Research process consists of a number of a closely related activities. But such
activities overlap continuously and do not follow a strictly prescribed sequence.
1. Defining research question /problem & research objectives:
The first step in research is defining a research problem. It is most
important stage in applied research, as poorly defined problems will not yield
useful results. It is rightly said that “A problem well defined is half solved”.
Poorly defined problems causes confusion and do not the researcher to develop a
good research design.

After a problem has been chosen, the next task is to formulate it

precisely. This is too needs a good deal of care on the part of marketing
researchers.
2. Extensive Literature Survey:
Once the problem is formulated, the next step is to write down a brief
summery. For this the researcher should undertake extensive literature survey connected
with the problem. Academic journals, conference proceedings, government reports, books
etc., must be taped depending on the nature of the problem.
3. Formulation of Hypotheses:
Working hypotheses is tentative assumption made in order to draw out and test its logical
or empirical consequences. Hypotheses should be very specific and limited to the piece of
research in hand because it has to be tested. the role of the hypothesis is to guide the
researcher by delimiting the area of researcher and to keep him on the right track.
4. Preparing the research design
Research design is the conceptual structure within which research should be
conducted. A research design specifies the methods and procedures for conducting a
particular study. the researcher should specifies the approach he intends to use with respect
to the proposed study. the function of research design is to provide for the collection of
relevant evidence with minimal expenditure of effort, time and money. research designs
can be grouped into three categories
Exploratory Research - An exploratory research focuses on
the discovery of ideas and is generally based on secondary
data. It is preliminary investigation, which does not have a
rigid design.

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Descriptive Research - A descriptive study is undertaken

when the researcher wants to know the characteristics of
certain groups such as age,sex, educational level, income,
occupation, etc. In contrast to exploratory studies, descriptive
studies are well structured.
Causal Research – A casual research is undertaken when the
researcher is interested in knowing the cause and effect
relationship between two or more variables. Such studies are
based on reasoning along well-tested lines.
5. Determining sample design
All the items under consideration in any field of inquiry constitute a
‘universe’ or ‘population’. A complete enumeration of all the items in the population is
known as a census or inquiry. This type of inquiry involves a great deal of time, money
and energy, not only this, census inquiry is not possible In practice under many
circumstances
A sample design is a definite plan determined before any data are actually collected for
obtaining a sample from a given population. Samples can be either probability samples or
non – probability samples.
6. collecting the data
The researcher has to decide whether he has to collect primary data or
depend exclusively on secondary data. Statistical data can be classiid under 2 categories:
Primary sources of Data.
Secondary sources of Data
7. Execution the project
The researcher should see that the project is executed in a
systematic manner and n time.
8. Analysis of data:
The analysis of data requires a number of closely related operations such
as establishment of categories, the application of these categories to raw data through
coding, tabulation and then drawing statistical inferences.
 Coding operation is usually done at this stage through
which the categories of data are transformed into symbols
that may tabulated and counted.
 Editing is the procedure that improves the quality of the data
for coding. With coding the stage is ready for tabulation.
 Tabulation is a part of the technical procedure where in the
classified data are put in the form of tables.
9. Testing of Hypothesis
After analyzing the data the researcher has to test the hypothesis, various tests , such as chi-
square test, t-test, F- test have been developed by statisticians for the purpose. Hypothesis
testing will result in either accepting the hypothesis or in rejecting it.
10. Generalizations and interpretation:
If a hypothesis is tested and upheld several items, it may be possible for the
researcher to arrive at generalization, i.e., to build a theory. If the researcher had no
hypothesis to start with, he might seek to explain his findings on the basis of some theory.
It is known as interpretation.
11. Preparation of the report :
Following are the main principles of writing a report.
There should be objectivity, coherence, clarity in the presentation of
ideas.

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G. KIRUTHIKA., MBA., M.COM., M.PHIL., (PHD), AP/ MBA RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

Report should be written in a concise and objective style in simple

language avoiding vague expressions such as ‘it seems’, ‘there may be’
and the like.
Chart & illustrations in the main report should be used only if they
present the information more clearly and forcibly.
The layout of the report should be as follows:
 The preliminary pages.
 The main text
 The end Matter.

Types of research:

I. On the basis of Application

On the basis of application research is of two types:
1. Pure research
2. Applied research

Pure research:
This research is also called basic research, is concerned with quest for knowledge more
about the phenomenon without concern for its practical use and also with developing and
testing hypotheses and theories. Pure research takes place to explore a particular concept,or
issue, without regards for a specific problem, and may be carry out to simple gain a better
understanding of the overall concept. For example the development of a model of a
coaching behavior.

Applied research:
This research is concern with search for ways of using scientific knowledge to
solve practical problems. It focuses on analyzing and solving social and real life problem.
The finding become basis of framing programmeand policies based on principles of pure

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research. According to Horton & Hunt this research is an investigation for ways of using
scientific knowledge to solve practical problems.
Because this research is generally conducted on large scale basis,it is expensive. As such ,it
is often conducted with the support of some financing agency like government, public
corporation, world bank, UNICEF,UGC, ICSSR, etc. many a time this type of research is
conducted interdisciplinary basis also.

II. On the basis of Objectives

On the basis of fundamental objective research are designed in following ways:
1. Exploratory research
2. Conclusive research
i. Descriptive research
ii. Casual research or Experimental research
Exploratory Research
Exploratory research is a type of research conducted because a problem has not been
clearly defined. Exploratory research helps determine the best research design, data
collection method, selection of subjects. When a researcher wants to deal with a new
issue or try to begin a new research is called exploratory research.

The following are the three approaches to the exploratory study:

1. Survey of Literature: A review of the literature helps to identify the hypothesis
which may serve as a guide for further investigation.
2. Experience Survey : A small portion of existing knowledge and experience is put
into written form. Every day experience provides opportuinity to obtain
information required to formulate hypothesis.
3. Case study: The focus may be on individual or situations or groups or
communities. The method of study may lay stress on the examination of the
existing records. It may be unstructured interviewing or participant observation
or some other approach.
Conclusive research:
It is typically more formal and structured than exploratory research. It is based on
large, representative sample, and the data obtained are subjected to quantitative analysis.
The findings from this research are considered to be conclusive in nature in that they are
used as input into managerial decision making. Conclusive research design may be
1. Descriptive research
2. Casual research
Descriptive research:
Descriptive research or statistical research provides data about the population or universe
being studied. It describes the “who, what, when, where, & How” of a situation and not what
caused it. Therefore, descriptive research is used when the objective is to provide a
systematic description that is factual and accurate as possible. It provides the number of times
something occurs, or frequently, lends itself to statistical calculations such as determining the
average number of occurrences or central tendencies.
The two most common types of descriptive research designs are
o Observation
o surveys
Casual research:
If the objective is to determine which variable might be causing certain behavior,
i.e. whether there is a cause and effect relationship between variables, casual research
must be undertaken. This type research is very complex and the researcher can never be

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completely certain that there are not other factors influencing the casual relationship,
especially when dealing with people’s attitudes and motivations. There ae often much
deeper psychological considerations that even the respondent may not be aware of.

III. on the basis of Extend of Theory

On the basis of extent of theory research are two types:
1. Theoretical research
2. Empirical research
Theoretical research:
Theoretical research is research in which the goal is to prove/ disprove a
hypothesized truth. Theoretical research generally uses the findings from existing works
to develop new ideas through analyzing existing theory and explanations. These new
ideas are not tested through collecting evidence in the form of primary data. One of the
primary role of theoretical research is to re-work already established ideas in order to
improve insights into the subject matter. Such improvements could well-constitute adding
something of value to the body of knowledge.
Empirical research:
Empirical means based upon observation or measurement rather than theoretical
reasoning. It supports the development of new ideas through the collection of data.
Empirical research involves three activities, which are as follows:
1. Measurement – it involves activities associated with measuring the
factors that form the expected relationship.
2. Research design – it establishes procedures to obtain cases for study and
to determine how scores will be obtained from those cases.
Analysis – empirical research also involves analyze of scores.

Empirical Cycle

n Induction

IV. On the Basis of Time Dimensions:

On the basis of time Dimensions research can be of two types:
1. Cross- sectional Research
2. Longitudinal Research
Cross-Sectional Research:
In cross-sectional research, researchers observe at one point in time. Cross- Sectional
is usually the simplest and least costly alternative. A cross-Sectional designs provides a
snapshot of the variables included in the study, at one particular point in time. Cross-
sectional designs generally use survey techniques to gather data, e.g., the U.S. Census.
Cross-sectional research can be exploratory, descriptive, or explanatory but it is most

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consistent with a descriptive approach to research.

Advantages & Disadvantages of Cross- Sectional Research:
S.no Advantage Disadvantage
1. Data on many Variables Increased chances of error
2. Data from a large number Increased cost with more
of subjects subjects
3. Data from dispersed Increased cost with each
subjects location
4. Data on attitudes and Cannot measure change
Behaviors
5. Answers questions on Cannot establish cause
Who, What, When, and effect
where
6. Good for Exploratory No control of
Research independent variable
7. Generates hypotheses for Difficult to rule-out rival
future Research hypotheses
8. Data useful to many Statistic, time bound.
different researchers
Longitudinal Research:
Researchers using longitudinal research examine features of people or other units at
more than one time. It is usually more complex and costly than cross – Sectional research.,
but it is also more powerful, especially when researchers seek answers to questions about
social change. Descriptive and explanatory researchers use longitudinal approaches. There
are three types of longitudinal research which are as follows:
 Time series
 panel Study
 Cohort Study

Time series:
A Time series designs collects data on the same variable at regular intervels(Weeks,
months, years,etc) in the form of aggregate measures of a population. Measurements are
taken on each variable over two or more distinct time periods. This allow researcher to
measure change in variable over time.
Panel study:
It is a powerful type of Longitudinal research. It is more difficult to conduct than
time series research. In a panel study, the researcher observes exactly the same people,
group, or organization across time periods.
Cohort Study:
It is similar to the panel study, but rather than observing the exact same people, a
category of people who share a similar life experience in a specified time period is studied.
Cohort analysis is “explicitly macro analytic”, which means researchers examine the
category as a whole for important features.
Defining the research problem:

In research process, the first ad foremost step happens to be that of selecting and
properly defining a research problem. A researcher must find the problem and formulate
it so that it becomes susceptible to research. Like a medical doctor, a researcher must

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examine all the symptoms (presented to him or observed by him) concerning a problem
before he can diagnose correctly.

WHAT IS RESEARCH PROBLEM?

A research problem, in general refers to some difficulty which a researcher
experiences in the context of either a theoretical or practical situation and wants to
obtain a solution for the same.

SELECTING THE PROBLEM:

The research problem undertaken for study must be carefully selected. The task
is difficult one, although it may not appear to be so. Help may be taken from a research
guide in this connection. Nevertheless every researcher must find out his own salvation for
research problem cannot be borrowed. A problem must spring from the researcher’s mind
like a plant springing from its own seed.
However, the following points may be observed by a researcher in
selecting a research problem or a subject for research:
Subject which is overdone should not be normally chosen, for it
will be a difficult task to throw any new light in such a case.
Controversial subject should not become the choice of an
average researcher.
Too narrow or too vague problems should be avoided.
The subject selected for research should be familiar and feasible so
that the related research material or sources of research are within
one’s reach. Even then it is quite difficult to supply definitive ideas
concerning how a researcher should obtain ideas for his research.
For this purpose a researcher should contact an expert or a professor
in the university who is already engaged in research.
The importance of the subject, the qualifications and training of a
researcher the costs involved, the time factor are few other criteria
that must also be considered in selecting a problem.
The selection of a problem must be preceded by a preliminary
study. This may not be necessary when the problem requires the
conduct of a research closely similar to one that already been done.
Necessity Of Defining Problem.
Quite often we all hear that a problem clearly stated is a problem half solved. This
statement signifies the need for defining a research problem. The problem to be
investigated must be defined unambiguously for that will help to discriminate relevant
data from the irrelevant ones. A proper definition of research problem will enable the
researcher to be on the track whereas as ill-defined problem may create hurdles.
Questions like: what data are to be collected? What characteristics of data are relevant
and need to be studied? What relations are to be explored? What techniques are to be used
for the purpose? And similar other questions crop up in the mind of the researcher who
can well his strategy and find answers to all such questions only when the research
problem has been well defined.

Technique Involved In Defining A Problem

The research problem should be defined in a systematic manner giving due

weightage to all relating points. The technique for the purpose involves the undertaking
of the following steps generally one after the other:

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 Statement of the problem in general way.

 Understanding the nature of the problem
 Surveying the available literature.
 Developing the ideas through discussions
 Rephrasing the research problem into a working proposition.
Statement of the problem:
First of all the problem should be stated in a general way, keeping in view
either some practical concern or some scientific or intellectual interest. For this purpose,
the researcher must immense himself thoroughly in the subject matter concerning which he
pose a problem. In case of a social research it is considered advisable to do some field
observation and as such the research may undertake some sort of preliminary survey or
what is often called “pilot survey”.

Undertaking the nature of the problem:

The next step in defining the problem is to understand its origin and
nature clearly. The best way of understanding the problem is to discuss it with those who
first raised it in order to find out how the problem originally came about and with what
objectives in view. If the researcher has stated the problem himself , he should consider
once again all those points that induced him to make a general statement concerning the
problem.

Surveying the available literature:

All available literature concerning the problem at hand must necessarily be
surveyed and examined before a definition of the research problem is given. This means
that the researcher must be well-conversant with relevant theories in the field reports &
records as also all other relevant literature.

Developing the ideas through discussion:

Discussion concerning a problem often produces useful information. Various new
ideas can be developed through such an exercise. Hence a researcher must discuss his
problem with his colleagues and others who have enough experience in the same working
on similar problems. This is quite often known as “experience survey”.

Rephrasing the research problem:

Finally, the researcher must sit to rephrase the research problem into a working
proposition. Once the nature of the problem has been clearly understood, the environment
has been defined, discussion over the problem have taken place and the available literature
has been surveyed and examined, rephrasing the problem into analytical or operational
terms is not a difficult task.
In addition to what has been stated above, the following points must also be
observed while defining a research problem:
 Technical terms and work phrases, with special meanings used in the statement of
the problem, should be clearly defined.
 Basics assumptions or postulates (if any) relating to the research problem should be
clearly stated.
 A straight forward statement of the value of the investigation should be provided.
 The suitability of the time period and the sources of data available must also be
considered by the researcher in defining the problem.
 The scope of the investigation or the limits with in which the problem is to be
studied must be mentioned explicitly in defining the research problem.

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Research objectives:
A research objective is defined as the purpose of the research, expressed in
measurable terms; the definition of what the research should accomplish.

Business problem translated into research objectives

Problem/ Questions Research questions Research objectives
Do employees with 10 Does the answer to the To compare using
or more years of above questions differ cross tabulations,
service are frequently by employee’s years of levels of
tend to be absent than service? absenteeism,
employees with fewer evaluations, etc., of
than 10 years of employees with 10
service? or more years
service with those of
employees with
fewer than 10 years
of service.
Formulation of research objectives:
Objectives are the goals set out to attain in your study. Since the objectives
inform a reader of what you want to achieve through the study, it is extremely important to
word them clearly and specifically.
Objectives should be listed under 2 headings
 Main objectives
 Sub objectives
RESEARCH HYPOTHESIS:
A hypothesis is a logical supposition, a research guess, an educated conjecture or
a proposed answer to the posed research problem(s) or observed phenomenon or
phenomenon to be researched and which may give direction to thinking and therefore aid
in solving it. Hypotheses indicate where to search and how to interrelate this information.
Characteristics of Hypothesis:
 It must be stated clearly and precisely
 It must be testable
 It must establish relationship between variables
 It must have a limited scope
 It must be bear relation to already known facts
 As far as possible it must be stated in sample terms.
 It must be possible to test it within a reasonable period.
Types of Hypotheses:

1. Null Hypothesis:
Tests of hypothesis always begin with an assumption or hypothesis (i.e.,
assumed value of a population parameter), this is called Null Hypothesis.
According to R.A.Fisher defines null hypothesis as “the hypothesis which is tested for
possible rejection under the assumption that it is true”.
For Ex: if we want to test the hypothesis that the mean of the population to be taken as
µ0, then the null hypothesis(H0) is µ = µ0
2. Alternative Hypothesis
Any hypothesis different from the null hypothesis(H0) is called
alternative hypothesis and is denoted the symbol H1.

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For Ex:
Null Hypothesis is H0= µ =µ0 and
Alternative Hypothesis may be
 H1 : µ ≠ µ0
 H1 : µ > µ0
 H1 : µ < µ0
Formulating the hypothesis:
i. Discussion with colleagues and experts about the problem its origin and
the objectives in seeking solution
ii. Examination of data and records, if available, concerning the
problem for possible trends, peculiarities and other clues
iii. Review of similar studies in the area or of the studies on similar
problems.

Types of Errors:
1. Type I Error – It occurs when one rejects the null hypothesis and
accepts the alternative, when in fact the null hypothesis is true.
2. Type II Error – It occurs when one accepts the null hypothesis when in
fact the null hypothesis is false.

Types of test of Hypothesis:

1. Parametric Tests:
Parametric methods make assumption about the underlying distribution from
whih sample populations are selected. In a parametric test a sample statistic is obtained to
estimate the population parameter.
 Z-Test - Prof.Fisher has given a method of testing the significance of the
corrletion coefficient in small samples.
 t-Test – If we take a large samples from a population and calculate the
mean for each sample and then plot the frequency distribution of these
means the resulting sampling distribution would be the “student’s
distribution”.
 F-Test – The object of the F- Test is to discover whether the two
independent estimates of population variance differ significantly, or
whether the two samples may be regarded as drawn from the normal
population having the same variance.
2. Non-Parametric Tests:
Non-parametric tests do not require parametric assumptions
because interval data are coverted to rank-ordered data.
 Chi-square test(x ) – A chi-square test is an statistical hypothesis test
in which the test statistic has a chi-square distribution when the null
hypothesis is true,or any in which the probability distribution of the
test statistic can be made to approximate a chi – square distribution
as closely as desired by making the sample size large enough.
 Sign Test – The sign test is the simplest of the non-parametric
tests. Its names comes from the fact that it is based on the direction
of a part of observation and not on their numerical magnitude.
 Median Test – the median test is used to test for location
differences between two or more independent population.

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Kolmogorov –smirnov test – A test for common distribution using a form of ordering other
than the ranking system.

Procedure for testing Hypothesis:

Research in an evolutionary perspective

Research is the gathering of information or evidence for ascertaining an assumption or verifying
some hypothesis. No research can be purely new, as even original discoveries are an extension of the
research already undertaken, being shaped generally as expressing agreement or denial or natural
addition. The following examples indicate the contribution done by eminent researchers in different
fields. Archimedes introduced the Archimedes principles. Aryabhata found digit 0. In management
Hamel and CK Prahld introduced core competence model. In marketing four P’s was introduced by
EJ McCarthy. There is no end for this list. Research is an on going activity in every field. Research
helps to acquire knowledge and it helps to change the world into global village. Acquired human
knowledge does not flow backwards. It will flow. So, it’s a continuum.

ROLE OF THEORY IN RESEARCH:

A theory is a well-established principle that has been developed to explain some aspect of the natural
word. A theory arises from repeated observation and testing and incorporates facts, laws, predictions
and tested hypothesis that are widely accepted.
Meaning of Theory
Theory is a system of interconnected abstractions or ideas that condenses and organize knowledge
about the world.
What makes a good theory in research
 Falsifiability
 Parsimony – Simplicity Generativity

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 Precision
 Good Track record.

Use of theory in research:

1. Theory guide research
 Organize ideas
 All research has a purpose
2. Paradigms
Sociology, history, and political science especially

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