Theory 2074 Batch Group L

SURVEY CAMP 2076/BCE074
CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
Surveying is an art and science of determining the relative position of point on above or
beneath the surface of the earth by means of angular and linear measurements. It is the most important
subject matter before and during all engineering works like civil engineering works such as designing
and construction of highways, water supply systems, irrigation projects, buildings etc.
The main objectives of surveying courses allocated for civil engineering students is to promote
them the basic knowledge of different surveying techniques relevant to civil engineering works in their
professional practice. The completion of all surveying courses including ten days survey camp work
organized by the Department of Civil Engineering, JEC will give better enhancement to students to use
all surveying technique covered in lecture classes.
The survey camp is the part of course of third-year, first part (III/I) civil engineering study.
This is a detail report of the works, which were performed by group “L”, having five members,
during the camp period. It briefly explains the working procedures and technique used by this group
during that camp period. In addition, it also contain observations, calculations, methods of adjustment of
error, main problem faced during work and their solution, results of all calculations and their
assessments with some comments is presented in a concise form.
1.1 OBJECTIVES OF SURVEY CAMP:

The main objectives of the survey camp are as follows:
 To become familiar with the surveying problems that are arise during the field works.
 To became familiar with the parts of the instruments, their functions and handling the surveying
instruments for its use in surveying.
 To become familiar with the spirit and importance of teamwork, as surveying is not a single
person work.
 To complete the given project in scheduled time and thus knows the value of time.
 To collect required data in the field in systematic ways.
 To compute and manipulate the observed data in the required accuracy and present it in
diagrammatic and tabular form in order to understand by other engineers and related personnel
easily.
 To tackle the mistake and incomplete data from the field while in office work.
 To know the complete method of report preparation.
1.2 Location Map:

(See Appendix)
1
1.3 Project Area:

Mars Nepal Engineering Survey Camp Nepal Pvt.LTD.
1.4 Location and Accessibility:

 Country: Nepal
 Development Region: Central
 Zone: Bagmati
 District: Kathmandu
 Municipality: Karyabinayak
 Location: Mars Nepal Engineering Survey Camp Pvt.LTD
1.5 Topography and Geology:

Before starting our job, we should study about the existing position of the project area related to
the natural grid line so that we can relate our result into the natural grid.
The latitude and longitude of Mars Nepal are as follows:
Latitude: 27°36’54’’ N
Longitude:85°17’43’’ E
The average height of Bungmati is 1,335m(4,380ft) above the mean sea level.
Geology plays a vital role for the construction maintenance and rehabilitation of any type of
structure . For our concern, the job site falls in “Lesser Himalaya Zone ’’.
1.6 Temperature, Climate and Variation:

According to the Central Bureau Of Statistics, the annual temperature variation and rainfall was as
follow:
Tempreature Maximum Minimum Season

(°C)
28 16 Summer
17 2 Winter
Rain Fall 90 inches in Summer and Slightly drizzle in winter
Major Crops Paddy ,Wheat ,Maize ,etc.
Types of Vegetation Herbs , Shurbs ,Tall tress, Peepal ,Sirish ,Bamboo ,etc.
1.7 Others:
The soil of Mars Nepal Camp area seemed to be very vegetative. We saw a no. of fertile lands, dense
vegetation and deciduous forest where oak, sal, bamboo trees are abundantly found.
2
3
Chapter 2
TOPOGRAPHICAL SURVEY
2.1 Objectives:
The main objective of the topographic survey is to prepare the topographic map of the given area
with horizontal and vertical control at required accuracy. By topographical survey we can determine the
positions both on plan and elevation, of the natural and artificial features of a locality for the purpose of
delineating them by means of conventional sign upon a topographic Map.
2.2 Brief Description of the Area:
The area to be surveyed was a small part of Mars Nepal, Lalitpur. Since the area over which the
Surveying site was situated was very large, the major traverse was run only to cover the Whole area.
Our objective was to prepare a topographic Map of the given area. So we are asked to prepare detail
topographical map of the area which includes the following buildings and special ground features:
 Canteen and discussion hall
 Living rooms for selter and cottage ,parking areas with shelds
 And other nearby small buildings and pounds including land features as road .
2.3 Technical Specifications (Norms):
 Conduct reconnaissance survey of the given area. Form a close traverse (major and minor)
around the perimeter of the area by making traverse station. In the selection of the traverse
station maintain the ratio of maximum traverse leg to minimum traverse leg less than 2:1 for
major and less than 3:1 for minor.
 Measure the traverse legs in the forward and reverse directions by means of a tape calibrated
against the standard length provided in the field, note that discrepancy between forward and
backward measurements should be better than 1:2000.
 Measure traverse angle on two sets of reading by Theodolite. Note that difference between the
mean angles of two sets reading should be within 1’.
 Determine the R.L. of traverse stations by fly leveling from the given P.B.M. Perform two-peg
test before the start of fly leveling. Note that collimation error should be less than 1:10000.
Maintain equal foresight and back sight distances to eliminate collimation error. Take R.L. of
P.B.M as 1280.00m. The Permissible error for fly leveling is (±25√K) mm.
 Balance the traverse. The permissible angular error for the sum of interior angles of the traverse
should be less than ±√n x 1 minute for Major Traverse and ±√n x 1.5 minutes for Minor
Traverse (n = no of traverse station). For major and minor traverse the relative closing error
should be less than 1: 2000 and 1: 1000 respectively.
 Plot the traverse stations by coordinate method in appropriate scale, i.e. 1:1000 for major
traverse and 1:500 for minor traverses.
4
 Carry out the detail survey of the given area by tacheometric method with reference to the major
and minor traverse stations, which have been already plotted. Use conventional symbols for
plotting.
2.4 Equipments and Accessories:
From 066 batch the syllabus of the course study is changed. New course of study is designed to
address the new change in surveying field practice. So the study about total station is focused in this
syllabus rather the theodolite as in earlier batches. The followings are the main equipments required and
used during the field work:
o Total station
o Theodolite
o Leveling staffs (5m)
o Ranging Rods
o Measuring Tapes (30m & 5m)
o Leveling instrument
o Hammer
o Nails & pegs
o Plumb bob
o Compass
o Prism
o Prism holder
2.5 Methodology:
The methodology of surveying is based on the principle of surveying. They are as follows:
i. Working from whole to a part.
ii. Independent check.
iii. Consistency of work.
iv. Accuracy required
The different methodologies were used in surveying to solve the problems arise in the field. These
methodologies are as follows:
1) Traversing:
Traversing is that type of surveying in which a number of connected survey lines form the frame
work, which is used for housing, factory sides, determination of perimeter of lake, setting out and
detailing of many engineering works. The main purpose of traversing is to find control points. When
5
there is large extend of chaining triangulation, generally traversing is used. It is the method of control
survey
.
The survey consists of the measurement of :
i. Angle between the successive lines or bearing of each line.
ii. The length of each line.
The direction and the length of the survey lines are measured with the help of angle measuring
instrument, theodolite and tape. If the coordinate of first station and bearing of first line are known, the
coordinates of all successive points can be computed.
It eliminates the accumulation of errors which may happen when the scale and the protractor is
used, as we can find out the coordinate of each station.
Traverse is of three types:
i. Close traverse (loop traverse)
ii. Open traverse
iii. Link traverse
i. Close traverse:
If a traverse starts from a point, runs and ends on the same starting point then such traverse is called
closed traverse. These types of traverse are run for a closed field survey. In this type of traverse,
independent check is possible and adjustment can be done very easily.
ii. Open traverse:
If a traverse starts from a point, runs and ends at the point other than starting point is called open
traverse. This type of traverse is run during the route survey like road, railway, canal, tunnel etc. In
these types of traverse the error calculation and balancing is very difficult.
iii. Link traverse:
These are geometrically open but mathematically closed traverse. This type of traverse starts from a
known point and ends at another known point. Also in this type of traverse the calculation and balancing
of error can be done easily.
Depending upon the instrument used in determining the relative directions of the traverse lines, there
are several methods of traversing such as:
1. Chain traversing.
2. Chain and compass traversing
3. Transit tape traversing.
4. Plane table traversing.
5. Theodolite traversing.
2) Balancing of Traverse:
There are two methods of balancing of traverse: -
1. Bowditch's method
2. Transit method
6
1. Bowditch's method:
In this method, the total error in the latitude and departure is distributed in proportion to the lengths
of the sides. It is mostly used to balance a traverse where linear and angular measurements are of equal
precision. This rule says:
Correction to latitude (or departure) of any side
= (Total error in latitude (or departure)*length of that side)
Perimeter of traverse
2. Transit method:
In this method, the total error in latitude & departure is distributed in proportion to the latitude &
departure of its side. This rule is adopted when angular measurements are precise rather than linear
measurements. This role provides correction to latitude & departure of any side.
Correction in Latitude (or Departure) of any side
= Total error in latitude or departure * latitude (or departure) of that line
Arithmetic sum of latitude (or departure)
3) Tacheometry:
Tacheometry is the branch of angular surveying in which the horizontal and vertical distances of
points are obtained by optical means as opposed to the ordinary slower process of measurements by tape
or chain. This method is very rapid and convenient.
The primary objective of Tacheometry is to prepare the contoured map or plans requiring both
horizontal as well as vertical control. It also provide the check on distance measure with a tape if
required .It is more suitable in the obstacles such as steep and broken ground, deep ravines, stretches of
water or swamp and so on.
The formula for the horizontal distance is,
H=k*sCos2 +Ccosө
The formula for the vertical distance is,
V = (k*s Sin2)/2+Ccossinө
Where, k = multiplying constant (=100),

C=additive constant (=0, for analectic lens)
s = staff intercept =Top reading – Bottom reading (T-B)
Ө= angle of elevation/depression
7
4) Leveling:
Leveling is a branch of surveying the object of which is
 To find the elevation of given points with respect to a given or assumed datum.
 To establish points at a given elevation or at different elevations with respect to a given or
assumed datum.
The first operation is required to enable the works to be designed while the second operation is
required in the setting out of all kinds of engineering works. Leveling deals with measurements in a
vertical plane.
Temporary adjustments of Level:

The temporary adjustments for a level consist of the following:
a) Setting up the level: The operation of setting up includes fixing the instrument on the stand and
leveling the instrument approximately.
b) Leveling up: Accurate leveling is done with the help of foot screws and with reference to the
plate levels. The purpose of leveling is to make the vertical axis truly vertical. It is done by
adjusting the screws.
c) Removal of parallax: Parallax is a condition when the image formed by the objective is not in
the plane of the cross hairs. Parallax is eliminated by focusing the eye-piece for distinct vision of
the cross hairs and by focusing the objective to bring the image of the object in the plane of cross
hairs.
Permanent adjustments of Level:

To check for the permanent adjustments of level two-peg test method should be performed. Two
staffs were placed at A and B of known length (about 50 m). First the instrument was setup on the line
near B and both staff readings (Top, Middle, and Bottom) were taken. Then, the instrument was setup at
the middle C on the line and again both staff readings on A and B was taken. Then computation was
done in order to check whether the adjustment was within the required accuracy or not. No permanent
adjustment was required since the error was within the permissible value.
8
Two Peg Test
Figure: Two Peg Test

Two staffs were placed at A and B of known length (about 30m). First the instrument was setup
at the middle point C and both staff readings (Top, Middle and Bottom) were taken. Then, the
instrument was setup at D near the A on the line AB and again both staff readings were taken. Then
computation was done in order to check whether the adjustment was required or not.
Observation and Calculation
Level Inst. At Middle point C
Staff Reading Mean

value
True difference (m)
=(T+M+B)/ Remark
Inst Staff 3 H1 =(Mid A -Mid B) s
. Readin Middl Botto
Stn. g On. Top e m (m) (m)
A 1.363 1.287 1.212 1.287
C B 1.906 1.831 1.756 1.831 0.544
Level Inst. At Station Near to A
Staff Reading Mean

value
Appt. difference (m)
=(T+M+B)/
Inst Staff 3 H2 =(Mid A -Mid B)
. Readin Middl Botto Remark
Stn. g On. Top e m (m) (m) s
D B 1.348 1.333 1.318 1.333 0.546
9
A 0.952 0.787 0.622 0.787
S.No
. Collimation Error Total Length (m) Precision
1 0.002 30 1 in 15000
Booking and reducing levels:
There are two methods of booking and reducing the elevation of points from the observed staff
reading:
1. Height of the Instrument method
Arithmetic Check:
B.S. – F.S. = Last R.L. – First R.L.
2. Rise and Fall method

Arithmetic Check:
B.S. – F.S. = Rise –Fall = Last R.L. – First R.L.
Among the two methods, Rise and Fall method was widely used.
Fly Leveling:
The RL of Given TBM1 point was found by transferring the level from Known BM located at
Lower gate of stadium by the process of fly leveling. In this method auto level was used and the
level was transferred directly by taking BS and FS at every Turning Point.
Level transfer to the major and minor traverse stations:
The R. L of the temporary benchmark was then transferred to the control stations of the major and
minor traverse. The closing error was found to be within the permissible limits. The misclosure
was adjusted in each leg of the leveling path by using the following formula:
Permissible error = ±25k mm.
Where k is perimeter in Km
Actual Error (e) = ∑BS – ∑F.S. = Last R.L. – First R.L.
10
Correction ith leg=-(e x (L1 + L2 +…. + Li)/P
Where L1, L2, Li Length of 1st 2nd, ….. ith leg.
P is perimeter
Relative Precision= 1/(p/e)
5) Contouring:
Contour is the imaginary line joining the equal elevation, with reference to given or assumed
datum, on the natural ground surface. The branch of surveying that deals with development of contour
line is called contouring. Every fifth contour is made darker than other is called index contour. The
elevation difference between two consecutive contours is called the contour interval. The contour
interval is the important parameter to be considered during the surveying field work. The large contour
interval is suitable for the steep hilly ares while small contour interval is suitable for the plain areas.
The least horizontal distance between two consecutive contours is called the horizontal equivalent.
Methods of contouring:
There are two ways of contouring. They are namely:
1. The Direct method
2. The Indirect method
1. The direct method:
In this direct method, the contour to be plotted is actually traced on the ground. Only those points are
surveyed which happen to be plotted.
2. The indirect method:
In this method, some suitable guide points are selected and surveyed, the guide points need not
necessarily be on the contours. These guide points, having been plotted, serve as the basis for the
interpolation of contours. There are some of the indirect methods of locating the ground points:
a. By squares
b. By cross-sections
c. By tachometric method
Contour Interpolation:
The process of drawing contours proportionately between the plotted ground points or in between
the plotted contours is called interpolation of the contours. Interpolation of contours between points is
done assuming that the slope of ground between two points is uniform. It may be done by anyone of
following methods:
a. Estimation
b. Arithmetic calculation
c. Graphical method
Contour Characteristics:
 Two contours of different elevations do not cross each other except in the case of an
overhanging cliff.
11
 Contours of different elevations do not unite to form one contour except in the case of a
vertical cliff.
 Contours drawn closer depict a steep slope and if drawn apart, represent a gentle slope.
 Contours equally spaced depict a uniform slope. When contours are parallel, equidistant and
straight, these represent an inclined plane surface.
 Contour at any point is perpendicular to the line of the steepest slope at the point.
 A contour line must close itself but need not be necessarily within the limits of the map
itself.
 A set ring contours with higher values inside depict a hill whereas a set of ring contours with
lower values inside depict a pond or a depression without an outlet.
 When contours cross a ridge or V-shaped valley, they form sharp V-shapes across them.
Contours represent a ridge line, if the concavity of higher value contour lies towards the next
lower value contour and on the other hand these represent a valley if the concavity of the
lower value contour, lies toward the higher value contours.
 The same contour must appear on both the sides of a ridge or a valley.
 Contours do not have sharp turnings.
6) Electronic Distance Measurement (EDM):

These are the instruments used to measure the distance between any two points. This system
consists of the emitter and the reflectors. The emitter produces the electronic waves which
travels to the reflector and then reflects back. The measured time interval between emission and
receiving back the distance can be calculated easily. The emitter instruments emits the
electromagnetic waves like radio wave, light wave etc.
Distance = (Velocity of EMW*time interval)/2
Emitter
Reflector
Transmission of EMW
Distance= (velocity *time)/2
2.5.1. Reconnaissance:
Recce means the exploration or scouting of an area. To prepare a good topographic map of any area, it
is necessary to know about the area in proper way so that we can plan our work and complete it in
12
systematic order and in short span of time with less effort. For this purpose the detail inspection of the
given area of Tribhuvan University was carried out by reconnaissance survey.
While doing reconnaissance we find out the major and minor traverse control points to form a closed
traverse around the perimeter of the area. While selecting the major and minor control points following
points should be taken into account:
i. The adjacent stations should be clearly inter-visible and cover the whole area with least number
of stations as far as possible. The traverse station should maintain the ratio of maximum traverse
leg to minimum traverse leg less than 2:1.
ii. The steep slopes and badly broken ground should be avoided as for as possible, which may
cause inaccuracy in tapping.
iii. The stations should provide minimum level surface required to set up the tripod of the
instrument.
iv. The traverse line of sight should not be near the ground level to avoid the refraction.
v. If possible well-conditioned triangles should be formed to give good graphical intersection
during plotting.
Walking around at least three times inspected the whole area and major ground features were noted. The
possible location of major and minor control points was decided by inspecting the intervisibility of the
stations. After sketching rough outlines of the area and possible station distances of legs were estimated
to make them within specific range i.e. 1:2 ratios. For minor traverse, all the detail available was noted.
After checking the requirements for a good station, the points were fixed for major and minor stations
by driving wooden pegs on the ground and it was name by a marker. The measurements of each station
from reference points such as permanent objects near it were taken. Hence, the recce survey was
completed after fixing all the control points.
2.5.2. Major traverse:

The skeleton of lines joining those control points, which covers the whole entire area, is called
Major Traverse. Work on Major traverse must be precise. So two-set of reading should be taken for
Major Traverse. For convenience, the readings are taken by setting the theodolite at 00’0” for one set
and 9000’00” for the second.
In the Mars Nepal Survey Camp, two traverses - major and minor had to be established. The major
traverse had 17 control stations including two given control points. The control stations were named as
LM1, LM2,LM3,….,LM15 and so on along with CP1 and CP2 (the two given control points) .The leg
ratio of maximum traverse leg to minimum traverse leg was maintained within 1:2. The precision in
distance measurements of all the traverse legs was within 1:2000. Two sets of theodolite readings were
taken for measuring the horizontal traverse angles. The difference between the mean angles of two sets
of readings was within ten seconds for all the angles.
The distances between the adjacent control points were measured accurately as far as possible for
the accuracy of the whole traverse. To attain the accuracy required i.e. 1:2000 ratio, a two way taping
was done independently so that the length from each measurement was found within specified range.
13
To measure the horizontal distances accurately on the slopping ground, the short length was
measured at a time so that the tape could be pulled horizontally without sagging. For this ranging was
done accurately to divide the length into shorter length. Finally, all the lengths were added to obtain the
whole length, which is also, called stepping method. For accuracy, traverse legs may be checked by
electronic distance measuring instrument (EDM).
Computation of Co-ordinates:
According to the accuracy aimed and the nature of the ground, the lengths of traverse legs are
measured directly on the ground either by chaining or taping. The traverse angles are measured with a
theodolite by setting up the instrument at each station in turn and the vertical angle at each station
measured will help to find the tacheometric distance and reduce level of that point. And the bearing of
the any one of the traverse leg measured and the entire traverse angle measured, the bearing of all the
legs can be calculated by:
Bearing of a line = (bearing of previous line +included angle) (180) or (-540)
If  is the bearing of line (c.p,A say), and l be the length of the line and provided that co-ordinate
of the control point(c.p) is known then the co-ordinate of the point ‘A’ can be calculated as follow-:
X-coordinate of A=x-coordinate of control point (c.p) +L*sin N
Y-coordinate of A=y-coordinate of control point (c.p) +L*cos L sin
R.L or z-coordinate of A=R.L of point (c.p) +H.I H*Tan-Height of signal.
Where, H.I=Height of instrument L L cos
H=horizontal distance 
2.5.3. Minor traverse:

It is not sufficient to detail the area by enclosing with the help of major traverse. Minor traverse is
that one which runs through the area to make detailing easy. Minor Traverse covers only small area.
Less precise work than that of major traverse is acceptable so that single set reading is sufficient. The
minor traverse had 1 control stations and enclosed the whole area of Site as the major details. The
control stations were named as Lm1 so on along with the 10 control stations common for both the major
and the minor traverses. The leg ratio of maximum traverse leg to minimum traverse leg was maintained
within 1:3. The discrepancy in length between the forward measurements and the backward
measurements of all the traverse legs was within 1:1000. Measurement of Horizontal and Vertical
angles were done in which the mean of angles from two sets differs within ten seconds.
Two set of horizontal angle was measured at each station and one set of vertical angle. And it was
done in the following way-:
i) One the face left temporary adjustment was done.
14
ii) After setting zero to the first station the second station was sighted by unclamping the upper
screw.
iii) For better accuracy and exact bisection horizontal angle was measured at the bottom of the
arrow.
iv) And on the same setting or same face vertical angle at both the station was taken.
v) Now again changing the face the horizontal angle was taken and vertical angle too.
vi) Now setting the reading to ninety at the first station again one set of horizontal angle was
taken but the vertical angle is enough, taken earlier.
vii) Before shifting the instrument to the next station the height of instrument was taken.
viii) Similarly the instrument was shifted to other station and in each station one set of vertical
angle and two set of horizontal angle and height of instrument was measured.
For comparison of the tape distance and the Tachometric distance the stadia reading (top, mid,
bottom) was taken at each station and for the calculation of the reduce level of each station we
need to read mid reading which can be compared with the level transferred using auto level.
2.5.4. Detailing:
Detailing means locating and plotting relief in a topographic map. Detailing can be done by either plane
table surveying or tachometric surveying or by total station. We use total station while taking details
during the camp. This takes less time and computation work.
15
Total Station
Introduction
A total station is an optical instrument used a lot in modern surveying and archaeology and, in a
minor way, as well as by police, crime scene investigators, private accident reconstructionists and
insurance companies to take measurements of scenes. It is a combination of an electronic theodolite
(transit), an electronic distance meter (EDM) and software running on an external computer known as a
data collector
With a total station one may determine angles and distances from the instrument to points to be
surveyed. With the aid of trigonometry and triangulation, the angles and distances may be used to
calculate the coordinates of actual positions (X, Y, and Z or northing, easting and elevation) of surveyed
points, or the position of the instrument from known points, in absolute terms.
FIG: TOTAL STATION
16
Some total stations also have a GPS interface which combines these two technologies to make use of the
advantages of both (GPS - line of sight not required between measured points; Traditional Total Station
- high precision measurement especially in the vertical axis compared with GPS) and reduce the
consequences of each technology's disadvantages (GPS - poor accuracy in the vertical axis and lower
accuracy without long occupation periods; Total Station - requires line of sight observations and must
be set up over a known point or within line of sight of 2 or more known points).
Most modern total station instruments measure angles by means of electro-optical scanning of
extremely precise digital bar-codes etched on rotating glass cylinders or discs within the instrument. The
best quality total stations are capable of measuring angles down to 0.5 arc-second. Inexpensive
"construction grade" total stations can generally measure angles to 5 or 10 arc-seconds.
Measurement of distance is accomplished with a modulated microwave or infrared carrier signal,

generated by a small solid-state emitter within the instrument's optical path, and bounced off of the
object to be measured. The modulation pattern in the returning signal is read and interpreted by the
onboard computer in the total station. The distance is determined by emitting and receiving multiple
frequencies, and determining the integer number of wavelengths to the target for each frequency. Most
total stations use a purpose-built glass Porro prism as the reflector for the EDM signal, and can measure
distances out to a few kilometers, but some instruments are "reflector less", and can measure distances
to any object that is reasonably light in color, out to a few hundred meters. The typical Total Station
EDM can measure distances accurate to about 3 millimeters or 1/100th of a foot.
Some modern total stations are 'robotic' allowing the operator to control the instrument from a
distance via remote control. This eliminates the need for an assistant staff member to hold the reflector
prism over the point to be measured. The operator holds the reflector him/herself and controls the total
station instrument from the observed point.
The basic principle of Total Station is that the distance between any two points can be known once
the time light takes to travel the distance and back and the velocity of light is known. Then the
following relation, which is already programmed in the memory of the instrument along with other
correction factors, calculates the required horizontal distance and is displayed on the LCD screen.
Distance = (velocity of EMW*time taken)/2
Setup:
1. Place tripod approximately over a known point locking legs at a convenient height so machine
will be at or lower than eye level and the legs are at equal distances from each other. Eyeball
the head of the tripod so it is as close to level as possible.
* Be sure the legs of the tripod are firmly planted into the ground.
* For smooth surfaces (such as concrete, asphalt, or tile), use folding metal tripod footing
to secure the legs.
2. Remove instrument carefully from casing with both hands. Place on top (supporting with top
handle) of tripod and tighten centering screw below platform into instrument, aligning the
three corners of machine and platform. Use sight tangent screw on back side of LCD display to
center the instrument over the exact known point to be surveyed.
17
Power and preparation
1. Attach one of the batteries to the side of instrument with the clamp side up. Press any one of the
five buttons below the display to turn on machine. It shall beep and the display should indicate
the instrument is not level and must be leveled and indexed (precisely level internal
components).
* To switch power off, hold ESC button and press indicated button that corresponds to
OFF on the display.
* If the battery is at a low level, the following will be displayed, “Battery is low!”-switch
batteries and charge the drained one using provided jack.
* Prior to storing the instrument for its next use, check the status of both provided batteries.
If either is only ENTIRELY drained, charge overnight using given equipment.
2. Locate the horizontal level bubble above the LCD display. Rotate instrument by loosening the
horizontal clamp and align the display with any two of the leveling screws. Tighten or loosen the
left screw so bubble is in center. Rotate instrument clockwise to the next two screws and again
use the left one to center bubble. Rotate to the final two pair of screws and center bubble. Check
stationary leveling bubble to see if it is center. If not, repeat previous leveling process.
* If the error message “Tilt out of range” is displayed, it is indicating the instrument is
off-level. Relevel the instrument.
3. To index the vertical circles, loosen the vertical clamp, and manually rotate the telescope either
way twice. The beep should be heard and the zenith angle (ZA vertical angle) will appear on the
LCD display.
4. Loosen the horizontal clamp and rotate the instrument clockwise twice to index the horizontal
circles. The beep is heard again and the horizontal angle (HAR) is displayed.
* Vertical and horizontal indexing has now been completed.
5. Note the menus displayed. Each option shown on the home page (reached by pressing ESC)
opens a section which contains several (up to 3) pages. To scroll through these pages to reach
other options, press button left of the yellow ESC button that reads PX.
6. Set the target and instrument height by pressing Ht. in S-O mode. Measure the target height by
reading the measurement on the reflector pole at the clamp (set at any arbitrary height suitable
for job). Measure the instrument height by taping the distance from the black point on side of
instrument (level with center of telescope) to the known point on ground.
* Be sure to note the units used (currently default set at feet and decimal fractions of feet;
see manual to change to metric units) and height of instrument and target in the field
book.
* When using two reflecting poles, be sure to set each at same height.
Angle measurement:
1. Sight the first point (focus with eye piece and align center hairs with center of reflector) using
the horizontal clamp and the fine motion screw. Set the angle to zero by pressing 0SET in
THEO mode. Sight the second target and read the HAR on the display.
* If you wish to read the angle by rotating the instrument to the left, press R/L in THEO
mode (display will read HAL or HAR for left or right respectively).
2. For higher accuracy, the average of a number of readings can be taken using repetition. Sight the
first target and press REP in THEO mode. Press BS (back sight) then sight the second target.
Press FS (fore sight) and the angle between the two will be displayed. Sight the first target again,
presses BS, and site the second target again and press FS. The average of the two readings will
be displayed. Repeat up to 10 times for higher accuracy.
3. The slope of the line being shot can be displayed as a percentage by pressing ZA% in THEO
mode. This is read as VA and gives the percentage grade of the line. Press it again to return to
the ZA reading.
18
* VA% will be displayed when the parameter is set to “Horizontal 0” instead of “Zenith 0”
but performs the same function.
Distance and angle measurement:
This is the most useful and suggested method. The working procedure is described as follow:
1. Sight target and select for slope, horizontal, or height (SHV) measurement. Press Sdist to start
the measurement and STOP to end. The distance, vertical, and horizontal angle are displayed.
Press SHV to view the other measurements (Horizontal distance or Height difference).
2. To measure the horizontal distance several times and display the average, sight the target and
press Hdist in THEO mode. Three measurements are taken and the average (H-A) is displayed
after a few seconds.
* The most recently taken data can be recalled and displayed by pressing RCL in the EDM
mode.
Coordinate measurement:
This is not much more useful. So co-ordinate measurement is not suggested for use.
1. In order to begin the coordinate measure, set the initial coordinates of the station. This is done by
pressing the S-O button at the main menu. Then press the Stn-P button on the second page of
the S-O menu. Choose the Input button, then set the initial coordinates and press ENTER.
2. Sight the target and press COORD in S-O mode, then press STOP to end the measurement. The
coordinates of the target are given with respect to the initial starting position (0,0,0) and
designated direction to be North.
Measuring the distance between two points:
1. Sight the first position and press either Sdist, Hdist, or Vdist in EDM mode to start the
measurement. Stop the measurement by pressing the STOP and sight the next point. Press
MLM on the same page to start the measurement, the press STOP to stop the measurement. The
slope, horizontal, and height difference between the two points is displayed. This can be
repeated as many times as necessary.
2. The slope may be read as a percentage by pressing S% in the same mode after the missing line
measurement has finished. This displays the percent grade between the two points.
Distance setting-out measurement:
1. To find the direction and distance of a point set out a wanted distance from the instrument
station, sight the reference direction and press 0SET in THEO mode to set the HAR at 0. Turn
theodolite until the required angle is displayed and locks the horizontal movement.
2. Press ESC to go to basic mode and go to S-O mode. Go to S-O_D for the data and input the
desired distance to set out. Set the reflecting prism in the sighting line and press SO_Hd to start
the distance measurement. The difference between the desired distance and the measured
distance is displayed on the 1st line.
3. Move the reflecting prism towards or away from the Instrument until H distance becomes 0m to
determine the point at the desired distance.
* If there is negative (-) data: Move prism away from Instr.
* If positive (+) data: Move prism towards Instr.
* Press STOP to end the measurement.
Coordinates setting-out measurement:
1. Set the station coordinates and initial azimuth angle. Press S-O_P in S-O mode and input the
desired coordinates for N and E and press YES to store the data. Press SO_HA in S-O mode to
19
start the angle measurement. The setting-out horizontal angle, dHA is displayed. Use the
horizontal clamp and fine motion screw to turn theodolite until dHA reads 0° 00’ 00” and lock
the clamp.
2. Sight the reflecting prism on the sighting line and press SO_HD and move reflecting prism until
H reads 0m as in part 3 of the distance setting-out measurement.
2.5.5. Computation and plotting:

For the calculations as well as plotting, we applied the coordinate method (latitude and departure
method). In this method, two terms latitude and departure are used for calculation. Latitude of a
survey line may be defined as its coordinate lengths measured parallel to an assumed meridian
direction. The latitude (L) of a line is positive when measured towards north, and termed Northing
and it is negative when measured towards south, and termed Southing. The departure (D) of a line is
positive when measured towards east, and termed Easting and it is negative when measured towards
south, and termed Westing. The latitude and departures of each control station can be calculated
using the relation:
Latitude = L Cos
Departure = L Sin
Where, L=distance of the traverse legs
=Reduced bearing
If a closed traverse is plotted according to the field measurements, the end of the traverse will not
coincide exactly with the starting point. Such and error is known as closing error.
Mathematically,
Closing error (e) = √ {(L)2 + (D) 2}
The relative error of closure = e / p
The error (e) in a closed traverse due to bearing may be determined by comparing the two
bearings of the last line as observed at the first and last stations of traverse.
Plotting of Major and Minor traverse:
After computing the co-ordinate of each of the control points, they were plotted in A1 size grid
paper. Both major and minor traverses were plotted to 1:1000 scales. The plotted traverse was made at
the center of the sheet with the help of least co-ordinates and highest co-ordinates. Minor Traverse was
plotted in similar way to scale 1:500 over which later detailing by Tacheometry was done.
20
2.7 Comments and Conclusion:

The site for survey camping was the Mars Nepal ,Lalitpur . The pattern was very suitable
because all the facilities for engineering work were available with the good environment of doing work.
The arrangements of the survey instruments were appreciable although there were some faulty
instruments that made the fieldwork time consuming. Some instruments like theodolite, levels etc. do
not given the accurate reading. We hope that there will be sufficient number of instrument for next
survey camp. The stationary accessories should be managed inside the camp area because it is difficult
to take all the stationary goods from outrside of site and there is no such stationary shop near the camp.
Some other problems during the field works were during fly leveling during transferring the R.L.
from given benchmark to the T.B.M. due to the disturbance by traffics.
The given Topography survey camp work was finished satisfactorily within the given span of
time. The subject survey needs practice as much as possible. For surveying, theory can only taken as the
introduction but if there is practice, there will be much gain of knowledge about the techniques of
surveying. Thus, this camp helps us by practicing the survey work to gain the much essential knowledge
as far as possible. It is better to say that it provides us a confidence to perform survey and apply the
techniques at any type of problem facing during the actual work in the future career.
All the groups prepared their topographic map of the given area of the camp areas in the same
scale. The whole area was allocated for one group contains to be detailed . One traverse leg is also
common to all groups and hence the combination of all groups' effort will provide a perfect and
complete topographic map of camp .
21
Chapter 3
BRIDGE SITE SURVEY
This part of the Survey Camp dealt with the bridge site survey at Bungmati River ,Bhainsepati .
Bridges are the structures that are constructed with the purpose of connecting two places separated by
deep valleys or gorges or rivers and streams. Bridges are usually the cross drainage and hence a part of
roads making them shorter and hence economical. In countries like Nepal, where the ground is
undulated and where there are plenty of rivers, bridges are the most economic and efficient way to join
two places. It is a very convenient way. That is why the task of bridge site surveying has been included
in the curriculum of Bachelor's degree in Civil Engineering at IOE.
3.1 Objectives:
The main objective of the bridge site survey is to give the students the preliminary knowledge on
selection and planning of possible bridge site and axis for the future construction of the bridge. The
purpose of the bridge site survey was not only to prepare plan and layout of the bridge site but also from
the engineering point of view, the purpose is to collect the preliminary data about the site such as
normal water flow level, high flood level, geological features of the ground for planning and designing
of the bridge from the details taken during the surveying. Moreover bridge construction is an important
aspect in the development of transportation network. Surveying is required for topographical mapping,
knowledge of longitudinal sections of the river and cross sections at both the upstream and in
downstream side of the river for the construction of a bridge.
3.2 Brief description of the site:

Bridge site survey was conducted over a small rain spring on the Bungmati River ,Bhainsepati. The
spring collects water etc coming from the departments and flows through a ravine formed by two hill
slopes. huge boulders are to be found near the site. It was damp and hilly.
Hydrology, Geology & Soil:
The site is surrounded with steep hill, which is covered with densely planted shrubs. The width
of stream is not so big but high flood level covers large area. Water scoured marks on the sideshow that
the highest flood level.
3.3 Technical Specifications(Norms):

The following norms were followed while performing the bridge site survey in the field:
22
1. Control point fixing as well as determining the length of the bridge axis had to be done by the
method of triangulation. While forming triangles, proper care had to be taken such that the
triangles were well conditioned, i.e. none of the angles of the triangle were greater than 120°
or less than 30°.
2. The triangulation angle had to be measured on two sets of readings by Theodolite and the
difference between the mean angles of two sets of readings had to be within a minute.
3. Transferring the level from one bank to another bank had to be done by the method of
reciprocal leveling.
4. The scale for plotting the topographical map was given to be 1:500
5. In order to plot the longitudinal section of the river, data had to be taken along the riverbed
150 m upstream and at least 50 m downstream. The plot for the longitudinal section along
the flow line had to be done in a scale of 1:50 for vertical and 1:500 for horizontal, for
cross-section v=H=1:50 or 100.
6. For the cross section profile, data had to be taken at 25 m intervals both upstream and
downstream, and one at the bridge axis. Observation had to cover minimally 20 m
beyond the bank of river on either side.
3.4 Equipments & Accessories:
The equipments used in the survey during the preparation of topographic map in bridge site are as
follows:
1. Total Station (Theodolite)

2. Ranging Rods
3. Measuring Tapes
4. Leveling Staffs
5. Plumb Bob
6. Pegs & Arrows
7. Marker Pen
8. Compass
9. Prism & Prism Holder
3.5 Methodology:
The various methods performed during the bridge site survey were triangulation, leveling,
Tacheometry, cross section, and L-section. The brief descriptions of these methodologies are given
below:
3.5.1 Site Selection:
There are various factors for the selection of bridge site such as geological condition,
socio-economical and ecological aspect etc. Therefore, the sites was chosen such that it should
be laid on the very stable rocks at the bed of river as far as possible and not affect the ecological
balance of the flora and fauna of the site area. The bridge axis should be so located that it should
23
be fairly perpendicular to the flow direction and at the same time, the river width should be
narrow from the economical point of view and the free board should be at least 5m. The starting
point of bridge axis should not in any way lie or touch the curve of the road.
The site selected for the bridge axis was near the curve of the river with no community
but with the temples and the shed house nearby. For the purpose of the shortest span, the stations
were set perpendicular to the river flow direction. The riverbanks were not eroded and were
suitable for bridge construction. The chance of change of direction of river on the selected axis
line was nominal.
3.5.2 Topographic Survey:
For the topographic survey of bridge site, triangulation was done. The main purpose of
the triangulation was to determine the length of the bridge axis. The triangulation also serves the
control points for detailing. First, the bridge axis was set and horizontal control stations were
fixed on either side. Distances between stations on the same sides of river i.e. base lines were
measured with tape precisely. Then the interconnecting triangles were formed and angles were
measured with a 1” total station with two sets. The bridge axis length or span was calculated by
solving the triangles using the sine rule. Thus, the horizontal control for vertical control, the
level was transferred from the arbitrary benchmark and RL was transferred to the stations on the
next bank by reciprocal leveling while direct level transfer method was used or the same bank.
3.5.3 L Section & Cross Section:
The L-Section of the river is required to give an idea about the bed slope, nature of the
riverbed, and the variation in the elevations of the different points along the length of the river.
Keeping the instrument at the control (traverse) stations on the river banks, the staff readings
were taken at different points along the center line of the river up to a 150 meters upstream and
50 m downstream. The R.Ls of the traverse stations being known previously, the levels of the
different points on the river were calculated. Then the L-Section of the riverbed was plotted on a
graph paper on scale for vertical and horizontal.
Cross-section of a river at a particular point is the profile of the lateral sides from the
centerline of the river cut transverse to the L-Section at that point. The cross section can be used
to calculate the volume and discharge of water at the particular section if the velocity at the cross
section is known. Cross sections were taken at an interval of about 10 m extending 110 m
upstream and 80 m downstream of the river. Staff readings of points along a line perpendicular
to the flow of river were taken from the stations points and the elevations of the points were
calculated using tachometric methods. At some places, the "danda and tape" method was also
applied. With all the calculations done and the required data in hand, the cross section was
plotted on a graph paper on required scale.
3.5.4 Leveling:
Transferring R.L. from B.M. to control points:
24
The benchmark was on the manhole cover near the stadium. R.L. was transferred to the
triangular station from the B.M. by fly leveling by taking the back sight-reading to the bench
mark which should be within the given accuracy. The R.L. was transferred to the opposite bank
of the river by reciprocal leveling.
Reciprocal Leveling:
For transferring the RL across the bridge reciprocal leveling was performed. This method
eliminates the error due to focusing, collimation, earth’s curvature and refraction of atmosphere
etc.
Fig: Reciprocal
Leveling
True difference in elevation between A and B = H = ha- (hb-e)

Also the true difference in elevation = H = (ha '- e)-hb'
Taking the average of the two differences we get the difference in elevation between A and B.
Observation and Calculation
Inst. Near Sighted T B M Apparent True Remark

to station To Difference Difference
25
A A 1.527 1.516 1.505 0.984m

B 2.779 2.500 2.221 -0.984 above
B A 0.469 0.458 0.447 -0.984 from B to
B 1.451 1.442 1.433 A
3.5.5 Detailing:
Detailing of the entire bridge site was done by total station and tachometric method, the
readings being taken with a theodolite stationed at the different traverse stations. The detailing was
done with respect to the skeleton formed by triangulation. The vertices of triangles serve as a
control point. With the help of tachometer, the details were booked, up to 110m upstream and 80m
downstream. The important details not included in the cross-section data, were taken.
Trigonometric Leveling was also done to find out the RL of the inaccessible points. The data and
the calculations have been tabulated in a systematic way.
3.5.6 Computation & Plotting:
The use of total station makes the detailing process easy and fast. The total station gives
the direct vales of the horizontal distances and vertical height difference between the station point
and the detailing point. The RLs of the points can be calculated by using following formula.
RL of detail = RL of station + HI + V-Target Height
The following tachometric formulas were used for the calculation of the horizontal
distance and R.L. of different points:
Horizontal distance of any point from the traverse station,
H = 100 x S x Cos2θ
Where, S = Staff intercept = (Top - Bottom )Stadia Reading
θ = Vertical Angle
And R.L. of any required Point is
R.L.(point)= R.L. of Station + H.I + H x Tan θ – Mid Wire Reading
The topographic map, the longitudinal section and the cross section were plotted on the
respective scales after the completion of calculations. By taking an A1 grid sheet, control stations
were plotted accurately. Then all hard details as well as contours were plotted with reference to the
control stations by the method of angle and distances.
As a civil engineer, we should design the bridge with the view point of economic and its
durability. The bridge axis should be design such that the span length should be minimum and in safe
location. That means the bridge axis should not be below the flood level so that during course of
monsoon it is affected by floods. From the geological and topographic and economic point of view,
bridge span is found to be ….……. No springs and streams are added in the river up to the surveyed
area, also the drainage and sewage have not been discharged into the river. At the axis, the river width,
the river width is about 10m and water flow is normal. The cross-section was taken at the banks of river
and at the middle of the river to get the profile of the flowing river. Also, we marked the high flood
level and low flood level.
26
There is a very little change due to the erosion of bank. The watermarks are at the level below the
existing Foot track. Due to the low discharge the channel of river is not changing.
The instruments provided for the bridge site survey were not so precise than that of topographic
survey performed at Mars Nepal Survey camp pvt.LTD.. However, we managed to complete our job on
the specified time.
27
Chapter 4
ROAD ALIGNMENT &
GEOMETRIC DESIGN
A road is an identifiable route, way or path between two or more places. Roads are typically
smoothed, paved, or otherwise prepared to allow easy travel; though they need not be, and historically
many roads were simply recognizable routes without any formal construction or maintenance.
Before the construction of the road, preliminary survey is done. Road alignment is the
preliminary stage of road construction. Selection of Intersection Points (IP) is the foundation of
construction of the road. After that cross section, longitudinal section and formation level are required.
4.1 Brief description of the project area:

Road alignment is an important aspect in the development of the transportation network of the
country. Road alignment is important part of the survey. Road alignment and bridge site survey goes
side by side to run a road between two terminals and to carry a survey for the bridge construction along
the route. This specific job is essential for an engineer combating with the mountainous topography of
Nepal.
4.2 Geology Hydrology & Soil:
The road had to go along a damp route that was much undulated. The place was damp. There were
no large boulders or rocks of any kind along the proposed site. There are several places where culvert or
cause way can exist. The soil is uniform throughout the whole length of the road. Although the road
alignment has certain up and downs. Finally the starting and ending point of the road has not significant
level differences.
If along the potential slip surface in the soil the stress produced by gravity exceeds the shear
strength of the soil along the potential failure surface, the slope will become unstable. Obviously, the
shear strength of soil is largely depends upon the type of soil. Cohesive soil has more shear strength
than others do. The hard and dense soil is best for slopes. We found soft clayey soil that was very damp.
Other kinds of soils were not found along our proposed route.
4.3 Technical Specifications (Norms):
Reece alignment selection was carried out of the road corridor considering permissible gradient,
obligatory points, bridge site and geometry of tentative horizontal and vertical curves. The road setting
horizontal curve, cross sectional detail in 15m interval and longitudinal profile were prepared.
The topographic map (scale 1:1000) of road corridor was prepared. Geometric curves, road
formation width, right of way, crossings and other details were shown in the map.
28
While performing the road alignment survey, the following norms were strictly followed:
i. If the external deflection angle at the I.P. of the road is less than 3°, curves need not be fitted.
ii. Simple horizontal curves had to be laid out where the road changed its direction, determining
and pegging three points on the curve - the beginning of the curve, the middle point of the curve
and the end of the curve along the centerline of the road.
iii. The radius of the curve had to be chosen such that it was convenient and safe.
iv. The gradient of the road had to be maintained below 12 %.
v. Cross sections had to be taken at 15 m intervals and at the beginning, middle and end of the
curve, along the centerline of the road - observations being taken for at least 10 m on either side
of the centerline.
vi. Plan of the road had to be prepared on a scale of 1:1000
vii. L-Section of the road had to be plotted on a scale of 1:1000 horizontally and 1:100 vertically.
viii. The cross section of the road had to be plotted on a scale of 1:100 (both vertical and horizontal).
ix. The amount of cutting and filling required for the road construction had to be determined from
the L-Section and the cross sections. However, the volume of cutting had to be roughly equal to
the volume of filling.
4.4 Equipments & Accessories:

The following are the instruments used during the road alignment survey in the field:
 Total Station
 Prism & Prism Holder
 Plumb Bob
 Leveling Instrument
 Leveling Staffs
 Ranging Rods
 Measuring Tape
 Pegs and Arrows
 Marker Pen
4.5 Methodology:
4.5.1 Reconnaissance:
The reconnaissance survey was performed along the given route. Then guess works were done
for intersection points, where the direction had to be changed. While returning back the route, the
IPs was fixed. For this the inter-visibility of the stations was checked and gradient between the two
IPs was adjusted such that it does not exceed 12%, using the abney level. Meanwhile the pegs with
IP no. were driven at these points.
4.5.2 Horizontal Alignment:

Horizontal alignment is done for fixing the road direction in horizontal plane. For this, the
bearing of initial line connecting two initial stations was measured using compass. The interior
angles were observed using 1” Total station at each IP and then deflection angles were calculated.
Deflection angle = (3600 or 1800) - observed angle
29
If +ve, the survey line deflects right (clockwise) with the prolongation of preceding line and
deflects left if –ve (anti-clockwise). The radius was assumed according to the deflection angle.
Then the tangent length, EC, BC, apex distance along with their chainage were found by using
following formulae,
Tangent length (T L) = R x Tan (/2)
Length of curve (L.C) = 3.142 x R x /180
Apex distance = R x 1/(Cos (/2)-1)
Chainage of BC = Chainage of IP – TL
Chainage of MC = Chainage of BC +LC/2
Chainage of EC = Chainage of MC + LC/2
The BC and EC points were located along the line by measuring the tangent length from the
apex and the points were marked distinctly. The radius was chosen such that the tangent does not
overlap. The apex was fixed at the length of apex distance from IP along the line bisecting the
interior angle.
4.5.3 Vertical Alignment:
Vertical profile of the Road alignment is known by the vertical alignment. In the L-section of
the Road alignment, vertical alignment was plotted with maximum gradient of 12 %. According to
Nepal Road Standard, Gradient of the Road cannot be taken more than 12 %. In the vertical
alignment, we set the vertical curve with proper design. Vertical curve may be either summit curve
or valley curve. While setting the vertical alignment, it should keep in mind whether cutting and
filling were balanced or not.
4.5.4 Leveling:
The method of fly leveling was applied in transferring the level from the given B.M. to all the
I.Ps, beginnings, mid points and ends of the curves as well as to the points along the center line of
the road where the cross sections were taken. After completing the work of one way leveling on the
entire length of the road, fly leveling was continued back to the B.M. making a closed loop for
check and adjustment. The difference in the R.L. of the B.M. before and after forming the loops
should be less than 25√ k mm, where k is the total distance in km.
4.5.5 L-section & Cross Section:
The L-Section of the road is required to give the road engineer an idea about the nature of the
ground and the variation in the elevations of the different points along the length of the road and
also to determine the amount of cutting and filling required at the road site for maintaining a gentle
slope. In order to obtain the data for L-Section, staff readings were taken at points at 15m intervals
along the centerline of the road with the help of a level by the method of fly leveling. Thus after
performing the necessary calculations, the level was transferred to all those points with respect to
the R.L. of the given B.M. Then finally the L-Section of the road was plotted on a graph paper on a
30
vertical scale of 1:100 and a horizontal scale of 1:1000. The staff readings at BC, EC and apex
were also taken. The RL of each point were calculated.
Cross sections at different points are drawn perpendicular to the longitudinal section of the
road on either side of its centerline in order to present the lateral outline of the ground. Cross
sections are also equally useful in determining the amount of cut and fill required for the road
construction. Cross sections were taken at 15m intervals along the centerline of the road and at
points where there was a sharp change in the elevation. While doing so, the horizontal distances of
the different points from the centerline were measured with the help of a tape and the vertical
heights with a measuring staff. The R.L. was transferred to all the points by performing the
necessary calculations and finally, the cross sections at different sections were plotted on a graph
paper on a scale of both vertical and 1:100 - horizontal.
4.6 Curve Setting:

A regular curved path followed by highway or railway alignment is curve. It is introduced wherever
it is necessary to change the direction of motion due to the nature of terrain. A curve may be circular,
parabola or spiral and is always tangential to two straight directions.
There may be different types of curves:
Simple curve, Compound curve, Reverse curve, Transition curve.
Simple Circular Curve:

A simple circular curve is the curve, which consists of a single arc of a circle. It is tangential to both
the straight lines.
Setting Out OF Simple Circular Curves:
1. Linear method: - In this method, only a chain or tape is used. Linear methods are used when a high
degree of accuracy is not required and the curve is short.
E.g: Offsets from Long Chord
Offsets form Tangents
Successive bisection of Chords
Offsets from Chords produced
2. Angular method: - In this method, an instrument like theodolite is used with or without chain or tape.
E.g.: Rankine’s Method of Tangential Deflection Angles
Two Theodolite Method
Offset from Long Cord Method:
Mid-ordinate can be determined by the relation

31
Oo = R -  [R2 – (L/2)2]
The Ordinate at a distance ‘x’ is given by,
Ox =  [ ( R2 – X2) – ( R - Oo ) ]
Where,
Oo = mid-ordinate
Ox = ordinate at distance x from the mid point of the chord
L = length of the long chord
R = Radius of the curve
Rankine’s Method:
In Rankine’s method, it’s assumed that the length of the curve and the chord length are equal
(case for larger radius). The deflection angle to any point on the curve is an angle at the point of
contact between the back tangent and the chord joining the point of contact and that point.
The angle subtended by first sub-chord is given by,
1 = 1718.9 C1/R minutes
The angle subtended by each normal chord is given by the formula,

 = 1718.9 C/R minutes
If 1, 2…, n are the tangential angles made by successive chords with their tangents and 1,
2……..n are the total deflection angles, then
1 = 1
2 = 1 + 1 = 1+ 2
…………………….
………………………………..
Similarly,
n =  n -1 + n = 1+ 2 + 3 +………. + n = /2
Field Procedure:
1. The instrument is set at T1 and zero is set along P.I..

2. Then the theodolite is set to read an angle of 1(=1).
3. With T1 as center and C1 as radius, the tape is swung and arrow was marked at intersection
of the tape with crosshairs.
4. Then angle 2 was set on the theodolite and with length of normal chord as radius, the next
point on the curve was marked at the pt of intersection.
This procedure is continued till the point of tangency is located.

Survey of the road alignment is done to make most economical, comfortable, and durable. Extra
case is taken to avoid any soil erosion and any other ecological damage. Vertical and horizontal curves
are set according to Road Design Standards for comfort and other factors.
While setting the road alignment, it should be kept in mind that the minimum IP points should be
taken as far as possible and deflection angles should be minimal as far as possible. The task was
challengeable and tough due to the route high altitude.
32
Chapter 5
CONCLUDING REMARKS
With the helpful regard of teacher and cooperative behavior of all friends all the work is
completed as scheduled in routine time assigned to us although we faced minor difficulties during our
orientation. The management team had arranged the total station instrument for our daily field work.
This had made our work easy, reliable, less time consuming and competitive as total station is the
instrument which is widely used in the surveying works nowadays. All results we obtained were within
the limits given to us. This camp really helped us with the practical parts of survey fieldwork as we were
working in conditions we will surely have to face in the future. It increased our confidence in handling
instruments as well as completing projects within given deadlines. This trip also offered us relief from
the monotony of performing all survey practical within the college compound. It was also a chance to
get to know our friends from other sections, work closely, and interact with them. This trip is a good
experience in dealing with locals and other people who were interested in our work. We also learned to
explain what we were doing to laymen in simple terms. We think I.O.E should organize such trips
frequently and for all possible subjects, as practical knowledge is better. In these trips, we gain first
hand concept of the subject matter that makes it easier for us to grasp the concept. All in this entire trip
was very informative, effective and enjoyable.
Any suggestion and comment are heartily acceptable. During report preparation all confusion
are cleared by teacher whom we are very grateful.
33
APPENDIX
Location Map:
34
Bibliography
“A Text Book of Surveying” -Agor R.
“A Text book of Surveying-II” – Basnet N., ;Benchmark Publication,Nepal
“Surveying (Vol. I, II, III)”- Punmia , Khanna Publishers, Latest Publications
35
36
37

Theory 2074 Batch Group L

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Theory 2074 Batch Group L

Uploaded by

Document Information

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Theory 2074 Batch Group L

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

SURVEY CAMP 2076/BCE074

1.1 OBJECTIVES OF SURVEY CAMP:

1.2 Location Map:

1.3 Project Area:

1.4 Location and Accessibility:

1.5 Topography and Geology:

The latitude and longitude of Mars Nepal are as follows:

1.6 Temperature, Climate and Variation:

Tempreature Maximum Minimum Season

Major Crops Paddy ,Wheat ,Maize ,etc.

2.3 Technical Specifications (Norms):

2.4 Equipments and Accessories:

ii. Open traverse:

iii. Link traverse:

Correction to latitude (or departure) of any side

= (Total error in latitude (or departure)*length of that side)

= Total error in latitude or departure * latitude (or departure) of that line

Arithmetic sum of latitude (or departure)

Where, k = multiplying constant (=100),

Temporary adjustments of Level:

Permanent adjustments of Level:

Two Peg Test

Figure: Two Peg Test

Staff Reading Mean

A 1.363 1.287 1.212 1.287

C B 1.906 1.831 1.756 1.831 0.544

Level Inst. At Station Near to A

Staff Reading Mean

D B 1.348 1.333 1.318 1.333 0.546

A 0.952 0.787 0.622 0.787

Booking and reducing levels:

B.S. – F.S. = Last R.L. – First R.L.

2. Rise and Fall method

B.S. – F.S. = Rise –Fall = Last R.L. – First R.L.

Level transfer to the major and minor traverse stations:

Permissible error = ±25k mm.

Actual Error (e) = ∑BS – ∑F.S. = Last R.L. – First R.L.

Correction ith leg=-(e x (L1 + L2 +…. + Li)/P

Where L1, L2, Li Length of 1st 2nd, ….. ith leg.

Relative Precision= 1/(p/e)

6) Electronic Distance Measurement (EDM):

Distance= (velocity *time)/2

2.5.2. Major traverse:

Bearing of a line = (bearing of previous line +included angle) (180) or (-540)

X-coordinate of A=x-coordinate of control point (c.p) +L*sin N

Y-coordinate of A=y-coordinate of control point (c.p) +L*cos L sin

R.L or z-coordinate of A=R.L of point (c.p) +H.I H*Tan-Height of signal.

Where, H.I=Height of instrument L L cos

2.5.3. Minor traverse:

FIG: TOTAL STATION

Measurement of distance is accomplished with a modulated microwave or infrared carrier signal,

Distance = (velocity of EMW*time taken)/2

Power and preparation

Distance setting-out measurement:

2.5.5. Computation and plotting:

Where, L=distance of the traverse legs

Closing error (e) = √ {(L)2 + (D) 2}

The relative error of closure = e / p

Plotting of Major and Minor traverse:

2.7 Comments and Conclusion: