Research in Ecology | Volume 06 | Issue 03 | September 2024

Research in Ecology
https://journals.bilpubgroup.com/index.php/re

REVIEW

Microplastics in Seagrass Ecosystems: A Review of Fate and Impacts

Kuok Ho Daniel Tang*

Department of Environmental Science, The University of Arizona, Tucson AZ 85721, USA

ABSTRACT
Microplastics have been detected in seagrass ecosystems, raising concerns about their potential impacts on the
ecological functions of seagrasses. Seagrass meadows are biodiversity hotspots as they provide habitats to diverse fish
and invertebrates. They also play a crucial role in nutrient cycling, capturing carbon, and buffering coastal erosion.
This review aims to present the fate of microplastics in seagrass ecosystems and their impacts on the ecosystems. A
total of 66 scientific articles have been reviewed. The review highlights that seagrass meadows intercept microplastics,
though the relevant results are currently inconclusive. Some microplastics attach to the epiphytes on seagrass blades or
the seagrass blades while some accumulate in the seagrass sediment, causing enrichment of microplastics in seagrass
meadows. Nonetheless, a few studies did not observe such intercepting effects. Microplastic enrichment, where
observed, could be due to near-bed turbulent kinetic energy that entraps denser sinking microplastics. Microplastics
can directly affect seagrasses by blocking light and nutrient transfer, affecting their shoot or leaf turnover, degenerating
root and causing oxidative stress. However, a study on Zostera marina L. found that short-term exposure to
microplastics did not significantly impact bicarbonate utilization and photosynthetic efficiency. Microplastic additives,
particularly bisphenol A reduced chlorophyll and caused peroxide accumulation in Cymodocea nodosa. The presence
of biodegradable plastics in the sediment might alter the distribution and interaction of seagrass species. Seagrasses
could be affected indirectly through the potential impacts of microplastics on seagrass epiphytes but more studies are
needed to confirm this. Desorption of pollutants sorbed on microplastics could negatively affect seagrass meadows.
Further research could focus on the impacts of microplastic accumulation on the seagrass ecosystem and the processes
therein, including nutrient cycling. Disintegration-oriented techniques and alternatives to conventional plastics are two
strategies to mitigate microplastic prevalence in the environment.
Keywords: Ecosystems; Epiphytes; Interactions; Microplastics; Seagrass; Sediment

*CORRESPONDING AUTHOR:
Kuok Ho Daniel Tang, Department of Environmental Science, The University of Arizona, Tucson AZ 85721, USA; Email: daniel.tangkh@yahoo.
com
ARTICLE INFO
Received: 30 May 2024 | Received in revised form: 4 July 2024 | Accepted: 25 July 2024
DOI: https://doi.org/10.30564/re.v6i3.6706
CITATION
Tang, K.H.D., 2024. Microplastics in seagrass ecosystems: A review of fate and impacts. 6(3): 41–53. DOI: https://doi.org/10.30564/re.v6i3.6706
COPYRIGHT
Copyright © 2024 by the author(s). Published by Bilingual Publishing Group. This is an open access article under the Creative Commons Attribu-
tion-NonCommercial 4.0 International (CC BY-NC 4.0) License (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0/).

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1. Introduction tained 26-228 microplastics/m2 [8]. A coastal area in

the Northern Gulf of Mexico, USA, was reported to
The presence of plastic waste in all parts of the have 5-117 microplastics/m2 [9]. 0.01 to 0.41 micro-
environment has raised global concern. As of 2021,
plastics/m3 were retrieved from the waters of North-
the global production of plastics stood at 400 million
western Australia [10]. Present calculations, grounded
metric tons, and the number is expected to increase
on the principles of mass conservation, suggest that
threefold by 2060. Increasing plastic production and
the breakdown of microplastics into nanoplastics
consumption is frequently followed by a rising entry
could result in particle concentrations that are up to
of plastic waste into the environment, often through
1014 times greater than the current globally measured
the mismanagement of plastic waste. Approximately
concentrations of microplastics [11]. These concentra-
30 million metric tons of plastics had found their
tions could be even higher in areas heavily affected
way into the marine environments from 1970 to
by plastic pollution, such as coastal shallow near-
2019 [1]. These plastics degrade in the environment
shore habitats [12,13].
over time into tiny particles called microplastics
Existing data suggests that microplastics can have
and nanoplastics. Microplastics derived from the
detrimental effects on a range of marine life forms,
breakdown of larger plastics discarded into the en-
for instance, by modifying the feeding patterns,
vironment, such as water bottles, plastic bags, and
growth, reproduction, survival, and behaviors [14,15].
other single-use plastics, are also called secondary
However, research on the impact of these pollutants
microplastics. Plastic particles with sizes less than 5
on photosynthetic primary producers, which form
mm are generally regarded as microplastics. Nano-
the base of marine food chains, has primarily con-
plastics are fundamentally a subset of microplastics
with extremely small sizes ranging from 1 to 1000 centrated on microalgae [16–18]. These studies have
nm. Microplastics can also enter the marine environ- found that microalgal growth and photosynthesis are
ments directly from items containing them, such as negatively affected due to factors such as physical
cosmetics and paints. These primary microplastics adhesion of particles to cell surfaces, obstruction of
further complicate marine plastic pollution [2]. light and nutrient intake, water cloudiness, damage
Research on the prevalence of microplastics in to cell membrane structure and DNA, and the release
ocean surface waters has found that the average of toxic additives [19,20]. The external adsorption of
concentration varies from 0.13 to 6.6 μg/L, with the microplastics on macroalgae and the subsequent
highest recorded value being 670 μg/L in the North transfer of microplastics from macroalgae to con-
Pacific Ocean [3]. Forecasts suggest that the total sumers have also been documented [21]. The impacts
quantity of microplastics could quadruple by 2060 [4]. of microplastics on microalgae have been presented
The Mediterranean Sea, due to its semi-enclosed in several reviews. Despite this, there are very few
nature [5], is known as a significant hotspot for plas- reviews on the impact of microplastics on rooted
tic waste, with average microplastic concentrations marine plants like seagrasses, probably because of
in seawater fluctuating between 1.4 and 7 μg/L [3]. comparatively less research in this area. With an in-
Nevertheless, certain areas of the Mediterranean, creasing body of research suggesting that seagrass
such as France (56.9 μg/L) and a highly polluted hy- meadows can serve as long-term repositories for mi-
persaline lagoon in Spain (9303 μg/L), have reported croplastics due to their capacity to trap particles and
higher concentrations [3,6]. Since microplastics have accumulate them in sediments, there is a need to sys-
permeated all parts of the world, their environmen- tematically review the impacts of microplastics on
tal prevalence has been widely reported in other seagrasses [22–24]. There is also evidence highlighting
regions. In China, 379-7924 microplastic particles that the presence of epiphytes growing on seagrass
were detected in the Guangzhou section of the Pearl leaves can contribute to the accumulation of micro-
River [7]. The marine environment east of Japan con- plastics [13]. Once in marine sediments, microplastics

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can influence microbial communities, leading to 2. Seagrass meadow as a sink of mi-

changes in nutrient cycling [25], and can increase the croplastics
local concentration of sediment pollutants, acting as
Seagrasses are commonly found in shallow wa-
a carrier for heavy metals and residual monomers [26].
ters with high light penetration, which are also where
Microplastics could potentially interact with
most microplastics are found. When microplastics
seagrasses at both the shoot level through the water
enter the seagrass ecosystem, the above-ground
and at the root level through the sediment. Seagrass
biomass and complex structure of seagrass blades
meadows offer a variety of essential ecosystem ser-
reduce water currents, leading to the trapping of par-
vices, such as the regulation of nutrient cycling, pro- ticulate matter, including microplastics, among the
vision of nursery habitats, and coastal protection [27]. blades and their eventual settling into the sediment
However, these meadows are globally endangered below [29]. However, not all microplastics reach the
due to human activities and stressors related to cli- sediment; some become part of the epiphytic com-
mate change [27,28]. Consequently, it is crucial to munities that attach to seagrass blades (Figure 1) [30].
understand the effects of microplastics on seagrass Epiphytes, which are small stationary plants like
ecosystems. This review aims to provide a compre- cyanobacteria, diatoms, crustose coralline algae,
hensive overview of the fate and impacts of micro- and macroalgae that stick to seagrass blades, pro-
plastics on seagrass ecosystems globally. Doing so vide a rough surface where microplastics can stick
contributes to greater insight into how plastic pollu- and get trapped. These epiphytes then grow over the
tion influences the ecological functions of seagrasses, trapped microplastics, keeping them attached to the
in addition to other stressors related to climate change blade surface. This is supported by the findings that
and human activities that they are already facing. many microplastics on seagrass blades were found
Furthermore, this could help in formulating effective within epiphyte assemblies [31,32]. New evidence also
conservation strategies for seagrass ecosystems. suggests a significant relationship between the abun-
To achieve this aim, this review includes 66 pa- dance of microplastics and the density of epiphytes,
pers published in the past 10 years. The papers were indicating that more epiphytes on a blade directly
sourced from major scholarly databases comprising correlate to more microplastics [13]. Some seagrass
Web of Science, Scopus and ScienceDirect. Key- genera, specifically Posidonia, can trap microplastics
not only within their own ecosystem but also within
words comprising microplastics, impacts, and sea-
their aegagropilae, which are essentially a ball-shaped
grasses were used in the search. The Boolean search
mass of hairlike filaments. These aegagropilae accumu-
string used was (“microplastics” OR “micro-plas-
late on beaches near seagrass meadows, suggesting that
tics”) AND (“seagrass” OR “marine plants”) AND
seagrasses may also play a role in exporting microplas-
(“impacts” OR “effects” OR “consequences”) AND
tics out of marine environments, in addition to trapping
(“ecosystems” OR “environments” OR “habitats”).
them within their own ecosystem [22].
The inclusion criteria were (1) The articles must be Research conducted in natural environments has
written in English; (2) The articles must be schol- revealed a significant build-up of plastics within
arly and peer-reviewed; (3) The articles must be seagrass ecosystems, present both in the sediment
published between 2014 and 2024, with focus given and on the blades of seagrass (Figure 1). A study by
to those published between 2019 and 2024; (4) The Huang et al. discovered that the sediments in these
articles must be related to seagrasses, seagrass eco- ecosystems had microplastic levels that were 1.3 to
systems or seagrass meadows, not microalgae, mac- 17.6 times higher than in areas without vegetation [33].
roalgae, mangroves and salt marsh plants alone. How- In a separate study, Huang et al. reported an enrich-
ever, articles mentioning microalgae and macroalgae ment factor as high as 2.9, with microplastics of
as parts of the seagrass ecosystem are included. fiber shape and blue color being most detected [34].

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The prevalence of microplastic fibers in the seagrass of microplastic particles in the sediment. They found
ecosystems could be due to the abundance of these microplastics in 98% of the samples, with fibers con-
fibers in subtidal zones, often contributed by laun- stituting 91.8% of all identified microplastics, in line
dry, fishing nets, and fishing ropes [35]. Generally, with the observation of Huang et al. [34,38]. The overall
in sediments and water columns worldwide, blue abundance was recorded as 215 ± 163 microplastic
microplastics are found most frequently, with trans- particles per kg of dry weight of sediment in sea-
parent ones being the second most common [36]. Ad- grass and 221 ± 236 microplastic particles per kg of
ditionally, Goss et al. (2018) detected an average of dry weight of sediment in unvegetated habitats. No
4.0 ± 2.1 microplastics on each blade of the tropical significant differences were found in the number of
seagrass species Thalassia testudinum [31]. Kreitsberg microplastics in relation to vegetation, indicating a
et al. also found the sediments of seagrass beds in the general accumulation of microplastics in the broader
Baltic Sea to contain 0–1817 (with a median of 208) environment rather than the seagrass ecosystem as a
microplastic particles per kilogram (dry weight), a concentrated sink of microplastics [38]. This could be
figure significantly higher than what has been previ- attributed to physical and anthropogenic factors, such
ously reported from nearby unvegetated and offshore as local hydrodynamics and population density, that
sediments [37]. However, the surface water in the sea- may have a greater influence on microplastic abun-
grass beds contained 0.04–1.2 (with a median of 0.14) dance in marine environments. Interestingly, Tahir et
microplastic particles per liter, which is comparable al. did not observe any significant difference between
to other regions of the Baltic Sea. Among the identi- the microplastic abundance in sediment samples
fied microplastic particles, blue fibers were the most collected from seagrass meadows of high, medium,
common [37]. On the contrary, Unsworth et al. sam- and low coverages in Makassar, Indonesia, indicating
pled eight seagrass meadows and their adjacent un- spatial variability of microplastic abundance and the
vegetated sites across the UK to test for the presence presence of multiple factors affecting it [39].

Figure 1. Distribution of microplastics in seagrass meadows. Some microplastics attach to the leaves directly while others attach to
the epiphytes on the leaves. Microplastics also accumulate in the sediment, sometimes facilitated by the near-bed turbulent kinetic
energy.

Compared to bare sediments, seagrass bed sedi- strated in an experimental study using the seagrass
ments may serve as a significant repository for mi- species Zostera marina, with four different canopy
croplastics. This is primarily due to the near-bed tur- shoot densities (0, 50, 100, 200 shoots per m2) to
bulent kinetic energy, which is also responsible for intercept microplastic particles (polypropylene, poly-
trapping sediment (Figure 1) [29,34]. This was demon- styrene, polyamide, and polyethylene terephthalate)

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with specific densities ranging from 0.90 to 1.34 g cm−3. seagrass habitats [42].
The study found that microplastic particles carried
by a simulated unidirectional flow of 2 to 30 cms-1 3. Impacts of microplastics on sea-
were trapped in the seagrass canopies, but not in bare grasses
sand [30]. The seagrass canopies only retained floating
One of the major concerns with microplastics is
microplastics (polypropylene) at low velocities (less
their propensity to absorb or form heteroaggregates
than 12 cms-1), due to a barrier formed by the can-
with toxins, including persistent organic pollutants
opy. However, sinking particles (polystyrene, poly-
and nanoparticles. This happens because many
amide, polyethylene) were retained across a broader
pollutants are more attracted to the hydrophobic
range of flow velocities. This suggests that less dense
surface of microplastics than to seawater [43]. This
sinking microplastic particles might escape from
attraction can differ among various types of plastic,
the seagrass canopy at high velocities, while denser
as their physical and chemical properties influence
sinking particles could be caught in areas around the
their adsorption capabilities [44]. Over 78% of these
shoots of seagrasses subjected to scouring [30]. The
pollutants are deemed harmful to marine life, and
scouring was caused by the near-bed kinetic energy
their interactions with microplastics could potentially
mentioned earlier. While inconsistent findings have
increase their toxicity, especially towards marine
been reported on the role of seagrass meadows as a
algae [45]. Polluted microplastics were reported to sink
sink of microplastics, marine canopies could serve
in coastal marine systems where seagrass meadows
as potential barriers or sinks for microplastics under
are found [46]. Due to the physical characteristics
certain bio-physical conditions, with the barrier ef-
of seagrasses, polluted plastics are more likely to
fect increasing with the density of seagrass shoots sink within seagrass ecosystems than in nearby
and the specific density of the polymer, and decreas- unvegetated sediments, probably interacting with
ing with the velocity of the flow. epiphytic algae in the process [30]. Once ensnared
Seagrass blades with attached microplastics may in an epiphytic community, persistent organic
also contribute to this accumulation as they shed and pollutants and other toxins attached to microplastics
fall to the sediments below [33]. For instance, the tur- can become bioavailable to algae, including those in
tle grass Thalassia testudinum, has broad, flat blades epiphytic clusters, through desorption (Figure 2) [47].
that support a variety of epibiont communities. Like- This is evident in the marine algae Chlorella sp.,
wise, microplastics might gather on the blades of the which can absorb toxins carried by microplastics,
seagrass (Figure 1). A study on the seagrass sam- including nanoparticles and triphenyltin chloride [48].
ples taken from Turneffe Atoll revealed that 75% of Despite the fact that the majority of microplastics
Thalassia blades had microplastics attached to them, on seagrass blades are attached to epiphytes, the
with microfibers being more prevalent than microbe- impact of microplastics on seagrass epiphytes
ads and chips at a ratio of 59:14 [31]. Microplastics has been understudied [31]. Microplastics have the
might have accumulated on the seagrass as they were potential to significantly hinder the growth and
trapped by epibionts or adhered through biofilms. photosynthesis of algae, but their overall effects on
Alarmingly, grazers were observed to consume sea- seagrasses could be more intricate. If microplastics
grasses that had a higher density of epibionts. More- cause a decrease in the growth and photosynthesis
over, the density of microplastics increases due to the of epiphytes, this could actually be beneficial for
formation of aggregations and associated biofilms, the seagrass plant, as epiphytes compete with
leading to their rapid sinking into sediments [40,41]. seagrasses for light, nutrients, and space [49]. A
Given this significant accumulation of microplastics decrease in epiphytes could result in an increase in
and the biodiversity within these ecosystems, it is the passive diffusion of CO2, O2, and nutrients into
crucial to consider the impact of microplastics on the blades and a higher availability of inorganic

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carbon in the leaf microenvironment [49]. However, attenuation and nutrient transfer [49]. From a toxicity
these benefits can only be realized if microplastics perspective, microplastics could increase the local
do not also negatively impact seagrasses. While abundance of pollutants on and around seagrass
there is limited literature on this topic, evidence blades through desorption (Figure 2) [47,50]. While
suggests that this is unlikely. Microplastics that there is no documentation yet of toxin bioavailability
adhere to seagrass blades may physically resemble via microplastic desorption for seagrasses, evidence
epiphytes by blocking seagrass cells, creating a from marine and aquatic algae suggests that this
shading effect, and subsequently reducing light pathway is possible [48,51].

Figure 2. Microplastics themselves, as well as the additives leached and the pollutants desorbed from them, can affect seagrasses
in multiple ways, depending on the tolerance of the seagrasses. Microplastics and the associated chemicals can enter the organisms
dwelling in the seagrass bed and, subsequently, the food chain.

Furthermore, there is a lack of evidence indicating Menicagli et al. demonstrated that brief exposure to
that epibionts affect the distribution of microplastics high concentrations of pure polystyrene microplas-
on seagrasses. Seng et al. measured the amount of tics can negatively affect the seagrass Cymodocea
microplastics present on the surfaces of three types of nodosa, causing changes in shoot/leaf turnover, root
intertidal seagrasses, namely Thalassia hemprichii, degeneration, and oxidative stress [53]. Moreover,
Cymodocea serrulate, and Cymodocea rotundata, microplastics can hinder the photosynthetic process-
as well as two kinds of subtidal macroalgae, namely es of the plant. Microplastics and nanoplastics are
Padina sp. and Sargassum ilicifolium. The authors likely to impact seagrasses via different modes. The
discovered that the density of microplastics was sig- effects of microplastics are primarily due to their ad-
nificantly greater on seagrasses compared to macroal- hesion to the surfaces of leaves, rhizomes, and roots
gae. However, they did not find any correlation be- (Figure 2), while the impact of nanoplastics is likely
tween the density of microplastics and the coverage due to their absorption by plant tissues [53]. Another
of epibionts on either seagrasses or macroalgae [52]. study indicates that seagrass (Zostera marina L.)
While their research has provided preliminary evi- leaves and their associated epiphytes exposed to
dence of the presence of microplastics on the surfaces microplastics over a short duration of 14 days were
of macrophytes in their natural environment, it does only minimally impacted. However, a gradual de-
not establish that epiphytes on seagrasses decrease crease in photosynthetic activity and respiration rates
with increasing microplastic density. in bare seagrass leaves was observed as microplastic
Few studies have been conducted to examine concentrations increased (25-1000 mg MP L-1) [54].
the direct impacts of microplastics on seagrasses. At the highest MP exposure, dark respiration of bare

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leaves was reduced by more than 50%, while the res- ous environments [59]. Additionally, polystyrene
piration rates of leaves with epiphytes and separated microplastics were reported to adsorb organic
epiphytes were reduced by approximately 45% and pollutants in water such as oxytetracycline, tri-
30% respectively. Despite this, short-term exposure adimenol, and hexaconazole. Microplastics can
to microplastics did not affect the ability to utilize adsorb a wide range of pollutants because of their
bicarbonate or the photosynthetic efficiency of Z. large specific surface areas and high adsorption
marina leaves and their associated epiphytes. The capacity [60]. Consequently, this might lead to an
seagrass leaves (both with and without epiphytes) accumulation of microplastics and their associ-
maintained a positive net oxygen balance across all ated toxins in the organisms residing in the sea-
treatments. It was hypothesized that the decrease in grass ecosystem. These organisms include mol-
photosynthetic activity and respiration may be due lusks, crustaceans, and sea turtles (Figure 2) [13,61].
to leachates from microplastics (Figure 2) [54]. This A study revealed the presence of microplastics in
hypothesis is supported by studies on pollutants as- sea cucumbers residing in the seagrass ecosystems
sociated with microplastics, which pointed to their on the coast of Bintan Island in Indonesia, with a
potential deleterious effects on seagrasses. Exposure maximum microplastic particle of 52 per individual
to environmentally significant amounts of bisphe- reported [62]. Microplastics were also found in the
nol A (BPA) has been found to adversely affect the digestive tracts of sea hares sampled from seagrass
seagrass Cymodocea nodosa, leading to a loss of meadows in Indonesia at an abundance of up to 73.7
chlorophyll auto-fluorescence and an accumulation particles/g [63]. In instances where the coastal water
of H2O2 in its cells [55]. Polycyclic aromatic hydrocar- receives agricultural runoffs containing pesticides,
bons (PAHs) have been observed to accumulate and microplastics could act as carriers of the pesticides,
hinder growth in the thylakoid membranes of chloro- and their attachment to the epiphytes and seagrasses
plasts in the seagrass Posidonia oceanica, as well as exposes these organisms to the pesticides. Herbi-
in other aquatic plants [56]. cides targeting the Photosystem II are often found in
While studies are limited and inconclusive, the inshore marine waters. These herbicides are typically
adherence of microplastics to seagrass blades could detected in complex mixtures and are known to in-
generally pose a risk not only to epiphytic communi- hibit photosynthesis, which can lead to a reduction
ties but also to the seagrasses themselves (Figure 2). in energy reserves and growth in seagrass [64]. Halo-
Microplastics are likely capable of physically block- phila ovalis exposed to ten of these herbicides over
ing plant cells and increasing the concentration of a period of 24 and/or 48 hours individually at con-
pollutants in the microenvironment of the blade, centrations ranging from 3.5 μg L-1 (for ametryn) to
which could ultimately result in reduced photosyn- 132 μg L−1 (for fluometuron) caused a 50% inhibition
thesis and growth. The effects are likely to vary of photosynthetic activity. An additive effect was
among different seagrass species with certain species observed after the seagrass was exposed to a diuron
more sensitive, such as Posidonia oceanica and Cy- and atrazine mixture, suggesting the additive effects
modocea nodosa than the other. The density of micro- posed by multiple Photosystem II herbicides to sea-
plastics, when increased, could potentially escalate grasses [64].
the concentrations of pollutants in local sediments. Microplastics present in sediments could poten-
This is due to the role of microplastics as carriers of tially affect both microbial and plant communities,
heavy metals, residual monomers, and various other especially by modifying the nutrient cycling process,
pollutants into marine sediments (Figure 2) [57,58]. which is crucial for the functioning of seagrass eco-
Microplastics, particularly polyethylene and poly- systems. Research by Seeley et al. (2020) indicates
vinyl chloride, have been observed to adsorb that microplastics inhibit the processes of nitrifica-
chromium, lead, and zinc significantly in aque- tion and denitrification in microbes living in sedi-

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ments [25]. Additionally, studies suggest that micro- including microbial and plant nutrient dynamics, and
plastics reduce nutrient absorption and the ratio of sediment organism functions. Furthermore, the pres-
shoot to root in macrophytes rooted in sediments [65]. ence of biodegradable plastics in seagrass sediments
Experiments were carried out in a controlled envi- was found to alter the interactions and distribution
ronment to study the impact of a biodegradable bag of seagrass species. This could be attributed to the
on Cymodocea nodosa at individual and community alteration of sediment geochemistry. Microplastics
levels, involving the plant growing alone, alongside are likely to impact the epiphytes growing on sea-
a plant of the same species, or with the seagrass Zos- grasses, which, in turn, affect seagrasses. Indirectly,
tera noltei. These conditions mimicked various nat- the leaching of chemicals from microplastics and
ural environments like bare substrate, single-species the desorption of environmental chemicals sorbed
meadows, or mixed meadows [66]. After six months, on microplastics could adversely affect the health of
the bag retained 85% of its weight while causing a seagrasses.
decrease in the oxygen concentration and pH of the The existing research in this genre has placed an
sediment’s pore water. Exposing the sediment to the emphasis on documenting the presence of micro-
bag led to an increase in the root spread and vegeta- plastics in seagrass ecosystems and understanding
tive recruitment of C. nodosa compared to the con- how they accumulate. However, with microplastics
trol group. Competitive interactions were observed now widespread in seagrass meadows and unlikely
between the same and different species of seagrass. to be removed, the focus of research needs to shift
The ramet growth pattern of the mixed meadow with towards understanding the impacts of this accumu-
Z. noltei changed from widely spaced to closely lation. As data on microplastic quantities in various
spaced, leading to a more compact community [66]. seagrass species becomes increasingly available, it
This aligns with the potential alteration of sediment
will be possible to study the impacts of microplas-
geochemistry suggested by other studies, which po-
tics on photosynthesis and growth of epiphytes and
tentially results in changes in the distribution of and
plants, nitrogen and carbon cycling, and the health
relationship between seagrasses.
of sediment organisms using environmentally rel-
evant concentrations under controlled conditions.
4. Conclusion This review contributes significantly to highlighting
Microplastics found in seagrass sediments and the major gap in research related to the impacts of
blades could potentially disrupt ecosystem func- microplastics on seagrass ecosystems. It provides
tions due to their chemical and physical properties. greater insight into how microplastics interact with
They could affect the photosynthesis and growth of seagrass ecosystems through their potential function
epiphytes and seagrasses, nutrient cycling, and the as a microplastic sink.
health and function of sediment organisms. The im-
pact could be even more significant given the high Conflict of Interest
efficiency of seagrasses in trapping microplastics
The author declares that there are no known
and their dense and diverse flora and fauna. While
conflicts of interest.
some studies did not observe significant differences
in microplastic abundance in seagrass-vegetated and
the surrounding unvegetated sediments, most stud- Funding
ies indicate that seagrass meadows act as a sink of This research received no external funding.
microplastics. With the potential ability to concen-
trate microplastics, it is possible that the current mi-
croplastic concentrations in seagrass sediments are
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