IGCSE BIOLOGY

Variation and
selection
By Reet Batla
 Key terms
1 Variation
Differences between
individuals of the same
species

2 Phenotypic variation
Difference between observable
characteristics (phenotypes)
between individuals of the same
species

3 Genetic variation These dogs may both have hair, but not the
Difference in genes between same colour.
individuals, which can
contribute to phenotypic
variation
 Types of variation
1 Continuous variation
● Definition: Range of phenotypes between two extremes.
● Examples: Height, body mass, finger length.
● Characteristics:
○ Shows a range of small differences within a population.
○ Cannot be categorized into distinct groups.
○ Influenced by both genetic and environmental factors.

2 Discontinuous variation
● Definition: Characteristics that can be grouped into distinct categories with no
intermediate states.
● Examples: Blood group (A, B, AB, O), Ability to roll the tongue (can or cannot), Gender
(male or female), Earlobes (free or attached)
● Characteristics:
○ Controlled by genes alone.
○ Not influenced by the environment.
 Environmental variation
Discontinuous Variation:
■ Characteristics of all species can be
● Caused by: Genetic variation alone.
affected by environmental factors
such as climate, diet, accidents, Continuous Variation:

culture and lifestyle ● Caused by a combination of:

○ Genetic factors.
Examples include: ○ Environmental factors.
○ Eating too much and not leading an active ● Example:
○ Tall parents pass on genetic potential for height.
lifestyle will cause weight gain
○ However, a poor diet may limit their child’s growth.
○ A plant in the shade of a big tree will grow taller ○ Therefore, environmental factors affect how
to reach more light inherited traits develop.
 Mutations
Mutations are genetic changes

Most mutations have no effect on phenotype

Effect ● The protein produced by the mutated gene may work just as well as the
non-mutated protein.

Rare mutations lead to new alleles and phenotypes

● Most have only a small effect on the organism.

Occasionally, a new allele gives a survival advantage

● Example: A bird develops a mutation leading to a change in feather color.

○ The new feather color makes the bird more attractive to the opposite sex.
○ This increases the chances of breeding and passing on the mutated allele to
the next generation.
 Mutations can lead to harmful changes

● Example: Sickle cell anaemia in humans.

○ A genetic change that can have serious effects on health.

Mutations happen spontaneously and continuously

● However, certain environmental factors can increase their frequency.

Factors that increase mutation rates:

Effect (cont) ● Ionising radiation:

○ Examples: Gamma rays, X-rays.
○ Damages DNA by breaking bonds and altering base sequences.
● Non-ionising radiation:
○ Example: Ultraviolet (UV) radiation.
○ Can damage DNA by altering base sequences.
● Certain chemicals:
○ Example: Tar in tobacco.
○ Can interfere with DNA structure and lead to mutations.

Increased mutation rates are linked to cancer

● Mutations can lead to cells becoming cancerous.

● This is why radiation and harmful chemicals are associated with higher cancer risk.
 Sickle cell anemia
Cause

● Gene Mutation:
○ Sudden change in the DNA base sequence of the gene coding for
haemoglobin.
○ Normal allele: HbA.
○ Mutant allele: HbS (codes for deformed haemoglobin).
○ Mutation alters the amino acid sequence in haemoglobin, affecting its
function.

How It Occurs Effect of the Mutation

● A person must inherit the HbS allele from both parents to develop the disease. ● Deformed Haemoglobin: Prevents
● Genotypes: normal oxygen transport in the
○ HbSHbS → Disease (Sickle Cell Anemia). blood.
○ HbAHbS → Carrier (Heterozygous, no disease but can pass it on). ● Leads to symptoms such as
○ HbAHbA → Normal (No disease or carrier state). fatigue, pain, and potential organ
damage.
Sources of genetic variation
WHY?
Gene mutation
○ Mutations
■ Mutations are random genetic changes to
the base sequence of DNA
■ New alleles form through these random
changes to DNA
○ Meiosis
Random change in the base ■ New allele combinations form through
sequence of DNA segregation
○ Random mating
■ Which partnerships form for sexual
reproduction
○ Random fertilisation
■ Which sperm and egg combinations occur
during sexual reproduction
 Adaptive features
● Adaptive features are the inherited functional features of an organism that increase its fitness
● Fitness is the probability of an organism surviving and reproducing in the environment in which it is found

Hydrophytes - extremely wet conditions

Xerophytes - extremely dry conditions
 Xerophytes
Hydrophytes
Definition: Plants adapted to live in extremely dry conditions
Definition: Plants adapted to live in extremely wet
conditions Common Adaptations:

Common Adaptations: ● Thick waxy cuticle:

○ Acts as a barrier to evaporation and reflects heat to lower
● Large air spaces in their leaves:
temperatures.
○ Helps with flotation and keeps the leaves
● Sunken stomata:
close to the water's surface where light for
○ Found in pits in the epidermis, trapping moist air and
photosynthesis is more abundant.
increasing diffusion pathways to reduce evaporation.
● Small roots:
● Leaf rolled with stomata inside and an inner surface covered in
○ Extract nutrients from surrounding water
hairs:
through their tissues.
○ Traps moist air and prevents air movement across stomata,
● Stomata usually open:
reducing transpiration.
○ Found mainly on the upper epidermis of the
● Small leaves (needle-shaped):
leaf to improve gas exchange with the air.
○ Reduces the surface area and therefore minimizes
evaporative water loss.
● Extensive shallow roots:
○ Allow quick absorption of large quantities of water after
rainfall.
● Thickened leaves or stems:
○ Contains cells that store water for prolonged survival in dry
conditions.
NATURAL SELECTION
• Darwin’s Theory of Natural Selection
occurs in four steps:
– Overproduction
– Variation
– Competition
– Selection

• In any environment, the individuals that have the best adaptive

features are the ones most likely to survive and reproduce
These individuals pass their advantageous alleles to
the next generation.

Over time, better-adapted characteristics become

more common in the population.

This theory, proposed by Charles Darwin, is known as

‘survival of the fittest’.
- Survival of the fittest explains why some
organisms succeed in the competitive
struggle for survival.
- White-shelled snails survive longer
because they are better camouflaged.
- Camouflage makes them less likely to be
seen by predators and eaten.
- With increased survival, they have more
opportunities to reproduce.
- The allele for white shells is passed onto
offspring more frequently than alleles for
black or grey shells.
- Over generations, the population becomes
dominated by white-shelled snails.
 Adaptation by Natural Selection
Stable Environment:

● Selection favours individuals with the same characteristics as their

parents.

Changing Environment:

● A mutation or environmental change can favour individuals with

different characteristics or new alleles.

Evolution Over Time:

● Surviving individuals pass their traits (alleles) to offspring.

● Leads to a gradual change in the species’ characteristics (evolution).

Definition of Evolution:

● Change in adaptive features of a population over time as a result of

natural selection.
 Natural selection causes adaptation ,
making populations better suited to their
environment.
Over generations, advantageous traits
become more common.
 CONNECTION TO UNIT DRUGS
ANTIBIOTIC RESISTANCE

● Mutation: Some bacteria develop resistance due to changes in their

DNA.
● Survival Advantage: Resistant bacteria survive antibiotic treatment.
● Reproduction: Resistant bacteria reproduce, spreading the resistant
allele.
● Population Shift: Over time, the population becomes dominated by
resistant strains.
 Selective breeding
The Process:

● Select parent organisms with specific, desirable characteristics.

● Mate these individuals together to produce offspring.
● Not all offspring will inherit the desired traits.
● Select only the offspring that show the desired characteristics.
● Breed these offspring with each other.
● Repeat this process over multiple generations.